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415041	3421579	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415041	History of Flight/Unmotorised	A kite or glider is a motorless aircraft that flies without using engine energy. In fact, because this bird does not have engine power; It should use a negative head angle to overcome the push force and maintain a constant speed. In other words, it takes help from its weight component to overcome friction. The wings of this aircraft are longer and narrower than a normal plane, which give more lift. The kite is mostly flown with the help of a tow plane. When the engineless plane gets high enough, they drop it. By using the force of the wind, the kite stays in the air and slowly decreases its height. If the wind speed is the same as the speed or height of the kite, the kite will be at a constant height, and when the speed increases, its height will increase. Their landing gear consists of a wheel that is placed under the cockpit and behind the tail is another small wheel, which prevents damage to the tail when it is on the ground.
415044	399343	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415044	Transportation Planning Casebook/Sydney Metro-Greater West	Sydney metro western Sydney airport as known as Sydney Metro Greater West is a new metro line proposed and planned to connect Greater Western Sydney and the new Western Sydney International (Nancy-Bird Walton) Airport by 2026 (i.e. when the airport is planned to open). The completion of this line is also a step in the direction of key commitment towards realising 30-minute city of the Western Sydney City Deal, a 20 year agreement between the Federal, State government and 8 local councils. This line will provide fast, safe and easy metro service to the communities of Western Parkland and is anticipated to be the transport spine for the Western Parkland City’s growth for coming generations. The Sydney Metro Greater West project will have: This line is the stage 1 of the North-South Rail Link (connecting Macarthur in south-west to Schofields in north-west via Western Sydney Airport) to connect with T1 North Shore, Northern & Western Line City Line at St. Marys. Timeline of Events. (*)Planned Maps of Rail Route. A full North-South metro link between Schofields and Macarthur via Western Sydney Airport has been proposed. In the first stage, the portion in between proposed Badgerys Creek Aerotropolis to St. Marys (connecting T1 Rail Line) having interchange at both the ends is being taken up for implementation, the line will pass through Werrington, Kingswood, Caddens, Orchard Hills, Luddenham suburbs, however, stations other than St Mary’s, Western Sydney airport and Aerotropolis are yet not known. Policy Imperatives. Western Sydney’s Growth.. Future Transport Strategy 2056 (NSW Government, 2017). The Future Transport Strategy 2056 is a long term master plan for directing the plans for transport improvement and investment in Regional areas NSW and Greater Sydney considering a 40 years horizon from 2016. This plan envisioned to grow the transport network to cater to the needs of 12 million people (expected population in 2056) making 28 million trips a day. Based on this plan the scoping studies for identifying the preferred network for catering to the needs of the Western Sydney and upcoming Western Sydney Airport were undertaken for addressing various policy issues through a joint initiative of Australian and NSW Government in 2016. The scoping studies report was published in March 2018. The factors requiring the rail network in Western Sydney were analysed. Population growth - Western Sydney. The population of Western Sydney is around 2 million (2016) and it is expected to grow to 3 million by 2030. The population growth is expected in western suburbs like Blacktown, Greater Parramatta, Campbelltown, Liverpool and others. Coupled with urban renewal. This will lead to an increase in transit demand and will put pressure on existing public transport infrastructure. This growth will pose the 2 challenges:- These challenges induce the requirement for providing the fast, efficient and highly reliable transport corridor to be developed. Jobs growth - Western Sydney. About 300,000 residents (2016) of Western Sydney travel long distances mainly towards CBD for jobs or study, these numbers are further going to increase, with higher population growth rate the job deficit will grow to 340,000 in 2056 in case there is no intervention by the government. The areas of economic activity in western Sydney have the capacity to grow, the businesses often cite poor connectivity and lower-quality transport connections as a barrier to relocate to Western Sydney. While the initial construction phase at its peak would be expected to generate over 3,000 jobs, the airport itself would be expected to deliver nearly 9,000 direct jobs in the early 2030s, with that number expected to increase to over 60,000 by 2063. This means an airport will create jobs closer to where people live and help reduce the number of Western Sydney workers who currently experience long commutes by travelling out of the area. Though the connections to the Sydney CBD will continue to be important, improved transport connections across Western Sydney will unlock Western Sydney’s full economic potential and offer people a greater range of choices as to where they live and work. Growing Demand leads to congestion on Bus & Road Network. Road network. The Greater Sydney’s suburban railway network is covering a large geographical area, however, many parts of Western Sydney are not well served by rail due to Western Sydney’s large geographical area and its relatively low population densities. Currently, the rail transport demand for Western Sydney is being fulfilled by T1 North Shore, Northern & Western Line, T2 Inner West & Leppington, T3 Bankstown Line, T5 Cumberland Line and T8 Airport & South Line. Ridership during peak hours is expected to double from 2016 to 2056. Without investment in the new rail network, higher demand on existing network shall downgrade performance. A private car is currently the predominant means of transport within Western Sydney, with about 80 per cent of the 900,000 road trips. On average, people living further away from the Harbour CBD own more vehicles and drive more than those living closer to the Harbour CBD. This, in turn, will shift the additional demand to the Road networks, leading to road congestion. Below is the indicative road congestion in 2056 AM peak, without rail. Bus services. Bus services play an important role in providing transport options for Western Sydney residents. Bus services in Western Sydney consist of local services connecting to local centres and railway stations, suburban services providing end-to-end access between centres and rapid services using bus priority infrastructure, such as T-ways. Currently, there is over 170 km of bus priority infrastructure in Western Sydney. Many of the heaviest demand corridors in the 2030s will be related to Western Sydney, the figure below shows the forecast bus demand in Western Sydney in 2056 without rail links, with red indicating demand to be higher than seated capacity. Western Sydney Airport (second airport in Sydney). The Australian Government in 2014 announced that Badgerys Creek will be the site for Western Sydney Airport. This will be a catalyst for economic growth in the region for decades to come, creating new businesses and jobs across a range of industries, including transport and logistics, hospitality, education, research and professional services. It will also ensure the growing population and local businesses have access to the domestic and international aviation network. The operation of the airport is expected to start in 2026. The airport is expected to serve approximately 10 million passengers a year within five years after opening. The airport will initially have a single 3.7-kilometre runway and will be a full-service airport capable of handling the full range of international, domestic and freight aircraft. As it grows over time, a second runway will be needed when demand approaches around 37 million passengers a year, which is expected around 2050. Around 2063, Western Sydney Airport could cater to approximately 80 million people per year. As the Kingsford Smith Airport (first Airport) shall continue to operate, in initial years the demand for the Western Sydney airport will be mainly from the Western Sydney area. By 2040 it is forecasted that Kingsford Smith Airport shall achieve full capacity, then the Western Sydney airport shall cater to the increased traffic which will induce higher growth rates for the new airport thereby increasing demand for transit from the new airport. When Kingsford Smith Airport will reach full capacity the Western Sydney airport shall start serving passengers from Eastern Harbour City and inner suburbs at then the Western Sydney rail links shall be more important. Given the primary catchment for Western Sydney Airport will be within Western Sydney until around the 2040s, the short term transport priority for the airport is to support connections to the airport within the region which can be done by connecting the airport to the rail network in greater west. However, as Sydney (Kingsford Smith) Airport reaches its long-term aircraft movement capacity around the 2040s, Western Sydney Airport will need to cater for more passengers who live in the broader Greater Sydney basin and not just Western Sydney. By the 2060s, passengers from the Harbour CBD and Greater Sydney’s inner suburbs could account for almost half of Western Sydney Airport’s forecast 80 million passengers. To support this growing catchment in the long-term, transport links between the Harbour CBD and Western Sydney Airport will become more important at then. Globally about 20% of the ground transportation is shared by the rails connected to airports. In case of Sydney’s Kingsford Smith airport which is served by T8 Airport & South Line between the Harbour CBD and Macarthur, has a 20% ground transport share for the rail which is higher in context of Australian airport, this is partly because of increasing congestion around Sydney airport. This is 9% in the case of Brisbane airport due to lower level of road congestion and low car parking charges. Considering 20% patronage to Rail transport, it is estimated that initially, 1 million airport passengers will be travelling by rail, this will be 2 million in 2030 and 16 million in 2060. Along with the railway, the NSW government is also building two motorways towards the new airports. These include the M10 Outer Sydney Orbital and the M12 Western Sydney Airport Motorway. It is expected that these may put a balance on both public and private transport. Metropolis of three cities and Western Sydney City Deal. The construction of the metro linking the Aerotropolis, Western Sydney Airport and St Mary's with the T1 Rail network is also a step towards the realization of the vision of The Greater Sydney Region Plan, A Metropolis of Three Cities. This is a vision of the future where most of the residents living in the three cities are able to reach within 30 minutes to their jobs, education and health facilities, services and great places. The three cities envisioned are The Eastern Harbour City:- It is the established eastern harbour city, this area has well-established transport links and is the economic hub of NSW, it is envisioned to build this city around its strong sectors of finance, professional, health, education and innovation. The Central River City:- With Greater Parramatta at the core, Central River City covers the areas of Camellia, Rydalmere, Silverwater and Auburn and the Sydney Olympic Park with an economy centred on health, education and research institutions as well as finance, business services and administration. The Western Parkland City:- This is areas of Greater Western Sydney around new international Western Sydney Airport and Badgerys Creek Aerotropolis along with areas of established centres of Liverpool, Greater Penrith and Campbelltown-Macathur. The vision of this city is focused on developing strong trade, freight, logistics, advanced manufacturing, health, education and science economy leading to knowledge-intensive jobs close to areas of high population growth. The Western Sydney Planning Partnership (Planning Partnership) is preparing the draft Land Use and Infrastructure Implementation Plan, for which the Draft Western Sydney Aerotropolis Plan, Western Sydney Aerotropolis Discussion Paper on the proposed State Environmental Planning Policy and Draft Western Sydney Aerotropolis Development Control Plan were put for public exhibition and comments February–March 2020. The rezoning of the land will present a development opportunity for the residential and business area. Quality connectivity will be essentially required for the success of these new areas being developed. Western Sydney city Deal:- Signed between the Australian government, NSW government and the local governments of the Blue Mountains, Camden, Campbelltown, Fairfield, Hawkesbury, Liverpool, Penrith and Wollondilly for making third metropolis city i.e. Western Parkland city a fully realised 21st-century city over the next 20 years. The City Deal is built on the Australian Government’s $5.3 billion investment in the Western Sydney Airport, which will be a catalyst for economic activity and job growth, providing long-term employment opportunities for local residents and meeting Sydney’s growing aviation needs. The core objectives of the deal are The implementation of the Greater west metro link is a step taken by the governments towards the realization of the goals of the Western Sydney city deal and the metropolis of three cities. Case Narrative. The scoping studies identified that the North-South link in Western Sydney via Sydney Western airport and Feast west link from link connecting Western Sydney airport and Central city will significantly improve the rail network in the Western Sydney region. The first stage of North-South Link from the Western Sydney Aerotropolis via Western Sydney Airport to St Mary's is proposed to be taken up for construction in 2021 such that it will be ready to connect the Western Sydney airport and the Aerotropolis to Sydney’s Rail network at st Mary’s. This link is supposed to enhance cross-regional rail capacity in Western Sydney connecting growth areas in the north-west. Importantly, this link would provide onward rail connections to strategic centres such as Penrith, Liverpool, Greater Parramatta and Campbelltown. Over the longer term, it will be a key element for structuring and shaping the significant growth of Western Sydney along the rail line and would mark as a step forward in improving Western Sydney’s transport network. It will also broaden Greater Sydney’s focus from the Harbour CBD and opens new possibilities for homes, jobs and investment in Western Sydney. The Scoping Study also shows that if delivered around the opening of Western Sydney Airport in 2026, the North-South Link could provide a range of city shaping and economic benefits and can be economically viable if demand at the airport grows from 2026 onwards. At the present stage, the survey investigations for finalizing the alignment along with geotechnical investigations are underway. The tentative cost for a full north-south link is estimated to around $15-$20 billion, in the first stage it is estimated around $3.45 billion to shared by both federal and State government in 50:50 ratio. billion. However, the actual estimated cost can be ascertained after the finalization of design and alignment.
415059	3267488	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415059	Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate	Refugee Status Determination is said to be among the most difficult forms of adjudication, involving as it does fact-finding in regard to foreign conditions, cross-cultural and interpreted examination of witnesses, ever-present evidentiary voids, and a duty to prognosticate potential risks rather than simply to declare the more plausible account of past events. Refugees a liable to have suffered significant trauma, if not before flight, then as a result of flight. Within this context, RPD Members have to make high-stakes decisions on the basis of scarce and uncertain information, they need to strike a balance between the goals of protection and control, and Canadian refugee law is ambiguous and provides limited guidance, with credibility often being a key point in any given case. The process for Refugee Status Determination adopted in Canada that seeks to address these challenges is one where the Board has an inquisitorial mandate. The following are some of the contours of that mandate. The Refugee Protection Division has an inquisitorial mandate. The Board generally uses an inquisitorial, as opposed to adversarial, approach to decision-making. Rebecca Hamlin describes the contrast between these two decision-making approaches this way:The adversarial style takes the shape of a triad: two disputants arguing their respective cases before a passive judge, who must resolve the dispute by deciding which case is more persuasive. In an adversarial process, justice is based on the premise that an impartial judge decides between competing versions of this story after hearing both sides argued forcefully. Unlike this courtroom-like setting, inquisitorial hearings are designed to be non-adversarial and non-legalistic, taking the form of a dyad between the person whose fate is to be decided and the person deciding it. The inquisitorial decision-maker is engaged in a conversation with the parties, and the facts must be discovered through a collaborative process of research and questioning. Justice is demonstrated through the decision-maker's commitment to an active investigatory process.The Refugee Protection Division has an inquisitorial mandate. The Board's "Chairperson Guideline 7" describes a Member's inquisitorial mandate this way:A member's role is different from the role of a judge. A judge's primary role is to consider the evidence and arguments that the opposing parties choose to present; it is not to tell parties how to present their cases. Case law has clearly established that the RPD has control of its own procedures. The RPD decides and gives directions as to how a hearing is to proceed. The members have to be actively involved to make the RPD's inquiry process work properly.The Board states that the decision-maker is mandated to play an engaged role in the process. This inquisitorial mandate has implications for how a Member is to assess the claim; it implies that the Board “has a duty to consider all potential grounds for a refugee claim that arise on the evidence, even when they are not raised by the applicant”. Such inquisitorial processes are commonly utilized in human rights adjudicatory contexts in order to compensate for inequalities between parties. As recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada in "Canada v Ward", it is the duty of the examiner to determine whether the Convention refugee definition is met. Refugee Status Determination is declaratory, not constitutive. Recognizing someone as a refugee does not make the person a refugee. This is because refugee status determination is a declaratory, not constitutive act. As refugee lawyer David Matas writes, “a declaratory act recognizes someone to be what he is or always was. A constitutive act makes a person something he was not before. An asylum government cannot constitute someone to be a refugee, because he already is one.” As the refugee law academic James Hathaway puts it, refugee status arises out of the refugee's predicament, rather than from a formal determination of status. In the words of the UK Supreme Court, "the obligation not to refoule an individual arises by virtue of the fact that their circumstances meet the definition of ‘refugee’, not by reason of the recognition by a contracting state that the definition is met." When determining refugee status, the Immigration and Refugee Board is not given a discretion but must make a judicial type decision. In this way, a decision-maker errs when they fail to recognize a genuine refugee as such, and a decision-maker also errs when they do the converse by wrongly recognizing someone who is not a refugee as such. While, in principle, a state may grant asylum to anyone that it may so choose, regardless of whether or not they meet the criteria enshrined in the Refugee Convention, or any other international treaty, such a wide-ranging power has not been delegated to Immigration and Refugee Board Members, who are restricted to recognizing cases where the applicable criteria in either s. 96 or s. 97 of the IRPA have been met. This principle is reflected in section 107 of the Act: . Once the Board has concluded that a claimant does not satisfy the definition of a refugee, the Board had no general discretion to allow the claimant to remain in Canada on “equitable” grounds. Indeed, this is consistent with the terms of the Refugee Convention itself and UNHCR's guidance thereon, for example its statements that the exclusion provision in the convention is mandatory and must be applied scrupulously. In Hathaway and Foster's words, given the legal duty to implement treaties in good faith, governments of state parties are reasonably expected to commit themselves not simply to ensuring that the benefits of the Convention are withheld from persons who are not refugees, but equally to do whatever is within their ability to ensure the recognition of genuine refugees. This modern conception of the refugee regime stands in contrast to pre-20th century views of asylum, where diplomatic and territorial asylum were considered to be constitutive acts such that it was the decision that made the person asking for asylum an asylee. This move away from a constitutive view of asylum to a declaratory one reflects the emergence of a rights-based view of the institution of asylum and refugee status. In Canada, this takes the form of the concrete legal obligation on the Canadian state to recognize as refugees those who meet the criteria in ss. 96 and 97 of the IRPA. Recognition of such is not a discretionary charitable act by Canada, but instead a personal right that individuals have pursuant to the IRPA, and, as recognized by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the Refugee Convention. In their words in their decision in "Pacheco Tineo v. Bolivia:" Even if the 1951 Convention does not explicitly establish the right to asylum as a right, it is considered to be implicitly incorporated into its text, which mentions the definition of a refugee, the protection against the principle of "non-refoulement", and a list of rights to which refugees have access... With the protection provided by the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol, the institution of asylum assumed a specific form and mechanism at the global level: that of refugee status. Shauna Labman writes about the significance of this conception of asylum:The benefit of a rights-based stance in law is that it adds a concrete assertion of legal obligation and accountability to refugee protection. It is equality between the parties. Stuart Scheingold defines this as "the call of the law." He suggests that the assertion of a right implies a legitimate and dignified reciprocal relationship that is societal and not personal. The current alternative calls in refugee protection are for compassion, humanitarianism, and morality. Such claims lack reciprocity and are founded on personal need. As Catherine Dauvergne explains, "a claim for compassion does not effectively function as a right because rights are grounded in equality but compassion is grounded in generosity and inequality."All this said, the assertion that refugee status determination procedures are declaratory and not constitutive, and its implicit representation of ‘refugeehood’ as an objective identity given by law, appears to be tendentious. It is belied by the large variations in the way different individuals and systems answer the question of "who is a refugee?", even where they are all interpreting the same Convention provisions, evidence, and laws. That said, in the words of Tone Liodden, "the idea of the refugee as a non-negotiable identity across time and space may largely be fictional, but [it] is a ‘crucial fiction’ that has very real consequences for those who are granted – or denied – refugee status." For more on this point, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Decision-making should be predictable and consistent across the Board. A hearing becomes adversarial where the Minister is involved. While the Division's mandate is primarily conceived of as inquisitorial and non-adversarial, in some cases the Minister intervenes in a claim and the process becomes an adversarial one. As the Board states, "adversarial simply means that there are two opposing parties." This properly constrains the Member's role. Madam Justice Tremblay-Lamer observed in "Rivas v. Canada" that in some situations, such as where exclusion is at issue, “it may be problematic for the tribunal to proceed without the Minister since the Minister usually has the burden of proof. As the applicant argues, it is a situation that can force the member to [translation] ‘descend into the arena’.” As Lorne Waldman states in his looseleaf: “… Since the burden of proof falls squarely on the Minister, it is certainly arguable that it is not appropriate for tribunal members themselves to engage in an investigation with respect to the exclusion matters. For the tribunal members to do so would result in their becoming prosecutors seeking to establish if the claimant falls within the exclusion clauses.” Despite all of this, the jurisprudence recognizes that the Board may make a decision on the issue of exclusion without the Minister’s participation, and indeed that it may have an obligation to do so even where the Minister does not participate in a case. Furthermore, the RAD may consider issues of exclusion even where they are not raised in an appellant's appeal memorandum. But once the Minister becomes involved, the hearing is seen to become an adversarial process, with both the Minister’s Hearings Officer and the refugee claimant presenting evidence to establish or rebut, say, the allegation of exclusion. This may entail some limits on the Member's proper role, and this relates to the requirement in the RPD Rules that the hearing be suspended immediately upon notification to the Minister of possible exclusion (which see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 26-28 - Exclusion, Integrity Issues, Inadmissibility and Ineligibility). A situation can arise where the Minister concedes a point or makes a recommendation in the claimant's favour; this does not bind the Division and does not relieve a claimant from their obligation to make their case: "Fong v Canada". That said, while a joint submission is not binding on the Division, the caselaw establishes that it should be given serious consideration: "Nguyen v Canada". See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an independent decision-maker#Members are not bound where the Minister concedes a point. While the Minister has no obligation to become a party to a proceeding, once it does so and provides disclosure, its disclosure must be "complete" and cannot be selective: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 31-43 - Documents#What documents does a party need to provide when?. A Member should be adequately trained. A decision-maker should be adequately trained on issues of law and fact. The Board states that Members should have a thorough knowledge of the legal framework and a good command of the relevant provisions of the legislation, rules, principles of natural justice, and the case law, etc., in order to make the proper decision and to maintain the credibility and the authoritativeness of the panel. While the training of Members of the Refugee Protection Division has generally been well regarded, in contrast, this has not always been seen to be the case with overseas visa officers deciding applications for resettlement from abroad. For example, in "Ghirmatsion v. Canada", the Federal Court concluded that the visa officer's "lack of adequate training and support" were evident on cross-examination. There are also limits to the training and competency properly expected of a Member. In "Ramirez v. Canada", the claimant argued on judicial review that the Board Member should have considered whether counselling in the proposed IFA location would be likely to adequately address the applicant’s mental health issues; the court rejected this argument, concluding that "such an analysis would have been speculative and well beyond the RAD’s expertise." This principle is also reflected in the additional services available to Members, for example the statement in the pre-2025 version of the "Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings" that where, after consulting with the responsible member manager, the assigned member forms the opinion that forensic verification is necessary, they may direct the RPD adjudicative support team to send the document to the RCMP Forensic Laboratory Services for verification. That provision of the "Instructions" was removed in 2025, though some reference to forensic verification of documents in the "Instructions" remains, for example "The assigned member will inform the ADC of any COI request, any specific information request and any forensic verification of documents request made in an appeal." As such, the point stands. A claimant has an onus to show that they meet the criteria to be recognized as a refugee. The Federal Court affirms that the burden of proof rests on a claimant to show that they meet the definition of a Convention Refugee or a 'person in need of protection' in the Act. The burden of proof was previously allocated differently in Canadian refugee law, but in 1988 Canada's legislature modified the immigration legislation to shift the burden of proof for making a claim onto the asylum seeker. The Irwin Law text "Refugee Law" notes that this burden flows from the general proposition in international law that an individual seeking admission to a state must justify their admission. The UNHCR is of the view that this principle properly applies in the refugee context, stating that "the burden of proof in principle rests on the applicant". This is consistent with international human rights law, which focuses on how an alien should be "allowed to submit reasons against their expulsion", in the words of the Article 13 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:An alien lawfully in the territory of a State Party to the present Covenant may be expelled therefrom only in pursuance of a decision reached in accordance with law and shall, except where compelling reasons of national security otherwise require, be allowed to submit the reasons against his expulsion and to have his case reviewed by, and be represented for the purpose before, the competent authority or a person or persons especially designated by the competent authority.The applicant's burden is primarily factual. The Federal Court holds that the onus is on the applicant to submit a clear, detailed, and complete application. The UNHCR Handbook provides that those examining a refugee claim should "ensure that the applicant presents his case as fully as possible and with all available evidence." This does not mean that the Board member is obliged to undertake a freestanding inquiry into a claim; the Refugee Appeal Division has held that the following principles apply in the refugee determination context: "a decision-maker [is] entitled to proper notice as to what exactly [is] being advanced. It is not up to the decision-maker to ferret out points which might possibly assist an applicant." Similarly, Member Railton of the Refugee Protection Division has noted that "The role of the Division hearing an application to re-open does not include a fact-finding mission on behalf of the applicants". For example, the RAD cannot be faulted for not ruling on specific elements of the objective evidence that were not identified or argued by the applicant. The tribunal is as not required to signal evidentiary concerns or seek supplementary documentation that would help the applicant meet the burden of proof. One of the reasons for this is about judicial economy; indeed, it is said that "states have a right to a fair and efficient asylum procedure". In the Canadian system there also exist legal issues where the burden of proof does not fall on the claimant: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#A panel has a duty to enquire into matters where the onus for adducing evidence falls onto the Board. Furthermore, even where the burden of proof rests on the claimant, the Board cannot base some findings, for example that there is an internal flight alternative, in the absence of sufficient evidence, solely on the basis that the claimant has not fulfilled the onus of proof. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#The duty to find the relevant facts is shared in refugee matters. A panel has a duty to consider all potential grounds for a refugee claim that arise on the evidence and relevant law. Even though the burden of proof rests on a claimant to show that they meet the requirements to be accorded protection, this does not mean that they are obliged to frame their case using the terminology of refugee law or by citing particular cases or statutory provisions. The Board “has a duty to consider all potential grounds for a refugee claim that arise on the evidence, even when they are not raised by the applicant during the hearing”. Cases should be decided based on all of the law that binds the Board, not just the law that the parties happen to put in front of a panel. This principle is reflected in the UNHCR Handbook, which provides that it is not the duty of a claimant to identify the reasons for their persecution:Often the applicant himself may not be aware of the reasons for the persecution feared. It is not, however, his duty to analyze his case to such an extent as to identify the reasons in detail. It is for the examiner, when investigating the facts of the case, to ascertain the reason or reasons for the persecution feared and to decide whether the definition in the 1951 Convention is met with in this respect.Where evidence is provided, the Division then needs to analyze how this evidence applies to an applicant’s future risks, from a realistic and real-world perspective. See further: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Decisions must follow the law and . Based on this principle, evidence of political activities in Canada should be considered by the panel whether or not the claimant specifically raises a "sur place" claim. Similarly, if the evidence suggests a risk of gender-based persecution, the member must assess this risk, even if it is not explicitly alleged. In every case in which the RPD concludes that a claimant has suffered past persecution, but there has been a change of country conditions, the Board is obligated under s. 108(4) to consider whether the evidence presented establishes that there are "compelling reasons" as contemplated by that subsection. This obligation arises whether or not the claimant expressly invokes this subsection: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 64 - Applications to Vacate or to Cease Refugee Protection#The Board must consider "compelling reasons" under s. 108(4) when determining whether an individual qualifies as a refugee. However, this does not mean that a panel of the RAD will err by not considering this issue where it is not considered by the RPD and not raised in the appellant's appeal submissions. This obligation can have implications for the Board's duty to inquire into a claim; in "Eke v. Canada", the court commented that "as no questions were asked about the potential motives for the attacks, [the RAD] did not have sufficient evidence through the RPD's interrogatories to properly assess the issues on its own." See further: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#To what extent does a panel of the Division have a duty to inquire into the claim?. The Member's power to conduct research and find facts. As a starting point, the Divisions of the Board are creatures of statute, “and as such, [a Division] has no powers, rights and duties save those bestowed on it by the Act”. The Refugee Protection Division, the Refugee Appeal Division, and the Immigration Division, and each member of those Divisions have the powers and authority of a commissioner appointed under Part I of the Inquiries Act and may do any other thing they consider necessary to provide a full and proper hearing. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/165 - Powers of a Member and Canadian Refugee Procedure/170 - Proceedings#IRPA Section 170(a) - May inquire into any matter that it considers relevant to establishing whether a claim is well-founded. The guide to the Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada that claims are made via notes that "the information you provide on your application may be subject to verification." The RPD and RAD may also convene conferences and may require the parties to give any information or provide any document, at or before the conference: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 24 - Conferences. A panel of the Board may consider judicial notice, specialized knowledge, generally recognized facts, and other sources of knowledge: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 22 - Specialized Knowledge. Panels are also entitled to rely on "common sense". Common sense necessarily involves importing considerations arising not from the evidence itself but from a decision maker's accumulated life experience. That said, common sense is far from a catch-all phrase that licenses any form of reasoning. While the Board has jurisdiction to determine the plausibility of an applicant’s testimony, there are legal standards for when such determinations can be made. When a member determines that it is necessary to consult social media in the adjudication of a proceeding, the Division must channel this type of research through the Board's Research Directorate in accordance with the "Procedures for Requesting Research on Individuals Using Social Media Sources". In any research it conducts, the RPD is to follow the "Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Protection Division Proceedings." The Instructions note that while RPD members are responsible for identifying information needed for the adjudication of a claim and may gather information, the Research Directorate is primarily responsible for gathering information. The Instructions set out general principles related to the gathering and disclosing of information, as well as specific instructions. These principles apply to how to Division has committed to collecting information regarding a claim, including that:1. Responsibility to present supporting evidence rests with the parties. This responsibility remains even when the RPD decides to obtain information other than that provided by the parties. 2. To ensure a fair determination of a refugee claim, the assigned member requires all the relevant evidence whether such evidence may be favourable or prejudicial to any party. 3. The RPD will gather information through a transparent and standard process to ensure fairness in decision-making. 4. The assigned members will request claimant specific information and use such information only where they complete a risk assessment and are satisfied that there is no serious possibility that gathering the information would endanger the life, liberty or security of the claimant or any other person. 6. The information will be sought by the RPD only in instances where the information is deemed relevant to a determinative issue in the claim, can be obtained in a timely manner, and is likely to result in obtaining new or conclusive information. ...There is a similar document for the RAD: "Instructions for Gathering and Disclosing Information for Refugee Appeal Division Proceedings." It notes that "In addition to the Refugee Protection Division (RPD) record and information provided by the parties, RAD members may identify other information needed for the adjudication of the appeal; they may gather this information which will be disclosed for the RAD proceeding." See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/110-111 - Appeal to Refugee Appeal Division#The RAD must proceed without a hearing on the basis of the record of the proceedings of the RPD, subject to listed exceptions, but this provision does not restrict the RAD from posing questions or introducing new evidence. The Member has wide latitude to question claimants in an inquisitorial process. The text "Judicial Review of Administrative Action in Canada" provides that particular latitude will be given to tribunals to question where the matter is not adversarial, as with most refugee proceedings:Extensive and "energetic" questioning alone by tribunal members will not in itself give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias. And particular latitude is likely to be given to tribunals operating in a non-adversarial setting, such as refugee determination hearings, where there is no one appearing to oppose the claim.The nature of the mandate that decision-makers have in inquisitorial RSD processes is summarized by Rebecca Hamlin as follows:The inquisitorial form requires much more active decision makers. Instead of placing the responsibility for the collection of evidence and the presentation of arguments on the disputing parties themselves, the inquisitorial process combines the role of investigator and decision-maker into one. RSD is inquisitorial if the asylum seeker goes before a decision maker who both researches and decides the claim.That said, there are limits on appropriate questioning. For example: Evidence is primarily presented in written form in the Canadian process. The starting point in a claimant's process before the Immigration and Refugee Board is that they complete a Basis of Claim form. This document is to include "everything important for [their] claim", as stated on the form - Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 3-13 - Information and Documents to be Provided#Requirement that the information provided be complete, true and correct. In some cases, a claim will be accepted based on the contents of that form: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 23 - Allowing a Claim Without a Hearing. In a majority of cases, a hearing will be scheduled. A hearing is an opportunity for a claimant to complete their evidence and not to introduce new and important facts to their story. Furthermore, the purpose of an oral hearing before the Refugee Protection Division is not for a claimant to repeat everything that is in their Basis of Claim form. As per the "Chairperson Guidelines 7: Concerning Preparation and Conduct of a Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division," "questions that are answered by the claimant just repeating what is written in the BOC Form do not help the Member." Instead, if the information on the form reliably establishes that the claimant meets the criteria to receive protection, then an oral hearing need not be held (Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 23 - Allowing a Claim Without a Hearing). The purpose of an oral hearing is to test and explore the evidence presented, or lack thereof, where it is necessary to do so. This is in contrast to the practice in some other jurisdictions; for example, in Finland the practice is to have a portion of their asylum interviews in which the claimant is expected to state the grounds for claiming asylum and disclose evidence to support that claim through free narration. The priority given to a written statement in the Canadian refugee claim narrative process may be seen to be trauma-informed. Studies focusing on memory and narrative in the context of refugee claims find that individuals who have experienced repeated and ongoing traumatic events are unlikely to recall and recite these events in a linear, detailed, and chronological fashion that is immediately coherent to IRB members. Allowing individuals to prepare such a statement in writing, usually with the assistance of their own counsel, may help. See also: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Hearings should be conducted in a trauma-informed manner. Finally, while claimants must have a fair opportunity to respond to a panel's concerns, it is also not always necessary for a panel to confront a party regarding deficiencies in their evidence. For example, in "Ati v. Canada" the court concluded that it was proper for the RPD to have concluded that a party did not meet their onus as a result of a lack of evidence, and that it was procedurally fair for the RPD to have done so even where the panel did not ask why such evidence was not presented. For more on this issue, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Claimants should have a fair opportunity to respond to a panel's concerns. The duty to find the relevant facts is shared in refugee matters. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states in their handbook that the duty to ascertain and evaluate all the relevant facts is shared between the claimant and the examiner: "In most cases a person fleeing from persecution will have arrived with the barest necessities and very frequently even without personal documents. Thus, while the burden of proof in principle rests on the applicant, the duty to ascertain and evaluate all the relevant facts is shared between the applicant and the examiner." To ascertain means to find (something) out for certain, or make sure of. Hathaway and Foster call this the "shared duty of fact-finding". This duty applies to the RPD but also to the RAD in the context of an appeal on a correctness standard of review. States must consider persons exercising their right to asylum honestly and with due diligence so as to not violate their obligation of non-refoulement. See also: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Principles for the interpretation of refugee procedure#Canada must perform its international legal obligations with respect to refugees in good faith. Claimants will cooperate with the asylum process and supply all pertinent information. A claimant must come to a hearing with all of the evidence that he or she is able to offer and believes is necessary to prove the claim. See: National Documentation Packages. One of the ways that this principle is implemented in practice by states is through packages of information that governments compile on the countries of origin against which claimants are filing claims. It is an international norm that states ensure that precise and up-to-date information from various sources, such as the UNHCR and knowledgeable NGOs, is made available to the personnel responsible for examining applications and taking decisions. The court has stated that "I agree with counsel for the Applicant that if PRRA officers’ findings are to attract deference from this Court on judicial review, the Court must be satisfied that the PRRA’s officer’s expertise is based on meaningful research and an intimate familiarity with the current country conditions in the applicant’s country of removal"; one would expect the same of the Board. This information will concern the general situation prevailing in the countries of origin against which applications of asylum are being made. For the authority of the RAD to disclose such information, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/110-111 - Appeal to Refugee Appeal Division#The RAD must proceed without a hearing on the basis of the record of the proceedings of the RPD, subject to listed exceptions, but this provision does not restrict the RAD from introducing new evidence. That said, it is generally expected that a claimant will bring the passages that they are relying on to the attention of the decision maker; the Federal Court has held that the RPD "is not obliged to comb through every document listed in the National Document Package in the hope of finding passages that may support the claim and specifically address why they do not, in fact, support the claim". When conducting a judicial review of a PRRA decision, the court commented that "It is not for the Officer, who has many applications to adjudicate, to comb through all available National Documentation Package evidence looking for something that might establish risk for the Applicant. Rather, the onus lies with the Applicant to demonstrate to the Officer the basis for the risk claimed, he must include - or at minimum point to - the relevant country condition evidence." Furthermore, the Board should consider the most recent version of the National Documentation Package available at the time that it makes its decision. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 31-43 - Documents#The panel should consider the most recent National Documentation Package. Claimant-specific research. Another way that Canada fulfils this obligation is through claimant-specific research. The RAD provides the following as examples of where it may engage in such research: where the RPD record and information provided by the parties fail to resolve certain issues that are before the RAD and if new issues arise. The Board has committed to using the following process when engaging in such research pre-hearing: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to a fair hearing#Disclosure rights and obligations for the Board. For a discussion of whether (and when) a panel may be obliged to engage in such claimant-specific research, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#To what extent does a panel of the Division have a duty to inquire into the claim?. The shared duty of fact-finding must be read along with the onus on the Minister in exclusion cases. The court holds in "Freeman v. Canada" that the onus to establish that a claimant is excluded from refugee protection is placed "exclusively on the Minister. It states that, as recognized by the Supreme Court: “The evidentiary burden falls on the Minister as the party seeking the applicant’s exclusion” and notes that "the Supreme Court did not identify this as a shared or shifting burden." That said, the court allows in that case that there may be what is describes as a "tactical" burden on a claimant to provide evidence. In such cases, given the existence of technology, and the available consular services from other countries, in same cases it may be expected that they will be able to approach other countries and obtain relevant evidence. The Board must ensure that certain claimants are assisted to make their cases. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states in their handbook that the scope of the shared duty of fact-finding between a claimant and the examiner will vary depending on the nature of the case: "While the burden of proof in principle rests on the applicant, the duty to ascertain and evaluate all the relevant facts is shared between the applicant and the examiner. Indeed, in some cases, it may be for the examiner to use all the means at [their] disposal to produce the necessary evidence in support of the application." What are those cases in which an examiner is to go to greater lengths to produce such evidence? There is widespread recognition that certain types of claimants may be particularly prejudiced in presenting their cases and that in such circumstances this may affect the onus that is placed on the claimant to provide corroboration of their claim. Indeed, the "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada" provides that "Members must take reasonable measures to accommodate all participants in a proceeding so that they may participate effectively." The UNHCR stipulates that "procedures should be in place to identify and assist asylum seekers with specific needs." Minors and others entitled to designated representatives. One such category of claimants is those whose ability to appreciate the nature of the proceedings is impaired, either because they are incompetent or a minor. The principal way that such assistance is provided in the Board's process is through the appointment of a designated representative for the person: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 20 - Designated Representatives. The failure to appoint a designated representative in a refugee protection proceeding, when one is required by the rules, is a violation of procedural fairness. As the court stated in "Kurija v. Canada", “I place the proper representation of young immigrant claimants in refugee proceedings on the same plane as concerns over bias of a decision-maker. By this I mean that it is a ‘knock-out’ issue requiring the decision to be set aside, and furthermore an issue on which new evidence is admissible after the fact for the purpose of determining the partiality of the decision-maker, or in this case, the age of the claimant.” Similarly, in "Ravi v. Canada" the claim of an Applicant who had severe mental health issues related to schizophrenia, psychosis and potential alcohol dependency was reopened on the basis that it was unfair to assess the Applicant’s credibility, and his case more broadly, when he had significant mental illness issues at the hearing, and lacked a designated representative. Furthermore, the UNHCR states that determining the claim of a minor "may call for a liberal application of the benefit-of-the-doubt principle". Claimants in detention. Another category of claimant which may require special assistance is those who are in detention at the time that they are preparing for, or attending, their refugee hearing. There are particular access to justice issues for claimants in detention, who have consistently been identified as being among those who have the greatest difficulty accessing legal counsel. The UN Committee Against Torture, in its General Comment on "non-refoulement", has listed this as one situation in which the burden of proof should reverse, and it should fall on the state to rebut the claimant's assertions where the author of the complaint has faced difficulties in obtaining evidence to substantiate their claim as a result of their deprivation of liberty:[W]hen the complainant is in a situation where he/she cannot elaborate on his/her case, for instance, when the complainant ... is deprived of his/her liberty, the burden of proof is reversed and it is up to the State party concerned to investigate the allegations and verify the information on which the communication is based.For further discussion of this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 30 - Claimant or Protected Person in Custody. Self-represented claimants. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 14-16 - Counsel of Record#Where a claimant is unrepresented and is clearly not understanding what is occurring, the Board should inquire about whether they wish to have counsel. Where a claimant has no possibility of obtaining documentation relating to their allegation. Where a claimant has no possibility of obtaining documentation relating to their allegation, fairness may require the Board to assist a claimant to make their case. The UN Committee Against Torture, in its General Comment on "non-refoulement", has listed this as one situation in which the burden of proof should reverse, and it should fall on the state to rebut the claimant's assertions where the author of the complaint has faced difficulties in obtaining evidence to substantiate their claim:[W]hen the complainant is in a situation where he/she cannot elaborate on his/her case, for instance, when the complainant has demonstrated that he/she has no possibility of obtaining documentation relating to his/her allegation of torture..., the burden of proof is reversed and it is up to the State party concerned to investigate the allegations and verify the information on which the communication is based.In "Jankovic v. Canada" the Federal Court held that the RPD breached procedural fairness by not taking steps to acquire information where it appeared that the information was in a document that had been submitted to Canadian authorities:The Applicant seeks the RPD’s assistance to obtain a document that has presumably been submitted to Canadian authorities, who have thus far failed to respond to the Applicant’s ATIP request. The document in question is not in the possession of the Applicant, but instead is in the possession of the Canadian authorities. The Applicant is not in a position to force the Canadian authorities to produce the document to the RPD, only the Minister would be able to do so, should he so choose. Further, the Minister has relied on the Interpol Zagreb letter to seek the Applicant’s exclusion from refugee protection – the same letter whose accuracy is now put into question by the very document that the Applicant requires assistance to obtain. ... Given all these circumstances, and given the importance of the Adjustment Letter to the Applicant’s claim, the RPD’s conclusion that verifying the information contained in the Interpol letter did not fall within its role was not only unreasonable, it was a breach of procedural fairness.This is akin to the Federal Court's reasoning in "Abdallah v. Canada" in which the court concluded that it was unfair for the RAD not to have assisted the Applicant to obtain an original document held by the CBSA:[5] It is clear from the RAD’s decision that the RAD came to a negative credibility finding with respect to the identity documents evidence. Counsel for the Applicant argues that had the RAD allowed the Applicant to verify the genuineness of the documents through requesting the originals from the CBSA, the outcome might have been different. If the identity documents were proved to be genuine, it could have an impact on the conclusions drawn. I accept this argument. [6] On the facts of this particular case, I find it was unreasonable for the RAD not to have assisted the Applicant to obtain the original SNC from the CBSA, particularly when the authenticity of the SNC was questioned by only viewing a copy. The Applicant asked for fairness since she was helpless in obtaining the original SNC; fairness was not granted. In my opinion, this action constitutes a breach of the duty of fairness owed to the Applicant.However, the Federal Court of Appeal notes that it will not always be necessary for a claimant to have the Board's assistance to obtain a document from CBSA; in "Singh v. Canada", the court noted that the appellant "could have obtained a copy [of a document - his diploma] from the CBSA and submitted it himself as evidence to the RPD." A related example arises from "Ali v. Canada", a case in which the Federal Court held that the RPD breached procedural fairness when it denied the applicant's request for further information about the source and methodology used by the Minister in obtaining and comparing the photographs, thereby blocking the applicant’s attempts to test the reliability of the evidence being used against him. Disclosure from the Minister also must be complete where it becomes a party to a proceeding: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Disclosure rights and obligations for the Minister. In "Valderrama v. Canada" the court held that the RAD had an obligation to consider asking the Minister for further information about a hyperlink that the claimant had requested before rendering a decision, so that the claimant could verify the Minister's disclosure. As a policy matter, the court notes that a claimant can easily be ignored in some situations when seeking assistance from a government. The Minister, by contrast, has access to more administrative and diplomatic mechanisms to obtain information. To what extent does a panel of the Division have a duty to inquire into the claim? Ordinarily, the onus to establish their claim rests upon the applicant. It will suffice for a panel to identify the issues and ask open-ended questions about the main points for a claimant to have had a fair opportunity to present their case. For example, in "Singh v. Canada", the court stated: "It is clear, later in the hearing, that the female Applicant was asked open-ended questions as to whether there were any reasons why she would not wish to move to any of the IFAs and had the option to address the impacts of her rape had she wished to. The RAD, therefore, did not err". See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#A claimant has an onus to show that they meet the criteria to be recognized as a refugee. However, in some cases a panel has a duty to inquire into a claim. The Board should consider the most up-to-date country conditions evidence. Officers must “consult recent and publicly available reports on country conditions, even when they have not been submitted by applicants”. Where a new National Documentation Package is released by the Board's research unit prior to a panel rendering a decision, the panel should consider it. In "Zhao v. Canada", the court held that the Board should consider the most recent information on country conditions. Procedural fairness dictates that the parties should have an opportunity to present submissions and evidence on the new documents if they include material new information. As such, disclosure of an updated NDP is not required in all cases, only where it includes material new information. This principle is reflected in the IRB "Policy on National Documentation Packages in Refugee Determination Proceedings", which provides that the RAD will disclose to the parties new NDP documents only when they wish to rely upon them. As such, while the Federal Court holds that procedural fairness obligations can be met simply by "[disclosing] the most recent NDP and [giving] the Applicants an opportunity to respond and make submissions", the IRB's policy quoted above appears to specify that the RAD will instead only provide specific documents that it wishes to rely on. In other words, when considering the most recent NDP, the RAD must also notify the parties if there are material updates on which it intends to rely, and grant the parties the possibility to make additional representations. That said, the Board is not generally required to look for evidence on its own in these documents to support either the claimant's or Minister's arguments and propositions. For example, it is not the role of the RAD to address concerns relating to the reasonableness of an IFA when such concerns are not raised by applicants. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#The Board must not ignore evidence that is validly before a panel. For an additional discussion of this issue, see: A panel is not required to tell the applicant that their evidence is insufficient or ask the applicant to provide additional evidence, but it may elicit information where this is necessary to determine whether the claimant is a refugee. Refugee determination as a process of inquiry requires that Members ensure that they are adequately informed in order to determine whether the claimant is a Convention refugee. While there are a number of policy statements indicating that it may be advisable for Members to solicit additional information in particular cases, the law appears to be adequately captured by the Federal Court's statement in "Mbengani v. Canada" that a panel is not required to tell the applicant that their evidence is insufficient or ask the applicant to provide additional evidence. While that decision involved a PRRA proceeding, the principle would apply with equal force to the RPD. That said, there are policy statements made to the effect that where there is a lack of evidence in a particular case, a Member may have a duty to elicit it. The Member's inquisitorial role means that they have a duty not only to hear whatever evidence comes before them, but, ultimately, according to the academic Hathaway, that they must inform themselves sufficiently to "determine whether or not the [claimant] is a Convention refugee." To this end, in 1990s the IRB developed what was sometimes called the “Specialized Board of Inquiry Model”, in which the CRDD members were proactive in pre-hearing file review, preliminary issue identification, claim screening, scheduling hearings, and the acquisition of information necessary for the fair and expeditious determination of a refugee claim. Indeed, to this day the "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada" provides that "Members shall make each decision on the merits of the case, based on thorough preparation, the assessment of evidence properly before the member and the application of the relevant law." The panel should confront a claimant and probe where it harbours credibility concerns. When it comes to a Member's obligations with respect to the acquisition of information necessary for the fair and expeditious determination of a refugee claim, the court has commented on a Member's duty to enquire by stating that "the RPD has a responsibility to prompt and probe" where it harbours a concern about credibility in certain circumstances:[I]t was unreasonable for the RAD to draw an adverse inference from the Applicant’s bare “no” in this second brief exchange. This was an issue where considerably more questioning was required in order to assess the true depth of the Applicant’s knowledge. Indeed, the RPD has a responsibility to prompt and probe where it harbours a concern like this and the RAD has a corresponding responsibility to hold the RPD to that interrogatorial standard.In short, the RPD is obliged to adequately investigate significant credibility concerns that arise on the record. The purpose of a hearing is in part for the panel to complete the record to a sufficient degree for the panel to conduct its assessment. If a panel is to make a negative credibility determination, it needs to sufficiently inform itself of the facts in order to make that determination. RAD Member Ayanna Roberts commented that an intersectional analysis should consider the society in which the person is operating and any barriers that the person may encounter, but that in the case before her, the RPD had failed to consider relevant factors in its analysis when it drew a negative credibility inference, specifically noting that the personal beliefs and openness to sexual diversity of the families that the appellant had been living with were not canvassed during the hearing. The panel is obliged to test the evidence where this is necessary in order to ascertain the truth. Where evidence is provided by a claimant, there may be an obligation on the Board to test that evidence. Members are responsible for making the inquiries necessary, including questioning the claimant, to determine the validity of the claim. As the Board's legal services department puts it in its paper on "Assessment of Credibility in Claims for Refugee Protection", RPD members have a duty to get at the truth concerning the claims they hear. The law “imposes a duty upon RPD members to assess the credibility of refugee claimants.” As Justice Nadon stated in "Maksudur v. Canada", "In most refugee claims, the prime issue, if not the only issue, is whether the story related by the [claimant] is true. Consequently, Board members have a duty to the [claimant] and to Canada to employ their best endeavours in the pursuit of that goal to discover the truth." Justice Mosley writes that "a close examination of the merits of the claim is consistent with the nature of the process and the role[] of the member". The Board states that there is a duty to ascertain the truth, and relevant questions should not be left in the air through the failure of counsel to ask those questions. Justice Whyte Nowak writes that decision-makers are required to probe internal inconsistencies in a witness’ evidence and as well as inconsistencies in the evidence as between witnesses. This is consistent with the role of the Refugee Protection Division, as envisaged in the report from Rabbi Plaut that led to the IRB's founding, with that report stating: "a determination that a claimant is a refugee requires an assessment of credibility, for the [Division] must satisfy itself that the facts as asserted by the claimant are true." Plaut goes on to note about refugee status determination that "the whole exercise falters and justice is thwarted if the truth is not elicited". There are many ways in which a panel may seek to fulfill its mandate to test evidence; in general, one technique that is used by the government is to seek to corroborate the information. See further: Canadian Refugee Procedure/170 - Proceedings#How should the Division determine whether evidence should be considered credible or trustworthy? A panel may have a duty to contact a witness to obtain information where it has credibility concerns. When it comes to whether the Board is obliged to conduct claimant-specific research, or to reach out to a potential witness during a hearing, there is a split in the Federal Court jurisprudence about whether and in what circumstances the Board has any such obligation. One line of jurisprudence is represented by the decision of Justice Russell in "Paxi v Canada" wherein he commented that "for the Board to take issue with the authenticity of the document yet make no further inquiries despite having the appropriate contact information to do so is a reviewable error." This appears to place a higher onus on the Board to inquire into a claim and solicit independent evidence. A contrasting line of jurisprudence is exemplified by the decision of Mr. Justice Roy in "Lutonadio v. Canada" that endorsed the following statement:I disagree that an administrative tribunal has an obligation to contact a witness to obtain information. This is not its role. The onus rests with the Applicant to bring forward evidence it intends to rely upon and in doing so, always to put the best foot forward. It is not up to the RPD to chase down evidence from a witness to be satisfied that the document is authentic and that a person exists who has sworn to the truth of its contents before someone authorized to confirm that fact. This onus rests with the Applicant who should provide the necessary information authenticating the author and the document.Both lines of jurisprudence continue to be followed. For example, in the 2022 decision "Zhang v Canada", the court commented about immigration officers that "there does appear to be an expectation that an Officer will take it upon themselves to simply use the contact information provided to verify the authenticity of the evidence that is provided", citing "Paxi v Canada" in support of this proposition. Relatedly, the 2022 decision "Jankovic v. Canada" held that fairness will "sometimes require the RPD to take a small, not-too-onerous, step of making further inquiry into the information relevant to a claim." This applies both to the RPD and RAD; in "Valderrama v. Canada" the court held that the RAD had an obligation to request the Minister to provide information about a hyperlink that the claimant had requested before rendering a decision. See also: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#Where a claimant has no possibility of obtaining documentation relating to their allegation. There are limits to the Board's onus to inquire into matters. In "Ramirez v. Canada", the claimant argued on judicial review that the Board Member should have considered whether counselling in the proposed IFA location would be likely to adequately address the applicant’s mental health issues. The court rejected this argument, concluding that "such an analysis would have been speculative and well beyond the RAD’s expertise." A panel has a duty to enquire into matters where the onus for adducing evidence falls onto the Board. As a general matter, a claimant has an onus to show that they meet the criteria to be recognized as a refugee: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate#A claimant has an onus to show that they meet the criteria to be recognized as a refugee. However, in the Canadian system there also exist legal issues where the burden of proof does not fall on the claimant, for example: Where the record indicates that something is a possible concern, and the onus for establishing that matter falls to the Board, the RPD should conduct a sufficiently thorough questioning to adequately assess the facts and appropriate conclusion, for example an individual is excluded under the "Refugee Convention." The failure to conduct such an examination, for example where the RPD does not inquire into the matter and simply relies on the absence of sufficient evidence on the record to determine that exclusion has not been established, is an error. The Board cannot base some findings, for example that there is an internal flight alternative, in the absence of sufficient evidence, solely on the basis that the claimant has not fulfilled the onus of proof. The panel has a duty to enquire into matters related to the fairness of the proceedings if there is an indication of a procedural fairness issue. For example, in "Gallardo v. Canada" the Federal Court commented that the Division should have inquired into the claimant's capacity to represent himself given counsel’s statements that the claimant had not been properly prepared and the claim had been inadequately put together without the assistance of counsel. The Court held that the Division erred in not so inquiring. In "Gorgulu v. Canada", the Federal Court concluded that a decision maker should have alerted an applicant to what appeared to be an oversight in their submissions, stating that the "reasons fail to demonstrate that they considered the consequences of not providing the applicant with an opportunity to rectify what may very well have been an oversight concerning important information in support of his PRRA application". This principle applies equally to proceedings at the RAD; the court held in "Allen v. Canada" that where a claimant has clearly made an error in filing a relevant document, particularly in the context of a written process where there is no further interaction and given the stakes at issue, the RAD ought to have inquired about the misfiling. It has also applied to missing passages in a permanent residence application, with the court holding in "Bizimana v. Canada" that “the officer had an obligation to seek clarification from Mr. Bizimana regarding the missing pages of his response.” The Board should also verify that representatives appearing before the Board are authorized to do so: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Counsel of Record#The Board should verify that representatives appearing before the Board are authorized pursuant to the Act and regulations. The Refugee Appeal Division must independently assess claims. The RAD is obliged to conduct an independent review of the case, focusing on the errors identified by the appellant. This has implications for the role of the RAD; the RAD cannot be expected to examine every piece of evidence and try to draw out arguments that could support an asylum claim. Simply because the RAD expresses agreement with the RPD’s reasoning does not mean it failed to undertake its own assessment or analysis. For more detail, see: . That said, while the RAD is an appellate body, it would not be consistent with the inquisitorial approach to refugee determination to design an appeal that abandons this approach, placing the onus exclusively on the appellant to advance all issues of risk. The Board Member must engage with evidence that, on its face, appears to contradict their key findings about the case. While the RAD is not required to assess every finding made by the RPD, it is required to provide justified, transparent, and intelligible reasons supporting or disagreeing with the RPD’s risk findings, even if those findings are unchallenged. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Reasons should be sufficiently clear and provide a rational chain of reasoning.
415061	3267488	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415061	Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an impartial decision-maker	Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective. A decision of the tribunal is liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person, properly informed of the facts and having thought the matter through in a practical manner, would conclude on a balance of probabilities that the decision maker was not impartial. The following are some of the ways that these principles have emerged in refugee decision-making in Canada. Impartiality. In "Valente v. The Queen", Le Dain J. held that the concept of impartiality describes “a state of mind or attitude of the tribunal in relation to the issues and the parties in a particular case”. The Supreme Court of Canada noted in "R. v. Généreux" that, in a positive sense, "impartiality can be described — perhaps somewhat inexactly — as a state of mind in which the adjudicator is disinterested in the outcome, and is open to persuasion by the evidence and submissions." The "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada" provides that "Members shall comply with all procedural fairness and natural justice requirements. Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective." IRB members also take an oath of office publicly and formally undertake to carry out their duties impartially. Objectivity is described as essential for tribunal members. Members are bound by the "Code of Conduct for Members of the IRB" which has a section on bias stipulating that "Members shall conduct themselves in a manner that will not cast doubt on their ability to perform their duties objectively." A tribunal’s decision is liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person, properly informed of the facts and having thought the matter through in a practical manner, would conclude on a balance of probabilities that the decision maker was not impartial. Furthermore, Board Members are required to be alert to any situation in which there may be a reasonable apprehension of bias and must disqualify themselves from sitting on the case in those circumstances; as provided by the "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada", "Members shall disqualify themselves from any proceeding where they know or reasonably should know that, in the making of the decision, they would be in a conflict of interest, or that their participation may create a reasonable apprehension of bias. In such a case, they shall immediately inform their manager and provide the reason for their self-disqualification." The test for a reasonable apprehension of bias. The Supreme Court in "Wewaykum Indian Band v Canada" endorsed the following definition of bias:…a leaning, inclination, bent or predisposition towards one side or another or a particular result. In its application to legal proceedings, it represents a predisposition to decide an issue or cause in a certain way which does not leave the judicial mind perfectly open to conviction. Bias is a condition or state of mind which sways judgment and renders a judicial officer unable to exercise his or her functions impartially in a particular case.Most cases concerning bias do not involve actual bias being demonstrated (or admitted) but are instead cases where a party alleges that a reasonable apprehension of bias exists on the facts. The test for determining reasonable apprehension of bias is whether an informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically and having thought the matter through, would conclude that the decision-maker, either consciously or unconsciously, would not decide fairly. This well-established test originates from the case "Committee for Justice and Liberty v Canada". As stated by the Supreme Court of Canada in "Arsenault-Cameron v. Prince Edward Island," “The test for apprehension of bias takes into account the presumption of impartiality. A real likelihood of bias must be demonstrated.” The Supreme Court reiterated this principle in "Wewaykum v. Canada": “The standard refers to an apprehension of bias that rests on serious grounds, in light of the strong presumption of judicial impartiality.” In this way, bias allegations “cannot rest on mere suspicion, pure conjecture, insinuations or mere impressions [of a party or their counsel]”. The burden of proof where an allegation of bias is made is on the party making the allegation and “the threshold to be met is high.” The allegation must be supported by material evidence demonstrating conduct that derogates from the standard. Alleging bias is “a serious step" "that challenges the integrity of the decision-maker" and "should not be undertaken lightly”. In applying this test and deciding whether a panel’s conduct gives rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias, a holistic view of the proceeding should be taken. As the Ontario Court of Appeal noted in a decision on this issue, it is normally necessary to examine the record in its entirety in order to assess whether a decision-maker’s conduct gave rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias. Factors to assess when considering the record include: Additional comments on each of these factors follow. A reasonable apprehension of bias regarding one member of a panel may be sufficient to disqualify the entire panel, even if the one member did not assume an active role. Allegations of an apprehension of bias must be raised at the earliest opportunity. A person alleging an apprehension of bias on the part of the decision-maker must raise it at the earliest opportunity to allow the decision-maker to recuse themselves, if necessary. Failure to do so will generally amount to an implied waiver of the right to invoke bias in subsequent proceedings, such as an appeal or an application for judicial review. This said, in some circumstances procedural fairness might require that a decision maker act on their own to assess whether something has occurred during the hearing that could give rise to a reasonable apprehension that they are biased. Decision makers must always remain alive to the possibility that they are not impartial or may no longer appear impartial in respect of the particular litigants or issues before them and take steps to recuse themselves when that is the case. See also: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Concerns about a lack of procedural fairness should be raised at the earliest practical opportunity. Factors that are commonly assessed when determining whether a reasonable apprehension of bias exists in a given case. Any relationship, past or present, between the decision-maker and the party/parties or those who may benefit from the decision. The fact that the decision-maker has (or has had) a relationship with one of the parties who may benefit from the decision can mean, in appropriate cases, that there is a reasonable apprehension of bias regarding them presiding over the case. The "Code of Conduct for Members of the IRB" also provides that "Members shall not, during the course of a proceeding, have any social contact with a party, counsel, witness, interpreter or other non-IRB participant, if such social contact may create a reasonable apprehension of bias." Furthermore, it stipulates that Members may only take part in outside activities that are not inconsistent or incompatible with their official duties and responsibilities, or that do not cast doubt on their ability to perform their duties objectively. Members are also bound by the terms of the "Conflict of Interest Act". The predecessor to the RPD at the IRB, the Refugee Status Advisory Committee, used to include members included from the Department of Immigration and the Department of External Affairs. All were part time, while also maintaining regular departmental responsibilities. This arrangement was criticized, and a report was issued in 1982 recommending that those affiliated with a department sever ties therewith during their time serving on the committee. The Minister of Employment and Immigration announced in 1982 that departmental appointees would be required to serve full time and be free of departmental responsibilities during the term of their appointment. The fact that a member of the Board previously worked for a party, whether it be a law firm appearing before the Board, CBSA, or IRCC does not automatically mean that the Member should not sit on cases where that organization is a party. In "Ahumada v. Canada" the Federal Court of Appeal considered this question. Specifically, they considered the following certified question: "would a reasonable apprehension of bias be created by the fact that a member of the Convention Refugee Determination Division (CRDD) of the Immigration and Refugee Board is an employee on leave of absence from a position as an immigration officer in the Enforcement Branch of CIC?" They held that such a member should not be restricted from sitting on cases where the Minister intervenes:The Minister's role in the refugee determination process is primarily oriented towards detecting and opposing claims that the Minister or her officials believe should not be allowed. Accordingly, cases holding that an employment relationship between a member of an adjudicative tribunal and a party may give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias were in principle relevant. The suggestion that an employee of CIC would only be disqualified from sitting on a CRDD panel when the Minister intervened would enable the Minister to ensure the exclusion of the employee from the panel by exercising the power to intervene. To enable the Minister to so influence the composition of a panel would clearly compromise the CRDD's independence from CIC in a manner inconsistent with the scheme of the Act.That said, the ultimate holding in that case was that a reasonable apprehension of bias was made out where an appeals officer on temporary leave from the Branch of "Citizenship and Immigration Canada" that advises the Minister on whether an intervention is appropriate and represents the Minister when the Minister does intervene in IRB proceedings became an IRB member. That employee was obliged to resign from their employment with CIC if they wished to continue working as a decision-maker at the IRB. Similarly, the fact that a Member had a previous professional connection with the case has been held to give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias on the part of the decision-maker. Exposure to political and bilateral relations considerations. IRB Members are not answerable to the government and have no competing priorities like protecting the country’s alliances or conserving its resources. Decision-makers in refugee matters must not be beholden to any political or bilateral relations considerations. As Neil Yeates writes in his report on the Board, “decision makers must be able to hear cases in an environment within which their decisions are not seen to be fettered by external considerations, such as the foreign policy positions of the government of the day.” Governor-in-council appointees to the Board, "should generally avoid all political activities".The importance of an independent mechanism for asylum adjudication is illustrated when considering other countries’ systems that are said to be subject to the vicissitudes of politics and hence to “[leave] people seeking protection promised by international treaty to the whims of a politically responsive enforcement agency”. Refugee lawyer David Matas recounts the example of Belgian refugee policy in the 1980s, wherein government authorities apparently had a tacit policy that Zairois were not to be recognized as refugees. He writes about the apparent basis for this policy as follows: “for political and economic reasons, Belgium does not want to incur the anger of the present regime governing Zaire, a former a Belgian colony. There remain substantial economic ties between Belgium and Zaire. The countries are on friendly terms politically. [Hence,] UNHCR representatives in Belgium presumed that Zairois were not "bona fide" refugees.” Whether or not a full and fair opportunity is provided to present arguments and evidence. Questions about impartiality tend to come into play where a reviewing body is persuaded that the decision-maker has mistakenly come to a conclusion without giving due regard to the possibility that a full consideration of the evidence might lead to a different result, for example where a matter is pre-judged. Where parties are not provided a full and fair opportunity to present arguments and evidence, this may point towards a conclusion that the matter was pre-judged, and hence that there is a reasonable apprehension that the decision-maker did not approach the case impartially. The opposite is also true - evidence which indicates that the parties had such a full and fair opportunity to present evidence and provide submissions tends to indicate that the matter was not pre-judged and that it is not reasonable to apprehend bias in the circumstances. For example, where over-intrusive questioning by a Board member, including "constant interruptions", amounts to a “hijacking” of the case and grossly interferes with the orderly presentation of a claimant's case, the panel may have interfered with a claimant's right to be heard and it may be concluded that the panel did not approach the case impartially. For further discussion of this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to a hearing and the right to be heard#Where a witness is interrupted while providing testimony, this may establish that their right to present oral testimony was interfered with. Whether there is a pattern of decisions that suggests influences other than the applicable law and available evidence. A pattern of decisions that suggests influence other than the applicable law and available evidence may serve to establish a reasonable apprehension of bias in a particular case. Furthermore, a decision maker simply making adverse findings against a party—even adverse findings that are not justified on the record—does not mean they are biased against them, though an accumulation of unsubstantiated findings might be indicative of bias. That said, this is but one factor that should be assessed along with the totality of the evidence and caution is appropriate in drawing any conclusions of this sort. The corollary of this principle is that complying with legal obligations, for example those imposed by the "Access to Information Act", does not constitute evidence of bias or a reasonable apprehension of bias. Deciding against a claimant on an interlocutory matter does not, in and of itself, create a reasonable apprehension of bias. "Niyonkuru v. Canada" was a case in which the panel provided notice to the Minister that the claimant was possibly excluded from refugee protection. The claimant argued that, by adjourning the hearing to allow the Minister to intervene and present arguments regarding the applicant's possible exclusion, the panel had demonstrated bias and loss of impartiality. The court rejected this argument, stating that it is well settled that the mere fact that in an earlier proceeding a decision-maker rendered judgment against the party does not compromise his or her ability to be impartial. However, sitting on appeals from one’s own decisions has been found to be improper. Statistics about a member's past refusal rate do not in and of themselves establish a reasonable apprehension of bias. No claimant (or, indeed, Minister's representative) has succeeded on bias motions based on statistics alone. "Fenanir v. Canada" was a case in which the claimant noted that the average number of refugee claim refusals by the member hearing his matter (99%) was higher than the average of 45% for all of the other members. The claimant submitted that there was a reasonable apprehension of bias on this basis. The court held that the data filed did not in itself support a finding of bias. It noted that the data can be "explained by a certain number of factors which are unrelated to any bias". The comments of Justice Zinn in "Turoczi v. Canada" are illustrative of the judicial approach to such applications:Although the statistical data presented by the applicants may raise an eyebrow for some, the informed reasonable person, thinking the matter through, would demand to know much more, including: • Were all of the figures, including, importantly, the weighted country origin averages, properly compiled? • Did the RPD randomly assign cases within each country of origin? If not, how did the RPD assign cases? • Can factors affecting the randomness of case assignment be reliably adjusted for statistically? • If so, what are the adjusted statistics, and what is their significance? • If the RPD did randomly assign cases, what is the statistical significance of the Member’s rejection rate? • Beyond the Member’s relative performance within the RPD, is there anything objective impugning the Member’s decisions (i.e. that suggests they are wrongly decided)? • Accounting for appropriate factors (if that is possible), are the Member’s decisions more frequently quashed on judicial review than would be expected? • Has the Member made recurring errors of a certain type, e.g. on credibility, state protection, etc., that bear a semblance to the impugned decision? In short, the informed reasonable person, thinking the matter through, would demand a statistical analysis of this data by an expert based upon and having taken into consideration all of the various factors and circumstances that are unique to and impact on determinations of refugee claims before he or she would think it more likely than not that the decision-maker would not render a fair decision.In "Arrachch v. Canada", the court dismissed such an argument as follows: "Counsel in this matter was clearly seeking not just a fair and impartial tribunal but one that would more likely be favourable to his clients as measured on a statistical basis. This was blatant forum shopping." That said, in that decision the court went on to allow consel's argument that there was a reasonable apprehension of bias for other reasons related to how the Member had responded to counsel's application. An argument about bias that arises based on statistics about a Member's past rate of allowing claims, without more, is not one that demands consideration by a reviewing body; in the words of the court in "Satbir Singh v. Canada," "Une allégation d’impartialité est sérieuse, porte atteinte à la réputation d’un individu et va au cœur de l’équité procédurale. Ce serait tout à fait inapproprié de demander à la Cour de considérer le <q>« comportement »</q> de la SPR en contrôle judiciaire sans aucun fondement dans la preuve." Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker. A Board member must approach each case impartially. The "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada" provides that "Members shall comply with all procedural fairness and natural justice requirements. Members are expected to approach each case with an open mind and, at all times, must be, and must be seen to be, impartial and objective." Statements or conduct that might indicate a predisposition on the part of the decision-maker may point towards a conclusion that there is a reasonable apprehension of bias in a particular case. Opening comments might give rise to an apprehension of bias. In "De Freitas v. Canada", the chairperson of an Immigration Appeal Board panel began a refugee determination hearing by indicating that he had read the file twice and that after 20 years on the bench, he found the claim to be so frivolous that he wondered about the abuse of the system. The Federal Court was of the view that these intemperate comments created a reasonable apprehension of bias and the Court sent the case back for rehearing by a differently constituted IAB panel. Similarly, in "Hernandez v Canada" the court held that the Member seemed to have "a preconceived idea of the outcome of the case, ... cutting Ms. Hernandez's explanations short." The court concluded that the member had aggressively dismissed justified objections from counsel regarding the member's questions and errors in the translation. Similarly, issues can arise where a decision-maker has previously expressed strong views regarding a matter on which they must decide. That said, the inquisitorial nature of refugee hearings must be considered when interpreting this type of requirement. The Board's procedures should not be restricted to the judicial paradigm. Refugee hearings are not adversarial; instead, the generally involve a panel of the Board appropriately investigating a particular case. In an inquisitorial proceeding, it is the role of the Member to investigate and/or probe factual matters. This means that a member of the Board will have a more active role in the hearing than is common in other judicial contexts. As the Federal Court held in "Gebreyesus v. Canada", raising or renewing the consideration of a potential issue based on evidence that arises during a hearing, without more, is simply an indicator that a panel is performing this appointed function, not that the panel is biased. For a more fulsome discussion of this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate. Similarly, as the court concluded in "Habimana v. Canada", the fact that a tribunal member evidently became frustrated with a claimant's manner of presenting their testimony does not mean that they have prejudged the outcome before hearing all of the evidence. In "Ramos Gapi v. Canada," the court concluded that the RPD did not err in repeatedly posing a question, as the repetitive questioning of the RPD had to be viewed in the context of the applicant’s persistently evasive responses. A Member considering prior testimony during a redetermination of a claim is not, in itself, indicative of bias. An RPD panel is not "required" to have regard to the transcript from a prior hearing on reconsideration: "Huang v. Canada". However, its choice to do so is not generally indicative of bias or of having pre-judged a matter. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Reopening a Claim or Application#Once reopened, is a claim to be heard de novo or as a redetermination based on the previous record?. A Member rendering an oral decision at the end of the hearing is not, in and of itself, indicative of bias. A Member should approach a case impartially and with an open mind. This does not mean that the Member is required to reserve their decision after a hearing and consider the case for days afterwards. In fact, RPD Rule 10(8) provides that a Division member must render an oral decision and reasons for the decision at the hearing unless it is not practicable to do so. In "Pajarillo v. Canada", the claimant argued that the RPD was biased against her because the member made up her mind to reject the Applicant’s claim prior to hearing. The sole basis for making this allegation against the member was that the member returned after a lunch break and proceeded to render a lengthy oral decision. The court rejected this argument, noting that the claimant had failed to establish that the facts or issues in the case were so substantial or complex it was not reasonably practicable to comply with Rule 10(8) of the RPD Rules. The court stated: "The mere fact that the RPD was able to draft a decision and render it orally shortly 50 minutes after the conclusion of the hearing does not prove bias. A review of the transcript of the hearing discloses that the RPD member took into account the Applicant’s testimony and counsel’s arguments in reaching her decision." For more details about this rule, see Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rules 3-13 - Information and Documents to be Provided#RPD Rule 10 - Order of questioning in hearings, oral representations, oral decisions, limiting questioning. That said, in "Kabongo v. Canada", the court held that the fact that prior to the hearing the member had prepared a “draft decision”, which appeared to be a decision, did demonstrate a reasonable apprehension of bias. A Member's past employment with a government that a claim is against does not "per se" raise a reasonable apprehension of bias. The Federal Court has cautioned against categorical findings of bias based solely on a decision maker’s past employment, without any other evidence. For example, in "Chan v. Canada", the RPD Member had previously worked for the government of Hong Kong SAR, which the refugee protection claim was against. The Federal Court declined to find that the Member’s previous employment "per se" raised a reasonable apprehension of bias, noting that "RPD members are presumed to be impartial and are required to swear an oath of impartiality. This presumption applies regardless of the members’ prior employment." The court went on to note that in this case the employment had ended more than 6 years prior to the hearing in question, and that the conclusion could have been different if the employment history was more recent or was with an entity more directly related to the specific agent of alleged persecution in the claim. A Member's ethnicity, religion, or other protected factors are not relevant to an assessment of bias. The Federal Court has held that "the Board, like a corporation, acts through its members. They are flesh and blood. [The Member] may be a man of religion, an agnostic or an atheist. He may be Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim, Jewish, Roman Catholic, Orthodox Christian, Protestant, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist or an adherent of any other number of religions. The Court does not know. It is irrelevant." Members are not precluded by their position from publishing articles about refugee law. Members of the Board are not precluded by their position from publishing articles about refugee law. For example, former Board Member Audrey Macklin published an article after being appointed as a Member, with the following caveat: " Since writing this article, the author has been appointed a Member of the Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB) of Canada. The views expressed in this article are the personal views of the author and are not necessarily shared by the IRB." The tone and tenor of the decision-maker’s involvement in the hearing. The tone and tenor of the decision-maker’s involvement in the hearing may be considered as part of a holistic assessment of whether there is a reasonable apprehension of bias in any particular case. As a starting point, the role of RPD is an inquisitorial one, and Members have to ask the “hard questions” that may be inappropriate for a judge to ask. This is expanded upon in the text "Judicial Review of Administrative Action in Canada," which notes that particular latitude is given to tribunals to question where the matter is not adversarial, as with most refugee proceedings:Extensive and "energetic" questioning alone by tribunal members will not in itself give rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias. And particular latitude is likely to be given to tribunals operating in a non-adversarial setting, such as refugee determination hearings, where there is no one appearing to oppose the claim. Nor will an expression of momentary impatience or loss of equanimity by a tribunal member result in disqualification, particularly where it was merely an attempt to control the manner of proceeding. Similarly, a sarcastic comment when a party refused to give evidence, or an ill-chosen and insensitive phrase, will not, without more, lead to disqualification.For example, where a Member's use of profanity during a break in the hearing was recorded on a recording device that was left on, this did not in itself establish a reasonable apprehension of bias. However, there are limits on this latitude, including in the types of circumstances that follow. Where there are allegations that the RPD member’s manner of questioning gave rise to a reasonable apprehension of bias, a decision-maker, for example the RAD, is generally expected to listen to the recording of the RPD hearing, not just a transcript of the proceeding (setting aside situations where the application about bias is made to the Member who presided over the hearing). This is so only if such a review could reveal whether the RPD member’s manner of speaking, as opposed to their specific words, disclosed a reasonable apprehension of bias. Where a member pursues questioning with a discriminatory attitude. The "Code of Conduct for Members of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada" provides that "Members shall exercise their duties without discrimination." The Federal Court affirms that a member may not pursue questioning derived from a discriminatory attitude. Members must exhibit appropriate sensitivity and the Federal Court holds that the member must at all times be attentive and sensitive to claimants. UNHCR writes in their document on "Procedural Standards for Refugee Status Determination" that "RSD applications must be processed on a non-discriminatory basis". In "Baker v. Canada", for example, an apprehension of bias was found to have arisen from the stereotypical assumptions about persons suffering from mental illness in the officer's notes. In "Yusuf v. Canada", the Federal Court of Appeal set aside a decision because of the Member's discriminatory comments: "In my opinion, these sexist, unwarranted and highly irrelevant observations by a member of the Refugee Division are capable of giving the impression that their originator was biased." Relatedly, the Federal Court holds that it is an error for IRB adjudicators to make inferences based on stereotypes. For additional commentary on this, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Principles for the interpretation of refugee procedure#IRPA Section 3(2)(c) - Fair consideration is to be granted to those who come to Canada claiming persecution. Where a member pursues questioning with a hostile or antagonistic attitude, or where the member takes on the role of a prosecutor. As the Federal Court stated in "Aloulou v Canada," "the inquisitorial process [can] give rise to sometimes extensive and energetic questioning, expressions of momentary impatience or loss of equanimity, even sarcastic or harsh language, without leading to a reasonable apprehension of bias”. However, the Federal Court holds that a member crosses the line into impermissible conduct where they pursue questioning in a manner that is inconsistent with their proper role. For example, as Waldman puts it in his text "Canadian Immigration & Refugee Law Practice", if, during the course of the hearing, the tribunal “descends into the arena” to such an extent that the decision-maker assumes the role of a prosecutor, they risk of losing their impartiality. The Refugee Appeal Division has held that "constant interruption" and "flagrant intervention in the presentation of a claimant’s case" can amount to procedural unfairness. This may also occur where questioning is derived from an actually hostile attitude. The Federal Court overturned a decision of the RPD where “from the outset…the member was not at all interested in hearing the applicant's testimony”, where the hearing “was more like a police interrogation than a hearing before a tribunal” and where the Member went on “long tirades … on peripheral aspects having no real relevance (except that they eloquently demonstrated the member's prejudices and biases)”. That said, as stated in "Mahmoud v Canada", "intrusive and intimidating interventions by a Board member may be found to interfere with an applicant's ability to present his case. However, if the interruptions are made for the purpose of clarifying testimony or an issue, they will not raise a reasonable apprehension of bias, even if the manner of questioning or interruption is 'energetic'." Furthermore, the court has held that the fact that counsel created a confrontational atmosphere at the hearing does not call into question the impartiality of the member. International standards recommend that state officials adopt a collaborative, non-adversarial approach in investigating a person’s claim. Furthermore, social science research notes that where hearings are hostile or confrontational, claimants may be discouraged from providing information that may be crucial to their claim. That said, the lack of this will not necessarily establish unfairness or bias: in "Fadhili v. Canada", the RPD admonished the Applicants for their misrepresentation during the hearing and in the decision, but the court held that this did not rise to the level of unfairness or bias. For additional detail about the appropriate limits of a Board member's questioning in this inquisitorial process, see Canadian Refugee Procedure/The Board's inquisitorial mandate and also the following discussion of limits on questions that the Board may pose: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to be heard and the right to a fair hearing#Members are expected to act honestly and in good faith and are precluded from "setting traps" for claimants. A passive or distant countenance is not required of Board members. The Board states that Members’ questions must be posed in a moderate tone. It may be noted that it is common for government officials conducting asylum interviews to have a passive and distanced countenance during hearings. For example, in one empirical study of Finish asylum officers, the researchers noted that the officers did not detectably react to the claimants’ narrations of events. The researchers stated that although an officer may think that a passive and distanced attitude guarantees neutrality, from a claimant’s perspective it can be interpreted as negative feedback. They argue that:Traumatised individuals are prone to feel threatened and perceive the other’s intentions as intimidating, unless they receive clear and constant messages of the safety of a situation. A successful narration of traumatic events, for instance, is known to require a safe atmosphere characterized by a feeling of being connected to another person. [citations omitted]Indeed, the legal academic Hathaway has gone as far as to say that “the maintenance of 'judicial distance' is for some members a convenient way of concealing a tendency to cynicism and negativism.” As such international guidelines, such as those from the EU, prescribe that asylum interviews should be marked by trust, respect, and empathy. The Member may consider this advice in order to have an appropriately trauma-informed approach to hearings. Indeed, the Refugee Appeal Division has held that "insensitivity to the claimant’s particular situation and disinterest in the claim" can constitute procedural unfairness. The IRB's gender guidelines provide that Members should respond to the individual’s verbal cues and body language in a way that creates a safe space to facilitate the giving of testimony. They state that a calm and sensitive approach can enhance the flow of communication, build trust, and assist in the recollection of details. See: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Chairperson Guidelines. Conversely, the fact that a Member is engaged and may be encouraging a claimant's testimony should not be taken as the Member having accepted the credibility of that testimony, lest it leave Members with the impression that only a detached demeanour is permissible. Additionally, while Members should adopt a trauma-informed approach marked by trust, respect, and empathy, they must also maintain the proper role of a tribunal. For example, referring to a claimant by their first name in a decision has been held to be "inappropriate" and an indicia of lack of respect for the claimant. The institutional arrangements that pertain to the freedom and independence of the decision-maker. Institutional bias. Decisions are liable to be set aside for bias if a reasonable person would conclude, a balance of probabilities, that the decision-maker was not impartial. Such partiality can occur either because of factors specific to a particular decision-maker of the sort discussed above (e.g. statements they have made or their past actions or relationships) or for institutional reasons. Specifically, the test for institutional bias, introduced in "R v Lippé", asks whether a well-informed person would have a reasonable apprehension of bias in a substantial number of cases. The test for institutional (im)partiality is generally stated as follows:The determination of institutional bias presupposes that a well‑informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically—and having thought the matter through—would have a reasonable apprehension of bias in a substantial number of cases. In this regard, all factors must be considered, but the guarantees provided for in the legislation to counter the prejudicial effects of certain institutional characteristics must be given special attention.Institutional bias will be found where a well‑informed person would have a reasonable apprehension in a substantial number of cases. Failing that, allegations of an apprehension of bias cannot be brought on an institutional level but must be dealt with on a case‑by‑case basis. In and of itself, legal review of members' decisions does not create a reasonable apprehension of bias. In "Weerasinge v. Canada" the Federal Court of Appeal considered whether Members of the Board having their reasons reviewed by a legal advisor created a reasonable apprehension of bias. The court rejected this argument, commenting as follows:The Refugee Division consists of such number of full and part-time members as the Governor in Council may decide. They are appointed for terms of up to seven years. A minimum of one-tenth are required to be barristers or advocates of at least five years' standing. It would be pure coincidence if either member of a panel hearing a particular claim were legally qualified. The Refugee Division is a lay tribunal required to decide claims which, as I have observed, involve the life, liberty and security of the person. It must do so within the framework of extensive, confusing, and sometimes confused, jurisprudence. It is required to give written reasons for decision not favourable to claimants. The desirability of legal review of those reasons is manifest. Having come to a decision on what is essentially a question of fact: whether the claimant has a well-founded fear of persecution for a reason that engages the Convention refugee definition, a tribunal does not, in my opinion, offend any tenet of natural justice by taking advice as to legal matters contained in its reasons. While the reasons review process, both in the more limited format described in the memorandum and the full review format suggested, could be abused and result in the reviewing lawyers influencing the decisions to which the reasons relate, there is, in my opinion, simply no foundation for a conclusion that it has been, in fact, abused, either in the case before us or generally. Any consultation by a decision maker before publishing a decision, including consultation by a judge with a law clerk, could be abused. As to whether there is an appearance offensive to our notions of natural justice, it seems to me that the question to be asked is, as in dealing with an assertion of a reasonable apprehension of bias, namely, whether an informed person, viewing the matter realistically and practically and having thought it through, would think it more likely than not that the tribunal's decision that a claimant was, or was not, a Convention refugee had been influenced by the review of its reasons by its staff lawyers. In my opinion, that person would not think it likely.Furthermore, to the extent that members of the tribunal receive legal advice, legal advisors are not to attempt to influence the factual findings, but may have access to the facts and files of the claims in question and offer legal advice in relation to them: "Bovbel v. Canada." That said, the interpretation of these questions is fraught and the relevant principles are, in the mind of this author, far from clear. This is illustrated by the fact that in "Bovbel v. Canada" the Federal Court had initially found that the IRB process was problematic, only for this conclusion to be overturned on appeal to the Federal Court of Appeal. For further discussion of legal review, see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/The right to an independent decision-maker#Legal services review of decisions may discuss issues of fact in the reasons but should not attempt to influence factual findings. Cabinet members are prohibited from attempting to influence the outcomes of tribunal decisions except as permitted by statute. Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries may not, under any circumstances, attempt to intervene in the decision-making process of an administrative tribunal on behalf of any constituent or expedite the processing of an application as such contact may be considered an attempt to influence a decision, which is contrary to section 9 of the Conflict of Interest Act. The role of Parliamentary Secretaries and the principle of non-intervention in quasi-judicial decisions are also outlined in the Prime Minister's Open and Accountable Government guideline. Although much of the guideline is directed to Ministers, the advice applies equally to Parliamentary Secretaries, in light of their role in supporting the government agenda. The guideline advises that members of the executive branch “must not intervene, or appear to intervene, with tribunals on any matter requiring a decision in their quasi-judicial capacity, except as permitted by statute." For greater certainty, the guideline adds that “it is inappropriate to attempt to influence the outcome of a specific decision of a quasi-judicial nature." Bias issues may be cured on appeal to the RAD. The Refugee Appeal Division may cure bias arising in a previous decision in a matter.
415066	3332924	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415066	A hand book of life sciences/CLASSICAL GENETICS	PEDIGREE ANALYSIS. PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT. Ex: Huntington's chorea,Neurofibromatosis,Achondroplasia,Familial hypercholesterolemia AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE. Ex:Sickle cell anemia,Cystic fibrosis,Phenylketonuria,Tay-Sachs disease X-LINKED DOMINANT. Ex:Hypophatemic rickets (vitamin-D resistant rickets), Ornithine Transcarbamylase deficiency X-LINKED RECESSIVE. Ex:Hemophilia A,Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy,Colour blindness, Night blindness,Fragile X-syndrome Y-LINKED INHERITANCE. Ex:Flatfoot and hair loss MITOCHONDRIAL DISORDERS. Ex:Mitochondrial myopathy, Diabetes mellitus and deafness(DAD)
415070	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415070	English-Hanzi/White bread and closely related foods made from white flour	White bread and closely related foods made from white flour (including biscuits, pastries and cereal breakfast) is one of the main white foods to be eliminated. 白面包和由白面粉制成的密切相关的食品（包括饼干，糕点和谷物早餐）是要消除的主要白色食品之一。
415086	3267488	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415086	Canadian Refugee Procedure/2-3 - Definitions, objectives, and application of the IRPA	IRPA Section 2. Section 2 of the "Immigration and Refugee Protection Act" reads: Interpretation Definitions 2 (1) The definitions in this subsection apply in this Act. Board means the Immigration and Refugee Board, which consists of the Refugee Protection Division, Refugee Appeal Division, Immigration Division and Immigration Appeal Division. (Commission) Convention Against Torture means the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, signed at New York on December 10, 1984. Article 1 of the Convention Against Torture is set out in the schedule. (Convention contre la torture) designated foreign national has the meaning assigned by subsection 20.1(2). (étranger désigné) foreign national means a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person. (étranger) permanent resident means a person who has acquired permanent resident status and has not subsequently lost that status under section 46. (résident permanent) Refugee Convention means the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed at Geneva on July 28, 1951, and the Protocol to that Convention, signed at New York on January 31, 1967. Sections E and F of Article 1 of the Refugee Convention are set out in the schedule. (Convention sur les réfugiés) Act includes regulations and instructions (2) Unless otherwise indicated, references in this Act to “this Act” include regulations made under it and instructions given under subsection 14.1(1). The Act's definitions section should be read in conjunction with the definitions section for the RPD Rules and related policies and documents. The RPD Rules have a definitions section: Canadian Refugee Procedure/RPD Rule 1 - Definitions. See also the following more general discussions of terms, acronyms, and definitions related to refugee procedure: Canadian Refugee Procedure/Glossary. The Designated Foreign National regime is set out at section 20.1 of the Act. For more detail on the term "designated foreign national", see: Canadian Refugee Procedure/20.1-20.2 - Designated Foreign Nationals. IRPA Section 3. Section 3(2) and 3(3) of the "Immigration and Refugee Protection Act" read: Interpretation. For a discussion of these legislative provisions, see: .
415089	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415089	English-Hanzi/Whole wheat bread, biscuits and cereal breakfast are made from flour	Whole wheat bread, biscuits and cereal breakfast are made from flour, which contains whole grains, including germ and bran. 全麦面包，饼干和谷类早餐均由面粉制成，其中含有全谷物，包括胚芽和麸皮。
415092	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415092	English-Hanzi/White bread and similar foods made from refined grains	White bread and similar foods made from refined grains have higher carbohydrate content and lower nutrient content. Try to replace them with whole grain foods. 由精制谷物制成的白面包和类似食品的碳水化合物含量较高，而营养成分含量较低。尝试用全谷物食品代替它们。
415095	396820	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415095	The science of finance/Introduction to economics	Economics is the science of the production and consumption of goods and services. Goods and services. Services (labor) are consumed when they are produced. The goods produced are consumed after a certain period, short (fresh products) or more or less long (durable goods, including stocks of non-perishable commodities). Some durable goods are almost eternal (quality housing, jewelry, works of art ...). Others are consumed by use during their lifetime. Even near-eternal goods generally require work to be maintained. Final consumption is the consumption of goods and services which directly improve the quality of life (in principle, because they can also deteriorate it): food, clothing, housing, health, education, transport, sport and entertainment, long distance communication ... Intermediate consumption is the consumption of goods and services that serve in the production chain of final goods and services. Certain goods such as means of transport, computers and smartphones can be used both as intermediate goods and as final goods. Quality of life. The quality of life does not only depend on final consumption: having a good job and benefiting from good working conditions, feeling safe in the present, for our future, that of our children, our country and all humanity, respect and be respected, love and be loved, know how to meditate and relax, be at peace with oneself and with others, do not despair, breathe good air, benefit from a good climate and a welcoming nature ... Real wealth and market wealth. Real wealth (capital) at any given time is the sum of all durable goods. We can also include in the real wealth the intelligence, the competence and the health of human beings (human capital) and the natural wealth (seas, oceans, rivers, lakes and rivers, landscapes, natural fauna and flora ...). Market wealth is the market value of real wealth. It is assessed with market prices. When goods are not sold, their market value is assessed from the market prices of equivalent goods. Since human beings are not sold as slaves, their market value cannot be assessed, except by very questionable indirect means (discounted lifetime income or risk price). Market wealth depends on long-term expectations. Durable goods have a market value because it is anticipated that they will be used, and that they can be sold. But lifestyles, and expectations of future lifestyles, can vary. Such variations are difficult to predict. If, for example, humans give up tourism by air, all the infrastructure and equipment intended to produce and consume the planes, including the planes themselves, automatically lose their value. If fiancés lose the habit of offering diamonds, the market value of diamond stocks will be greatly diminished. Expectations are very fluctuating. They vary with the occurrence of unforeseen events (disasters ...) and are often irrational (animal spirits) because no one can predict with certainty what the future holds for us. This is why the market value of shares can change suddenly. Billions of dollars can disappear in a day without a note being burned, simply because humans have changed their minds. Investment and long-term vision. Investment is the change in real wealth over a period. A negative investment is a decrease in real wealth (non-renewal of durable goods consumed or deteriorated). To invest intelligently, we need to have a long-term vision. What goods and services will human beings want to enjoy in the coming decades? Will they have the means to buy them? What intermediate goods must be produced to facilitate the production of final goods and services? Training is an investment in human capital. Intelligent vocational training also requires a long-term vision. The market economy is generally short-sighted. The ideal would be for all citizens to agree on the priorities to be given to the economy and for an intelligent state to correct the failings of the market economy. Work and dignity. Work is the main source of wealth. When we consume goods and services, we give work to all those who participated in their production. Being deprived of work is generally a great suffering, at the same time economic, social and psychological. Giving work is giving dignity, provided it is a good job, in good conditions (hours, equipment, security, respect ...) and honestly paid.
415097	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415097	English-Hanzi/White pasta is similar to white bread	White pasta is similar to white bread because white pasta is made from refined flour and has fewer nutrients than unrefined flour. 白面食与白面包相似，因为白面食是由精制面粉制成的，营养成分少于未精制面粉。
415118	396820	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415118	Songbook/Greensleeves	Chords. =Greensleeves= Greensleeves is an old English folk song that has been quoted in Shakespeare's "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602). This quote indicates that the song was very well known before (mid to late 16th century). The name of the Lady Greensleeves probably refers to the green puff sleeves that were fashionable in Northern England at the time. <score raw = "1" vorbis = "1"> \version "2.12.3" \language "deutsch" \header { tagline = "" \layout { indent = #0 akkorde = \chordmode { \germanChords \set chordChanges = ##t s8 a16/8:m g a:m e a:m g a13/8:m e a16/8:m c g a:m e c g a13/8:m e a1*6/8:m global = { \autoBeamOff \tempo 4. = 55 \time 6/8 \key a \dorian melodie = \relative c" { \global \partial8 a8 c4 d8 e8. fis16 e8 d4 h8 g8.(a16) h8 c4 a8 a8.(gis16) a8 h4 gis8 e4 a8 c4 d8 e8. fis16 e8 d4 h8 g8.(a16) h8 c8.(h16) a8 gis8.(fis16) gis8 a4 a8 a4 r8 g'4.g8.(fis16) e8 d4 h8 g8.(a16 h8) c4(a8) a8.(gis16) a8 h4 gis8 e4. g'4.g8. fis16 e8 d4 h8 g8.(a16) h8 c8. h16 a8 gis8.(fis16) gis8 a4. a4 \bar "\|." text = \lyricmode { A -- las, my lo -- ve, you do me wrong, to cast me off dis -- cour -- teous -- ly. For I have lo -- ved you well and long, de -- ligh -- ting in your com -- pa -- ny. Green -- sleeves was all my joy Green -- sleeves was my de -- light, Green -- sleeves was my heart of gold, and who but my la -- dy Greensleeves. \score { </score> A-las, mylove, youdo mewrong, Tocast me off dis-courteously. ForI haveloved youwell andlong, De-lightingin yourcompany. Greensleeves wasall myjoy Greensleeves wasmy delight, Greensleeves was myheart ofgold, Andwho but myladygreensleeves. A-las, mylove, thatyou shouldown Aheart of wantonvanity, Somust Imedi-tate a-lone Up-on yourinsin-cerity. Yourvows you'vebroken,like myheart, Oh,why did you so en-rapture me? NowI re-main in aworld a-part Butmy heart re-mains in cap-tivity. Ifyou in-tend thusto dis-dain, Itdoes the more en-rapture me, Andevenso, Istill re-main Aloverin cap-tivity. I've been readyat yourhand, Togrant whateveryou would crave;, Ihave bothwageredlife andland, Yourlove andgood-willfor to have. Thoucouldst de-sire noearthlything, Butstill thou hadst itreadily. Thymusicstill toplay andsing; Andyet thouwouldst notlove me. I bought theekerchiefsfor thyhead, Thatwere wrought fine andgallantly; Ikept theeat bothboard andbed, Which cost mypurse well-favoredly. I bought theepetticoatsof thebest, Thecloth so fine asit might be; I gave theejewelsfor thychest, Andall thiscost Ispent on thee. Thysmock ofsilk, bothfair andwhite, Withgold embroideredgorgeously; Thypetti-coat ofsendalright, Andthese Ibought theegladly. Mymen wereclothedall ingreen, Andthey did everwait on thee; Allthis wasgallantto beseen, Andyet thouwouldst notlove me. They set theeup, theytook theedown, Theyserved thee with hu-mility; Thy foot mightnot oncetouch theground, Andyet thouwouldst notlove me. 'Tis I willpray toGod onhigh, Thatthou my constancymayst see, Andthat yetonce be-fore Idie, Thouwilt vouchsafe tolove me. Ah, Greens-leeves, nowfarewell,adieu, ToGod I pray toprosper thee, For I amstill thylovertrue, Comeonce a-gain andlove me. Transcription. There are many variations of this song, including quite simple ones as a solo piece for the guitar. The chords in this version are based on a simple arrangement for the classical guitar. If the piece is too high (or too low), use a capo in the 5th fret. This would transpose the piece into D minor, and it may be easier to sing. Am = Dm; C = F; D = G; F = Bb; E = A Those who shy away from the Bb major can also transpose the piece to Em. This would correspond to a capo in the 7th fret. Am = Em; C = G; D = A; F = C; E = H7
415166	3264066	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415166	Professionalism/Google Employees and Project Maven	Google. Google is a California based tech company specializing in internet services. They focus on online advertising technologies, a search engine, and cloud computing. Google is considered to be one of the top 4 US based tech companies, often referred to as the Big Four, alongside Apple, Facebook, and Amazon. In 2019 Google earned $120 billion in revenue, an estimated 83% of this came from advertising. Google Employees. Google software developers earn exceptionally high salaries with college-grads earning an average total compensation of $180,418 according to crowdsourced data. This is almost double the national average salary for college grad software engineers of $99,917. Employees are also incentivized to stay at the company as perks such as stock awards take years to vest. Google employees have been known to protest for what they believe in such as a 2019 protest of unjust firings and the 2018 walkout over sexual harassment. Government Contracts Before Maven. Google has received $49 million in payments in contracts with federal agencies from 2008-2019. Most of theses contracts involved advertising services such as a $352,200 contract with the Department of Health and Human Services to place HealthCare.gov ads on third-party websites and Google search results. . Project Maven. The DOD's Problem. The Department of Defense (DOD) collects a large amount of full-motion video data every day. Military and civilian analysts had to manually analyze this data in support of counterinsurgency and counterterrorism operations, so the DOD needed a way to efficiently convert the data into actionable information. In addition to this data volume issue, the DOD’s recognition technology could only identify simple objects, such as cars and people, but not more complex situations such as those involved in the military. The Project. Project Maven, formally known as the “Algorithmic Warfare Cross-Function Team”, was launched in April, 2017. This was a project with the DOD exploring the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and object recognition in the battlefield. The project created a surveillance engine that uses wide area motion imagery data captured by government drones to autonomously detect objects of interest, track their motions, and relay results to the DOD. The system uses machine learning to continuously improve analyses and simplifies work for analysts by autonomously flagging objects in footage to be reviewed by analysts, rather than analysts manually examining all of the data themselves. These algorithms do not select targets or order strikes, however many concerns were voiced about the intentions and potential outcomes of the project and Google’s involvement. Opposition. In April, 2018, one year after Project Maven was launched, over 4,000 Google employees signed a letter to Google's CEO, Sundar Pichai, asking Google to withdraw from Project Maven. The letter included employees’ concerns that the U.S. military could weaponize the AI technology to refine drone strikes and other lethal attacks, suggesting that the project could contribute to drone warfare operations. This did not align with Google’s core values as a company and employees did not expect involvement in this work when joining Google. The contract would also not contribute a significant amount of revenue, only awarding Google $9 million, so many found that the potential damage to Google’s brand and decrease in public trust was not worth the risk. In June, 2018, two months later, Google announced their withdrawal from the project, deciding to not renew the contract when it would end in 2019. Support. Those in support of Google’s involvement in Project Maven argued that the U.S. needs to keep up with other countries in the AI arms race, as many other countries are developing AI-enabled military operations. Supporters also contended that someone would bring AI to warfare, it was just a matter of who did it. If Google did not, then the DOD would proceed even if it had to rely on lesser experts. As Google is known to have some of the most talented engineers, giving the contract to a less qualified company would lower the quality of the resulting product. The DOD's Initiatives. The DOD established two initiatives in response to Google’s withdrawal from and public concern with Project Maven. Ethical and Professional Considerations. Google employees expressed concern that involvement in Project Maven would hurt future recruitment efforts and paint the company in the same light as companies such as Palantir, Raytheon, and General Dynamics who are speculated to have participated in controversial business. Employees also acknowledged the argument that companies like Microsoft and Amazon participating in certain projects is reason enough for Google’s participation by stating that Google is set apart by its history, its ability to reach the lives of billions of users, and its motto “Don’t Be Evil” which has since been removed from the Code of Conduct. The employees believe that Google should not be involved in risky projects just because other firms are. Ethical Considerations. Employees were not too keen on the idea of participating in a project that would aid in military surveillance and voiced concern about the project being used in more offensive situations. Diane Greene, Google Cloud’s CEO, offered reassurance that the technology would not be used to do things such as launch weapons or operate drones. Employees were convinced that since it is military software there is no guarantee that it will not be used to assist in these tasks. Once the product is delivered, the engineers will have no say in its use. Professional Considerations. Employees were interested in preserving the trust that Google claims to value between itself and users, especially while there is growing fear of biased and weaponized Artificial Intelligence. They believe that Google has a responsibility to never jeopardize the trust that the users have in the company. If it is hard to maintain trust just because people have negative opinions on a subset of what the company does, it does not help to actively participate in things that would directly impact the trust that people have in the company. Controversial Drone Use. One of the employees’ issues was the potential for the technology to be used to operate or launch weapons and drones. There are many advocates of military drone use and there are also people who believe that it is a step too far. One concern is about the less than ideal accuracy and civilian casualties. While exact numbers of civilian casualties can not be determined, especially since the Trump administration overturned the required release of the US military’s annual report of civilian casualties from airstrikes , some would consider the civilian death ceiling for tolerable drone strikes very low. Another concern is the potential for drone strikes to cause more of the terrorism that they are supposed to be preventing. Disgruntled family members of victims of the strikes, or even people who are upset that their country has been attacked, may want to retaliate as illustrated with the “Times Square Bomber.” This creates a terrorist where there may not have been, but of course one could never know if that is the case. While some people think that the good outweighs the bad when it comes to drone use in the military, others may see any bad as a reason to not allow drones to be used. Lasting Impact. Project Maven Today. Palantir took over Project Maven in 2019 after Google did not renew the contract. Palantir's CEO, Alex Karp, and Palantir as an organization hold the belief that it's big tech's patriotic duty to do whatever the US government tells it. Peter Thiel, Palantir's founder, even states that "Google should be investigate by the FBI and CIA for the company seemingly treasonous decision to work with the Chinese military instead of the U.S. government." Palantir has worked on many government contracts in the past including creating ICE and CBP's surveillance networks and building software for police that circumvents the warrant process. Government Contracts After Maven. Current government defense contracts operate in an all-or-nothing fashion where companies must provide all services from a contract and cannot split the contract among multiple bidders. In 2018, Google decided to not bid on a $10 billion cloud contract called Joint Enterprise Defense Infrastructure(JEDI). This decision was made since Google could not be assured that the contract would align with their AI principals and only wished to provide services for part of the contract. A google spokesperson stated "Had the JEDI contract been open to multiple vendors, we would have submitted a compelling solution for portions of it,Google Cloud believes that a multi-cloud approach is in the best interest of government agencies, because it allows them to choose the right cloud for the right workload.” Google AI Principles. Since 2018, Google has maintained a list of ethical principles for AI projects. These principles serve as a guide for selection and execution of further contracts with Google. This list is divided into 2 categories: Objectives for AI applications and AI applications we will not pursue. More information can be found on Google's website. Conclusion. Google employees wanted Google to drop Project Maven for a few reasons that were outlined in their letter, but the general reason is that they felt Google should not be in the business of war. Despite containing signatures from only a small portion of employees, the content of the letter brings forth questions that need to be addressed when attempting to discern the morality of participation in a project for both the individual and the company. For some employees, Project Maven did not align with their ethical or professional values and they took steps to correct it. In this case, the employees provided a strong argument that most likely aided in Google’s decision to opt out of renewing the Project Maven contract.
415203	396820	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415203	Songbook/Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star	Melody. <score vorbis="1" midi="1"> \relative f' { \new PianoStaff « \new Staff { \time 2/4 \tempo "Alegretto" \key f \major f^\mf f \| <f c'>^\< <f c'> \| <f d'> <f d'> \| <f c'>2\! \| <e bes'>4 <e bes'>^\> \| <f a> <f a> \| <d g> <e g>\! \| f2 \| <f c'>4 <f c'> \| <e bes'> <e bes'> \| <c a'> <c a'> \| <c g'>2 \| <f c'>4 <f c'> \| <e bes'> <e bes'> \| <c a'> <c a'> \| <c g'>2^\> \| f4\!^\mf f \| <f c'> <f c'>^\cresc \| <f d'>\! <f d'> \| <f c'>2 \| <e bes'>4 <e bes'> \| <f a>^\dim <f a>\! \| <d g> <e g> \| 2 \| \addlyrics { \set stanza = #"1. " Twin -- kle, twin -- kle, lit -- tle star; How I won -- der what you are, Up a -- bove the world so high, Like a dia -- mond in the sky! Twin -- kle, twin -- kle, lit -- tle star; How I won -- der what you are! \addlyrics { \set stanza = #"2. " When the bla -- zing sun is gone, When he noth -- ing shines up -- on, Then you show your lit -- tle light, Twin -- kle, twin -- kle all the night. \new Staff { \clef "bass" \key f \major <f a>4 <f a> \| a a \| bes bes \| a2 \| g4 c, \| f d \| bes c \| <f a>2 \| a4 a \| g g \| f f \| e2 \| a4 a \| g g \| f f \| e(c) \| <f a>4 <f a> \| a a \| bes bes \| a2 \| g4 c, \| f d \| bes c \| f,2 \| </score> Source: , in: Albert Ernest Wier, "", New York : Mumil Publishing Co., Inc., 1918, p. . Text. <poem> TWINKLE, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are! Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky. When the blazing sun is gone, When he nothing shines upon, Then you show your little light, Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. Then the trav’ller in the dark, Thanks you for your tiny spark, He could not see which way to go, If you did not twinkle so. In the dark blue sky you keep, And often thro’ my curtains peep, For you never shut your eye, Till the sun is in the sky. ‘Tis your bright and tiny spark, Lights the trav’ller in the dark, Tho’ I know not what you are, Twinkle, twinkle, little star. </poem>
415223	3321643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415223	Professionalism/Data Ownership	In Correspondence with STS 4600 at the University of Virginia. Introduction. Personal data refers to information that relates to an identified or identifiable individual. Items that identify the individual could vary from their user account, their personal identifiers such as their name and address, or can be objects such as their IP address or cookie identifier. While almost any kind of data can be collected on a user, data collection is often protected and limited. Louise Matsakis, a technology editor from "Wired", writes that “health records, social security numbers, and banking details make up the most sensitive information stored online. Social media posts, location data, and search-engine queries may also be revealing but are also typically monetized in a way that, say, your credit card number is not.” "Data ownership refers to both the possession of and responsibility for information. Ownership implies power as well as control. The control of information includes not just the ability to access, create, modify, package, derive benefit from, sell or remove data, but also the right to assign these access privileges to others." Data is quickly becoming one of the most valuable resources on Earth. Because data is sourced by people, this introduces a host of ethical dilemmas regarding the ownership of personal data. People often unwittingly agree to terms that consent to the collection and sale of their personal data. These terms are generally presented in the form of fine-print terms and conditions statements or unassuming notifications from mobile apps asking to access information from your device. Once a data broker obtains a person's data, they generally do not allow the person any control over it; this raises ethical questions, especially if this data is sensitive and in cases where this data is breached. Legislation. In the United States, there is no general consumer privacy law at the federal level. Industry-focused laws exist, such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the finance-related Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA), but consumer data collected on the internet is largely left unregulated. California and Virginia are the only US states with any legislation requiring data brokers to provide people the option to opt-out of allowing the sale of their data. California. In California, a bill called the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) gives consumers rights over their collected data. The bill was signed into law on June 28, 2018, and gives Californians the rights to know what personal data is being collected and to whom it is being sold or disclosed. It also gives them the rights to delete their data and opt-out of the sale of their personal information, and provides protection from discrimination for exercising these rights. Virginia. Virginia enacted the Consumer Data Protection Act (CDPA) on March 2, 2021, becoming the second state to enact data privacy legislation. Similar to the CCPA, it allows consumers to access their data, delete their data, and determine who possesses their data. It also gives consumers the right to opt-out of the processing and sale of their data. The CDPA further requires companies to implement "reasonable" data security practices to protect consumer data, and limits the collection and use of this data only to what is "reasonably necessary." However, it differs from the CCPA in that it also allows consumers to correct errors in their personal data. Other States. Several other states have proposed similar data privacy bills, including New York, Maryland, Massachusetts, Hawaii, and North Dakota. These bills grant rights and protections similar to the CCPA and CDPA; however, they have yet to be passed. European Union. The EU has been improving privacy policy since 1995 when it implemented the Data Protection Directive. More recently, it enacted the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in May 2018 to implement protection and privacy with regard to personal data. It addresses transparency, constrains data usage and collection only to what is necessary, calls for reasonable security measures, and ensures that personal data can be corrected for accuracy, among numerous other principles. It also includes a limited version of the , known as the right of erasure; this right allows individuals to request their data be removed from search engines and other databases. However, this right can only be exercised if one of several possible conditions are met. There are two important court cases surrounding this right. Court Cases. In 2014 the Google Spain case set precedent for the right to be forgotten in the EU. The case arose when a Spanish man complained about an old newspaper article selling his repossessed property. The man felt that because his debts had since been resolved, it was unfair that this search result still appeared. The EU court ruled that the info should be deleted. Some claim deleting information, as seen in this example, is a form of censorship. A similar court case was heard between Google and a French privacy regulator in 2019 about the jurisdiction of the right to be forgotten. The EU court ruled that search results do not have to be deleted outside of the EU. Google implements this using its Geoblocking tool, which restricts access to search results based on the location that the search was performed. For instance, while 'forgotten' search results would be hidden within the EU, since the U.S. does not legally grant the right to be forgotten, the search result would still appear in the United States. Country Comparison. There is no single approach to data ownership and data privacy. Though the U.S. does not have a nationwide consumer privacy law analogous to the European Union's GDPR, individual states have started to take action, as seen in California and Virginia. Some see this as a step in the right direction, but issues remain. For example, in California, one can only opt-out of data sale, but not data collection. Thus, companies can still gather and leverage personal data, unless a specific request for deletion is submitted. Furthermore, since only two states have enacted data privacy laws, personal data is left largely unregulated in the United States. While some companies have decided to roll out nationwide changes in response to the laws in California and Virginia, others have not. China has a privacy law similar to the EU’s GDPR called the Personal Information Security Specification that was enacted in March 2018. However, there is tradeoff between privacy and surveillance. It is difficult to both maintain government access to citizen’s information while also protecting citizens from data usage by other parties. Handling issues of data ownership is not straightforward as there are many uncertainties and tradeoffs. Data as a Commodity. General. In today's digital age, data has irreplaceable value. The largest consumers of user data include Google and Facebook, followed by Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft. These big tech companies use data for obvious things such as tailored advertisements and understanding consumer behavior, but the primary application is providing data for input to artificial intelligence algorithms. When data is such a valuable commodity, the question of whether data producers should be paid for their contribution arises. In tech, what users give away for free is transformed into a precious commodity. It powers today’s most profitable companies. But the consumers it extracts data from often know little about the extent to which their information is being collected, who looks at it, and how much it is worth. In exchange for free use of their products, such as Google, Facebook, Youtube, users are paying with their data. Examples of How Data Became so Valuable. Popular music/video streaming platforms such as YouTube, Netflix, Spotify rely on the data they collect about a users interests on their platform. Netflix states, "our business is a subscription service model that offers personalized recommendations, to help you find shows and movies of interest to you. To do this we have created a proprietary, complex recommendations system." However your collected data can get complex. In addition to knowing what you have watched on Netflix, Netflix will also best personalize recommendations by looking at the time of day you are watching, the devices you are using, the duration of your watching, how other Netflix members with similar tastes use Netflix, information about the titles, such as their genre, director, actors, release year, etc. This is a common trend among streaming platforms, to collect as much data about users' usage habits and keep them as a customer for longer. Another common trend with the collection of user data, is the then selling of user data to third parties, done with user consent. However, often times users are not totally informed on what they are truly consenting to. 23andMe is a genetics startup from San Francisco. As of 2018, they had 5 million customers who sent samples of their spit to be analyzed to identify genetic changes at 700,000 different locations in their genomes. 23andMe does as promised, and delivers their analyzations and findings about your DNA. However, in order to use their services, users have to give consent for 23andMe's use of their data in medical research, which is not apart of the product that the user will ever see. "Giving consent by checking the appropriate box below means that you agree to let 23andMe researchers use your Genetic & Self-Reported Information for 23andMe Research." So in 2018, a London based drug giant, GlaxoSmithKline, partnered with 23andMe to develop new medicines. Part of the deal entailed GlaxoSmithKline making a $300 million investment in 23AndMe. These two examples provide detail on how your personal data is the true commodity that companies are seeking. From a business ethics perspective, companies need to find more effective ways to inform customers about the types of data being collected on them. Similarly, customers need to be better educated about how valuable their personal data truly is, and how it is largely generating money for the companies. In both of the above examples, it is important to note that the user is not necessarily directly harmed through their data collection. However, there is a professional ethical dilemma with not being totally transparent about how personal data is used. Even further, while this personal data is being collected, a data breach/attack can put sensitive information on users under threat. Later in this chapter, professional ethics perspectives on data ownership will be explored. Data Brokers. Data brokers are entities that collect and sell data. Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, there has been a high demand for highly accurate identification of individuals through data and data brokers such as LexisNexis, Axciom, and Experian have been able to fill this demand through the collection of highly personal information from millions of people. The ways in which data brokers collect data are numerous and include public records, internet scraping, as well as getting people to opt-in to their data collection schemes through terms and conditions statements. Some of the data collected could be subject to federal law, but the lack of regulation of data brokers in the US allows data brokers to buy and sell the information anyway. Once a data broker has someone's information, it is nearly impossible for them to regain control of their data. As mentioned previously, some states have begun legislation to fix this problem Data Privacy and Security. Data Protection. The possession of large quantities of consumer data have become increasingly valuable to those who know how to use it. For companies, big data can be processed and analyzed to lead smarter business moves, promote more efficient operations, and yield higher profits from satisfied customers. However, when placed in the wrong hands from cyberattacks, sensitive data can be used for malicious behavior. The management of data privacy protection has become increasingly complex due to the ubiquity of the information-intensive environment and the multidirectional demand of stakeholders and clients. Companies dealing with the use and distribution of personal data must implement plans to ensure the implementation and compliancy of data privacy policies, standards, guidelines and processes. A systematic approach used in navigating data security is understanding what kind of data the company has, tracking how company data is stored and transferred, and conducting regularly scheduled risk assessments. Some fear that the over-complexity of current data protection practices may expose vulnerabilities and weaknesses as data spreads across more platforms, both on-premise and in the cloud. Cyberattacks and Data Breaches. Data breaches occur from cyberattacks, or the unauthorized access of a computer system or network, and involve the leak of confidential/sensitive company data. A data breach can have expensive short-term impacts on companies in all industries, costing business on average $3.86 million per breach and $148 per lost or stolen record. On top of that, companies are obligated to perform forensic investigations to assess what information was stolen and where the vulnerability in the data security infrastructure. Long term effects include the loss of customer trust as the company's reputation diminishes from the breach. Studies found that 85% of customers won't shop at businesses that have data security concerns and 69% of customers would avoid a company that suffered a data breach. Case Studies. Data Collection Freedom for Data Brokers. The lack of legislation regulating data brokers means that there is little to dictate how data brokers go about collecting data. Some data is free to collect, such as public webpages or public records. Other, often times more personal, data is not however, and so data brokers have developed processes to getting users to unwittingly agree to terms. An example of this is X-Mode, which is a data broker that collects location data from people's smartphones through software embedded into mobile apps. when a user downloads an app running X-Mode's software, the app prompts the user to allow it to use the device's location data without any further information. Many users will allow the app to use the data because they want to be able to in-app features. However, what is unknown to the user is that their location is now being tracked, and that data sold by X-Mode. This lack of transparency in the X-Mode process can be contrasted with that of 23andMe. Where X-Mode's approach doesn't informs user about their data usage, 23andMe tells used exactly who wants to use their data, and how and why they want to use it. Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal. In 2014, about 270,000 users were paid to take a personality survey through an app which scraped their Facebook profiles. They consented to the collection given it was for academic use by Cambridge University’s Psychometrics Center. Aleksander Kogan, a professor at the University, was hired by Cambridge Analytica to create this app. The app used Facebook's Open Graph platform, which at the time, also gave access to all of the participants' friends' information. The acquired data included names, birthdays, likes, and location information, all of which were both sensitive and valuable information. In this way, approximately 87 million Facebook users' data was obtained by Cambridge Analytica, 99.7% of whom did not consent. Within the next year Facebook learned that the data was being used by Cambridge Analytica to aid Ted Cruz's presidential campaign. They removed Dr. Kogan's app from the site and demanded that Cambridge Analytica delete the data. According to Facebook, Cambridge Analytica confirmed that the data was deleted. However, in 2016 the company was hired by the Trump 2016 Presidential Campaign to provide tools for identifying personalities of American voters and targeting advertisements to influence their behavior. The scandal exploded in 2018 when whistleblower Christopher Wylie exposed Cambridge Analytica’s misuse of Facebook data, including that it was not in fact deleted. In the words of Mark Zuckerburg when he testified to Congress: “When we heard back from Cambridge Analytica that they had told us that they weren’t using the data and deleted it, we considered it a closed case. In retrospect, that was clearly a mistake.” Facebook also suspended Cambridge Analytica from the site at this time. Interestingly, Facebook claimed this was not a data breach. Facebook VP and Deputy General Counsel Paul Grewal stated in 2018: "The claim that this is a data breach is completely false... People knowingly provided their information, no systems were infiltrated, and no passwords or sensitive pieces of information were stolen or hacked." Facebook routinely allows researchers to collect user data for academic purposes, as Dr. Kogan's app did. However, Kogan broke the rules when he sold the data to Cambridge Analytica, a commercial third party. Christopher Wylie. According to Wylie, as a Cambridge Analytica employee heavily involved in the project, he had witnessed their "corruption and moral disregard" firsthand. . He admitted that the project's massive scale was exciting at first: "We had done it. We had reconstructed tens of millions of Americans inside of a computer... I was proud that we had created something so powerful." However, after realizing the unethical nature in which the data was obtained and seeing how it was being applied, Wylie broke free from this state of acclimatization. He said "the office culture seemed to be clouding my judgment" and that it was easy to "lose sight of what I was actually involved in" while simply "staring at a screen." After experiencing this wake-up-call, he came forward as a whistleblower. Lessons. Christopher Wylie demonstrated the obligation of the professional to speak out against unethical practices. As an ex-employee, Wylie faced immense pressure when speaking out, but was ultimately motivated by professional responsibility and duty to bring these issues to light. Wylie's experiences demonstrate that it can be easy to fall victim to acclimatization with regard to malpractice in the workplace; however, by taking a step back and considering the impact on consumers' lives, newfound clarity can be achieved. Though the massive amount of personal data initially showed promise for advancing psychological profiling technology, Wylie eventually realized that the unethical procurement and usage of the data was too great a cost (see Data Ownership vs. Data Processing). The end does not always justify the means, in cases of data ownership and professional ethics as a whole. For more information, see . Ethical Implications and Further Work. Consent. In any study that uses participants to gather data, the participants must give informed consent. For a participant to give informed consent, they must be informed of all relevant information including how the data will be used, they must understand that information, they must participate voluntarily, and they must have the capacity to make a decision about whether to participate. The EU's GDPR is the most comprehensive regulator of online data in that whenever a company collects personal data from a citizen, it requires explicit and informed consent by that person in the form of opting in to the data collection. However, the case studies presented above exemplify that this practice is nowhere near ubiquitous. Data collection policies hidden inside terms and conditions and apps that do not disclose the true uses of collected data do not satisfy the requirements for informed consent. The US and the rest of the world would need stronger regulation on data harvesting in order to protect the individual rights of online users. Data Ownership vs. Data Processing. Should companies focus on using data to advance technologies or should consumer data be kept private to avoid misuse? Accessibility in large amounts of data has allowed us to improve on pre-existing technologies and develop new technological fields like machine learning (ML). However, the availability of all this information can lead to selfish and ill-intentioned actions. While Facebook collected data from their users for their efforts of improving their consumer's experience on the platform, their data was eventually misused. The Cambridge Analytica Scandal, referenced above, is a good example of how data was shared without consent and how this data was then used to influence the 2016 election. However, there's no reason that data like this could not be used for benevolent reasons. Companies have banks of their users personal data. Their is a professional expectation that the company use the data in an ethical manner and transparently. However, as in the Facebook example, the data was thought to be terminated, but instead it lived on and was eventually used to manipulate political campaigns without the users' knowledge. Individual Rights vs. The Common Good. At what point does serving the common good start limiting personal liberties? Data-driven solutions rely on utilizing as much data as possible to improve results, but what if obtaining the data is not easily accessible? Similarly, what if obtaining the data is puts the consumer's data at risk? A good example of this is medical data. Medical data collected could produce advancements in science and medicine, but how is that balanced with an individual’s right to privacy of personal information? We’ve seen this recently surrounding the COVID-19 crisis. Contract-tracing is tracking who has a disease and who those people have been near. This is a crucial tool to limit the spread of an outbreak. The system uses your phone's Bluetooth to anonymously track who you have been in close proximity to, as long as they also use the system. It is built off of data collection. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Google and Apple worked together to add coronavirus tracing to Android and iOS, the two most important mobile operating systems. Recently revealed in April 2021, the Android version exposure notification app had a privacy flaw that let other preinstalled apps potentially see the sensitive data that is if someone had been in contact with a person who tested positive for COVID-19. Google immediately worked on rolling out a fix to this bug, however, had the vulnerability never been found, members of the contact tracing app are left vulnerable. This contradicts the promise of contact tracing apps to keep data anonymized and secured. Serge Egelman, the CTO of AppCensus, which reported the vulnerability to Google, stated that "the lesson here is that getting privacy right is really hard, vulnerabilities will always be discovered in systems, but that it’s in everyone’s interest to work together to remediate these issues." Transparency vs. Accessibility. Should companies be able to sell user data collected without being transparent about it's collection? In the section above, this is discussed in relationship to the company X-Mode. Companies are able to keep cost of their services low or free by selling user data (location data in the case of X-Mode) without really being clear about doing so. Should users have a choice in this? Such as, shoulda user be able to choose to pay for an app rather than sharing location or other data? Such as in the previously mentioned 23andMe case, users are forced to consent to the sell of their saliva samples/data for medical research. But, has 23andMe considered the selling their product as is, but allowing the user to opt into the medical research program by choice. If so, perhaps their wouldn't be enough users opting into the program, and thus 23andMe is losing revenue. At the end of the day there are good arguments for handling data ownership problems a variety of different ways. These questions are important to consider, especially as new legislation begins to arise around data ownership and privacy. Further Work. The subject of data ownership is broad and covers an extensive list of ethical dilemmas and relevant case studies. This chapter can also include ethical assessments on how personal data should be properly used in tech fields of blockchain, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML). A topic to explore is also the lifespan of personal data, such as how and when it should be properly disposed of, and do users know how long their data is being used for?
415224	1891326	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415224	Scribbling On Regardless/Making Stickers	Fun & easy stickers using simple materials! Instructions. Watch our video for a step-by-step guide Next Project. Making a Shrinkie Previous Project. 3 colour drawing
415236	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415236	English-Hanzi/You need to pay attention to the eating amount	You need to pay attention to the eating amount and replace it with wholegrain food if possible. The more food you eat, the more sugar you absorb. 您需要注意饮食量，并尽可能用全麦食品代替。您吃的食物越多，吸收的糖就越多。
415241	3424790	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415241	Making a Programming Language From Scratch	Introduction. This book covers the art of language creation. Making a language is a sophisticated task; however, simple languages can be made by transpiling to other higher level languages and by using lexing and parsing packages such as Bison or Flex. This book does not cover this. It demonstrates the creation of languages from nothing at all, as most commercial languages are. Here, the basic algorithms for conversion, assembly language equivalents for some common statements, the advantages and disadvantages of each type of compilation method, basic lexing and parsing are demonstrated. Note that this book assumes that you have at least a moderate understanding of x86 assembly and can write programs in a language. Keep in mind that language creation is an exhaustive process, and thus will require many days of hard labor to create.
415253	49843	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415253	Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies/Online Learning Communities	< Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies. = Part IV: Environments and Tools: Online Learning Communities = Introduction. This section of Web 2.0 will discuss Online learning communities and collaborative learning within those online learning communities. Hiltz (1997) defines collaborative learning as a learning process that emphasizes groups of cooperative efforts among faculty and students. As we look further into collaborative learning within the context of online learning communities. Using online platforms to facilitate discussion and collaboration among students is not a new idea, but tools techniques and research is continuing to evolve in this area. Many instructors have been using tools such as wikis, blogs, Google Docs, and forums to facilitate discussions between students and promote collaboration outside of class hours and assignments. Web 2.0 moves students from being consumers of websites and educational content to being active participants, creators, and contributors in the online educational community. By using platforms that allow for creation, tagging, sharing,and remixing of content students and student groups are invited to become active participants and move towards the mind set of “we participate, therefore we are.” Categories of Online Learning Communities. On January 16, 2001 Wikipedia started a new era of discovering information and resources pertaining to any interest or inquiry. This new form of information seeking and knowledge building created a wave of web-based forms of learning. Years later, web-based forms of learning are among the most popular and well utilized tools in information discovery (Bonk, 2016). Wikipedia defines "online learning communities" as groups that interact and connect solely through some means of mobile technology and "blended learning communities" as groups that utilize face-to-face meetings as well as online meetings to engage in educational interactions. There are a vast range of different types of learning that can occur when engaging in online learning communities. Specifically, we are focusing on online communities that support informal web-based collaborative learning. Informal Online learning. Referring to research surrounding Informal and Self-Directed Online Learning Environments an analysis of 305 informal learning websites was conducted by the “Self-Directed Online Learning Environments (SOLE) Research Team” at Indiana University (IU) (Kim et al., 2014). From this analysis we chose the following the characteristics to define categories of informal online learning (Bonk, 2016). Please note that many informal online learning communities will fall in more than one category. Technological supported language learning resources that integrate sound, voice interaction, text, video, and animation. This category supports real-time interactive learning without being restricted by a physical place and time. Outdoor and adventure learning are hybrids of online educational environments where students have opportunities to explore real-world concepts, issues, and topics through an authentic learning experiences within online collaborative learning structures. Often including inquiry-based learning including teamwork, authentic data analysis, and project-based learning to support engagement and interaction. Social change/global resources are communities that aim to educate and inform people about issues and needs. This often creates innovative ways to spread social good and access to learning worldwide. It is also used to empower and inspire people involved in the community. Virtual education refers to online learning environments where teachers and students are not necessarily within the same space or time. The content is provided through course management applications as well as various multimedia and Web 2.0 tools. Virtual education may be managed by organizations and institutions that have been created through alliances and partnerships to facilitate teaching and learning. Many virtual education websites provide tools for both the learner and educator. Learning portals are allocated learning centers that contain educational information on a topic that supports the user and context learning. Information can be obtained based on interest, time, and space of the individual. This information is often current or continually updated. Shared online video includes any educational video (uploaded content and live streaming) that can be watched or shared. Some content is provided in professional contexts while other can be simply home-made. These sites often allow for interaction via comments and messaging. Additionally, videos can allow for downloading of content. Examples of Emerging Online Communities. Flipgrid. Introduction Discussions are an important pedagogical tool in today’s online coursework. The benefits for discussions range from promoting critical-thinking and reflection to being useful for engaging all students in course content in a different way. Online discussions that are solely text based are not effective for all students. This type of online discussion often lacks the personal connection that is present when in a classroom based discussion. One tool developed to build online learning communities that is becoming increasingly popular is Flipgrid. When integrating Flipgrid into discussion, students can have online discussions using the short video format which promotes the feeling of in person interaction through online discourse. Flipgrid is a free platform for educators designed for students and teachers to engage in recorder conversations which include video and audio. Flipgrid is a web-based application that includes an app for mobile use as well. There are two important terms to remember when talking about Flipgrid, the “Grid” and the “Topic.” The grid is where an educator can create their course and holds the discussions for that course. Topics are nested inside the grid and they are the grouped discussions, often separated by questions or topic areas. Within the topics student responses are threaded. Creating Grids and Topics When educators are moving to implement Flipgrid into the education experience, they create a free account, and then add a grid using the ‘Add New Grid’ button. With each grid the educator can name the grid and then choose the type of grid they are creating, which is really asking about how people will be able to access the grid they are creating. Then educators will be able to select the flip code hyperlink to share with students so they can join the newly created grid. Two additional methods are available for students to join the grid, QR code and an embed code for adding to a website. After the creation of the grid the next step is the topic. One feature included in creating topics that is advantageous to educators is the ability to create many topics ahead of time, and having a separate function to share those topics with students. Topics are always titled and can have a text prompt or question added. The option focus feature allows educators to add media resources from many embedded tools including: YouTube Vimeo, Nearpod, Wonderopolis, Giphy, Newslea, Wakelet, and more. When creating a topic there are extended features that can help educators gain feedback on student responses, as well as indicate how students can interact and respond to a topic. Ideas for Engagement As Flipgrid continues to grow, their team continues to add new features that engage students and foster the learning community. Some of these ideas are discussed below: Scratch. Scratch is a free online web based program that allows users to learn to think creatively, reason systematically, and work collaboratively. Scratch is a platform where students can share interactive projects, learn important computational concepts, how to think creatively, reasoning systematically, and work collaboratively. Scratch is used in more than 150 different countries and available in more than 40 languages. Scratch is specifically designed for students ages 8 to 16, but is used by people of all ages. In Scratch students are able to learn at all levels, from elementary school to college as well as learn at levels across all disciplines, such as math, computer science, language arts and social studies. Scratch is a project of the Lifelong Kindergarten Group at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Media Lab. The MIT Scratch Team and collaborators are researching how people use and learn with Scratch . Educators can request a Scratch Teacher Account, which makes it easier to create accounts for groups of students and to manage your students’ projects and comments. Personalization: People learn best, and enjoy most, when working on personally meaningful projects. Scratch offers students the power of personalization. Scratch has been designed with features that allow users to personalize their projects by importing photos and music clips, recording voices, and creating graphics. The Scratch platform personalizes the development experience by making it easy for students to add personalized content and actively participate in the development process. Students are able to create projects that have personal meaning by adding their own pictures and their own voices. Community: Millions of people create Scratch projects in a wide variety of settings, including homes, schools, museums, libraries, and community centers. Using block-based coding language users create interactive stories, games, and animations that students can share with others in class or in the online community. This online community allows real-time connections to share and collaborate with millions of users. A popular means of interaction is remixing each other's projects. Students have the capability to modify another student's projects, typically keeping some form of the original content. Remixing another student's work does not affect the original project but instead creates a web connecting the videos for all users to see. Students are also able to connect with other peers through comments on projects and messaging. Additionally, educators can share stories, exchange resources, ask questions, and find people on the ScratchEd website. Prodigy. Prodigy is a free web-based, adaptive math game that integrates common-core math into a fantasy style interactive .game-based learning a step further. Prodigy provides teachers with a powerful reporting and assessment tools that allows easily identified trouble spots, dynamic instruction, and management of classroom supported activities. There are over 1200 crucial mathematical pedagogies and practices embedded in Prodigy. These practices are aligned with the Common Core State Standards for Grades 1- 8. Educators can inform their classrooms with 24/7 reporting. Everything students work on in Prodigy is reported back to the instructor in real-time Prodigy allows educators to address students' individual needs with a diagnostic test that places students in the appropriate grade, embedded with assessments, and automatic differentiation. Prodigy also ensures that students succeed at their own pace. Prodigy supports collaborative learning by creating content that delivers instruction through small groups that empower students to work together to build their understanding of topics and concepts. Adapted from Marcus Guido(2017), here are five aspects of cooperative learning that drive Prodigy's success in collaborative learning : These aspects work slightly differently depending on which type of cooperative learning you use. Tips for Facilitating Collaborative Learning Activities in Online Learning Communities. When introducing collaborative learning activities into online learning communities educators should think about how they can facilitate discussions that help students dig deeper. Collaborative learning stresses active participation and interaction on the part of both students and instructors (Hiltz, 1997). In Clark (2011) Online learning environments and communities are defined as distinct, pedagogically meaningful and comprehensive where learners and educators participate in the learning process whenever and wherever they please. When a group does not physically meet at a fixed location and interval this can make collaboration more difficult. The following methods that can be used to facilitate collaboration in Online Learning Communities below are adapted from Clark (2011): Specific Examples of Activities. Informal Cooperative Learning Strategies. Informal cooperative learning strategies involve creating groups that work together to achieve a common and straightforward learning goal. This strategy can be between a few minutes to an entire class. Instructors should provide clear instruction and assign the completion of a product in forms as a written or spoken answer. "Here are two strategies to try:" Use the Jigsaw Method The jigsaw method encourages social interaction between different groups as well as the whole class, this is a very popular technique among many teachers. The method consists of dividing a task into subtasks for each individual as well as assigning one to each group member. Students then work in groups to play the role of experts by analyzing guided research, or holding discussions with students from other groups handling the task. They then return to their original groups to share new knowledge. This approach teaches students how important individual contributions are to meeting group goals. Give a Pre- and Post-Task Test One of the best ways to gauge how well groups are doing is to give each student a test before and after working together. For example, students can complete a short quiz focusing on a specific learning goal. Then students should get into groups and engage in chosen methods of online learning, focusing on those skills and the overarching topic. After, give a similar quiz of equal difficulty. Hopefully, students should improve on testing scores. If not, consider spending more time with struggling base groups or rearranging groups altogether, giving insight as to what successful and unsuccessful teams are doing differently. The Future of Online Learning Communities. Looking to the future of online learning communities, much is being done in the fields of Virtual Reality(VR), Augmented Reality(AR), and Artificial Intelligence (AI), that can support the collaborative experience of learning online. It is expected that artificial intelligence in U.S. education will grow by 47.5% from 2017-2021 according to the Artificial Intelligence Market in the US Education Sector report (Marr,2018). AI technology is still developing especially within the context of education, with the aim for AI to allow students and teachers to do more than ever before, including the following: Education is starting to adopt technology and tools now more than ever before. Looking to the future of online learning communities the limits are endless and collaboration is being fostered through ways in which education researchers of the past only imagined. Conclusion. Online learning Communities offer affordances that have continued to transform the expectations of what learners learn and as well as how learners learn. Unfortunately, traditional classroom settings attempt to harness these present-day expectations to aid learning with stagnant tools. Online learning Communities are learning tools that have the capability to bridge, transform, and innovate physically and virtually any learning environment. Instructors are encouraged to incorporate forms blended learning and collaboration to assess knowledge and perceptions built by the learners and their online learning environments.
415262	3371989	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415262	Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and The Internet of Things	Introduction. The term "Internet-of-Things" is used as an umbrella term for various aspects related to the physical extension of the Internet and the Web through the widespread deployment of spatially distributed devices with embedded identification, sensing, and/or actuation capabilities. The large scale of IoT systems and the high level of heterogeneity are likely to increase the security risks posed by the current Internet, which is being used to enable interactions between humans, machines, and robots in any combination. In this section, we will cover the Internet of Things and privacy problems related to IOT, as well as some of the most common concerns with appropriate examples. We will also discuss a scenario in which IoT became a security and privacy liability for users. As previously stated, this chapter focuses mostly on privacy issues with IoT, thus you may notice that we emphasize privacy rather than security in the next parts. Privacy in IoT Devices. An IoT system can be thought of as a group of intelligent devices working together to achieve a shared objective. Depending on their target, IoT installations may use different processing and communication architectures, technologies, and design techniques at the technological level. Because of their low computational capacity, traditional security countermeasures and privacy enforcement cannot be effectively applied to IoT technologies; also, the large number of networked devices poses scaling concerns. At the same time, valid security, privacy, and trust models suitable for IoT applications must be defined in order to achieve full user approval. Since devices may handle sensitive information, data protection and user personal information confidentiality must be guaranteed when it comes to privacy regulations. Individuals' understanding and perception of information privacy differ, and its enforcement necessitates efforts from both government and technology. In an IoT system, data is typically collected by end devices, transferred through communication networks, evaluated by local/remote servers, and finally given to various applications. As a result, confidential data must be safeguarded at all stages of the architecture stack. In this instance, implementing appropriate privacy design strategies based on the functions of the layers in the data lifecycle is crucial. Techniques implemented at a specific layer may become insufficient or redundant otherwise. Because of its close relationship with the actual world, IoT technology should be designed to be secure and privacy-preserving. This means that security should be seen as a critical system-level attribute and should be considered while designing architectures and procedures for IoT solutions. Privacy governs the conditions under which data pertaining to specific users may be accessed. The key reasons for privacy being a core IoT need are the envisioned IoT application domains and the technologies deployed. Healthcare applications are the most notable application field, with the adoption of IoT technology hampered by a lack of acceptable systems for preserving the privacy of personal and/or sensitive information. This is expected to be a critical prerequisite for securing user acceptability and widespread adoption of the technology. Without guarantees of system-level secrecy, authenticity, and privacy, it is unlikely that critical stakeholders will adopt IoT solutions on a significant scale. The widespread use of wireless media for data exchange may raise new concerns about privacy violations. Because of their remote access capabilities, wireless channels raise the danger of violation, potentially exposing the system to eavesdropping and fraudulent attacks. As a result, privacy is a serious open problem that may stifle IoT development. The development of real ways for constructing privacy-preserving mechanisms for IoT applications continues to pose various challenges. The definition of a general model capable of representing all IoT essential items and their interactions would aid the development of concrete implementations. Furthermore, the implementations should contain enforcement mechanisms capable of dealing with the volume and dynamic nature of IoT scenarios. To meet these needs, systems that can enforce dynamic data stream access control should be offered. Common Concerns Relating to IOT and Privacy. Collection of Private Data. The gathering and sharing of individual data without the user's consent is one of the greatest privacy issues with IoT. Numerous IoT devices gather enormous volumes of data, which may reveal sensitive information about a person's interests, lifestyle, and habits. Smart thermostats, door locks, and security cameras are examples of smart home appliances that monitor people's daily activities, sleeping patterns, and home entry and exit times. Data Security. Another issue is that IoT devices collect and store sensitive data, which can lead to vulnerabilities and privacy risks. As an example, in the event that a smart home device is breached, a hacker might approach essentially everything in a smart home including smartphones, TVs, cameras, and other smart devices. Lack of control. The absence of user control over their data is one of the most serious privacy concerns with IoT. Devices can gather and send data without the users' knowledge or capacity to regulate what data is collected or transferred. Smart home and fitness trackers, for example, collect data on users' everyday activities and transfer it to third-party firms without their knowledge or agreement. Third-party sharing. The enormous measure of Data created by IoT devices is routinely shared to third parties without the user consent, raising serious privacy concerns and the risk of data breaches, identity theft, and other privacy violations. In 2019, for example, researchers revealed that Amazon's Ring doorbell, an IoT device, was sharing customers' personal information with third-party analytics organizations without their knowledge. Demonstrations of IoT privacy Issues. Most consumers are aware of phishing emails and links that might infect their phones when they are activated, but few are concerned about their televisions. Since the CIA supplied their engineers with documentation in 2014 that includes an attack on Samsung F-series smart TVs, smart TVs have been demonstrated to be hackable. According to the CIA documents, the exact vulnerability requires a person to have access to the smart TV to connect to a USB drive and dump the information saved in the television, as well as download malicious programs that contain key-loggers, visual controls, and audio controls. The previously mentioned capabilities of malicious software can be utilized to successfully spy on individuals; after all, the television screen is the largest screen and camera view in most homes. Years later, in Defcon27, an independent security researcher by the name of Pedro Cabrera showed how to hack a smart TV using a more sophisticated technique. Cabrera hijacked the TV network provider's signal with a drone equipped with an antenna and a laptop, causing the smart television to podcast whatever Cabrera desired. Cabrera claims that as long as the signal from his drone antenna is greater than the signal from the network provider, he can hijack the signal and gain access to the targeted smart television. Placing the drone near the TV, whether on the rooftop or near a window, is an easy approach to boost the signal from the drone antenna. As the drone gets closer to the target house the signal for the drone antenna increases. In addition, many users have become aware in recent years that most gadgets and organizations do not request passwords over the phone or email. However, because most people buy smart televisions for improved quality rather than advanced technological capabilities, they are unaware that televisions, like phones and computers, should be kept with care. Another hack that tackles this issue was demonstrated in Defcon27 by Cabrera, who demonstrated how he can make a popup window appear on the TV asking the user to re-enter the WIFI credentials because the service provider has made an update. The fact that the feed stops and the user cannot continue watching unless they submit the information asked by the hacker make this popup window appear real. Conclusion. It is important to keep up with adequate security and protection norms to guarantee the real expansion of IoT services. The Internet of Things (IoT) has various security and information assurance challenges. IoT device data gathering, data security, lack of user control, and third-party sharing issues pose severe threats to individuals' privacy rights. Policymakers, organizations, and buyers should resolve these issues to guarantee that IoT devices are made and utilized in a way that respects individuals' protection and autonomy. Only by carefully considering the privacy implications of IoT can we fully realize the transformational promise of this technology while protecting fundamental human rights.
415269	46022	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415269	Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Social Networking sites	Introduction. Our personal information is more susceptible than ever in the era of social media. Privacy has grown to be a top issue for consumers as social networking services gain more and more traction. Although these websites provide users the opportunity to share private information with a big audience, they also put them at risk of identity theft, cyberbullying, and other online dangers. The subject of privacy on social networking sites has emerged as being crucial in this context. The purpose of this introduction is to discuss the difficulties users have in maintaining their users' privacy on social networking sites. Social media alludes to websites and applications that are designed to allow people to share content quickly, efficiently and in real-time. It can also be said that social media are apps on smartphones or tablets, but the truth is, this communication platform started with the use of internet in computers. It started with just being part of groups, and went on to online chat rooms to fully functional websites and apps that people use to share videos, pictures and thoughts, marketing, dating as well as influencing others. So then arises the question of what is the difference between social media and social network? Social media means the content that one posts online. It could be a blog, slideshow, podcast etc. Whereas social networking site is the medium via which a person can create relationships, communities, followers etc. Furthermore, one can also say that social networking is just a subset of social media. History. A look into the background can help widen the horizon for understanding how social media got so relevant in the first place. Backing up all the way to 1978, BBS was created which is Bulletin Board System accessible via dial up model and was used primarily for communities which had specific interests. Next came along CompuServe which became popular where people could share files, access new and other events. They could interact via email. AOL and Yahoo Groups in 1994 was the very first originator to social networking sites, where one could be part of communities and the members had a profile. Fast forwarding to 2002, where came Friendster, which encouraged people to bond with common interests. Also, in the same year, LinkedIn launched with an aim of career networking but did not gain much traction until 2010. In 2003, Myspace came into existence , where youngsters could see each other's activity as long as they were part of each other's networks. In 2004, came the biggest game changer and that is Facebook which connected people with their friends and a lot of other features that were enabled along with posting videos, pictures and content sharing among friends and also other people who could search you online. Then came in 2005, YouTube which was exclusively a video upload and sharing platform and still is the number 1. In 2006, Twitter came into existence which limited interactions in the form of comments and posting tweets. Instagram made its debut in 2010 with the focus of being the sole photo sharing/editing app and then came Snapchat in 2011 which allowed to share moments with friends. As one can see this is how social media started gaining momentum and with different websites/apps offering unique features on their platform it became essential for every youngster/general public to become a part of this to keep up with the times and stay connected to everyone as much possible. Social networking sites which are the most popular today are Facebook, Messenger ,Instagram, Snapchat ,Twitter, Whatsapp and TikTok. That being said, the advent of social networks brought on a host of various concerns and the biggest concern for social media is privacy. But for a long time, very few people were actually aware of privacy. In fact , since it was so new and the young generation as well as the older ones who got connected to a lot of acquaintance and new friends, they did not realize that their conversations in a lot of social network platforms could be viewed by other people as well. That is just the way the social network platform algorithms were built that allowed people outside of connections to view content and also follow/stalk other people including the activities of a person on that particular social networking site. According to a 2014 survey, 91% of Americans “agree” or “strongly agree” that "people felt that they lost control over how personal information is collected and used by all kinds of institutions". 80% of social media users said they were uneasy about advertisers and organizations having a way to use the data that was posted on social media platforms and 64% were of the opinion that government should be more proactive on data handling, as this data was being used by marketers. Social networking sites continue to be a worry despite continued attempts to resolve privacy issues. A significant incident involving the political consulting firm Cambridge Analytica, which illegally stole data on millions of Facebook users, impacted Facebook in 2018. It is expected that new methods for defending user privacy and making sure their personal data is protected online will emerge as technology advances. Overall, social networking sites continue to play a big role in our lives, but privacy protection is still a top priority when using them. Individual privacy as a concept. In an independent study, according to CPO magazine it was found that the privacy cannot be completely possible as friends always make it a likelihood of sharing the user's information to other people outside the network as well. There is also something known as a concept of choice of individual privacy that is completely dependent on an individual as to how much information they want to share with the world. Looking at the above statement, an advocate of the individual privacy will say that one cannot completely obscure information from everybody. So, it is better to not put it online at all. Some who do not agree with it say that one should not expect privacy to be a big factor if they are sharing personal information on social media as they are doing it by choice and leave it to be viewed by friends and those who wish to see their information. Privacy concerns. In today's digital environment, privacy concerns with regard to social media are a big problem. Here are a few instances: Privacy Settings of Major Platforms. These settings are built in a way that if a user is not vigilant, they might end up sharing not only their personal data but also their activity unintentionally to companies and other third party who are always looking towards improving their own websites accessibility and marketing. Location Stealing. Enabling GPS location of the user's taking the data from the cell phone, this "can be used to build up a picture of your everyday movements. Location data can be coupled with other data and aggregated to create a very specific picture of an individual’s life and habits". This also encourages stalking and can also be used for nefarious purposes other than the invasion of privacy. Identity Theft. Hacking can lead to stealing a user's identity and can also ruin a person's reputation and image in front of their friends and followers if wrong things are posted online and different kinds of malicious acts are committed from their accounts ,which include stealing credit card numbers, bank account numbers and login passwords. Abuse. Creating fake profiles, trying to seduce younger teenagers and luring them out to physically abuse them or emotionally blackmail either them or the people that are known to each other can go on indefinitely until reported. Especially if intimate pictures/videos/audios are leaked online by the perpetrators. Stalking. Not only the location can be tracked , if enabled on the phone by a potential stalker, they could be also keeping eyes on the target's move every time of the day. This helps the lurkers to actually judge and try to know the person based on their target's online activity and then maybe plan their own moves accordingly to harm their target or kidnap them or worse. Cyberbullying and harassment. People can be bullied and harassed online, frequently in an anonymous manner, via social media platforms. This may adversely affect a person's mental health and general wellbeing. Deepfake Technology. Deepfake technology allows for the creation of fake pictures and videos that may be used to disseminate propaganda and false information. Data Collection and Tracking. Social media networks gather a ton of user information that is frequently utilized for marketing and advertising. Users may not be aware of how their data is being utilized, which raises privacy issues around this data collecting. Third Parties Access to Data. Social media platforms may divulge user information to outside developers, marketers, and other businesses, raising questions about how that information is utilized. Evolution of Privacy in Social Networking sites. In the upcoming paragraph taking a look at how Facebook and other companies took advantage of the non-existing privacy laws and why because of them new rules have been created.In a way they have definitely brought on change with the new times and also exposed the need to have stringent policies and laws in the first place. This started first in 2006 when there was a lot of noise regarding Facebook Newsfeed feature of the networking site and the concern that arose was that this endorsed stalking and also is an intrusion of privacy. The user had very little control over the information that they were sharing at the time, including changes in user's profile and other details related to them. This was resolved when Zuckerberg introduced privacy feature for the newsfeed and apologized for not taking into consideration the user's input when it came to privacy. Similarly, after three years and then consecutively since Facebook was the reigning social networking site at the time , they introduced a series of changes thus constantly targeting the privacy of users. Some of the other major events include : 2007 to 2009 - Facebook launched 'Beacon' which let its users who shop at third party websites broadcast their purchases to their friends on it. Facebook receives this third-party information and shares it unless user opt-out during a brief pop-up window at the third-party site. This received a lot of backlash where some organizations like MoveOn.org demanded that Facebook allow explicit opt-out from sharing this information. Later on, they did modify the privacy features of Beacon, giving users limited opt-ins. By almost the end of 2008, Facebook launched 'Social Ads' which let "marketers create Facebook profiles and purchase advertising targeting other users profile information. Further, a user’s name and picture will be shown to their friends in promotion of a product after that user interacts with the marketer in some way”. European expert group issued a guidance on how the user's privacy should be maintained and the information related to them should be handled. “Topics included processing of sensitive data and images, advertising and direct marketing, and data retention". Facebook announced changes in their user privacy settings but did not address the concern of user's data being shared with third-party via targeted advertisements. Canadian Privacy Commissioner also recommends that Facebook should improve on their privacy. 2010 to 2012 - Twitter joined Gmail and Facebook to use "https" functionality by default for all users in order to secure data and protect privacy . Facebook timeline changed their user privacy setting again to "post archived user information, making old posts available under Facebook's current downgraded privacy settings". It also came to light that DHS was using Facebook and Twitter for secret social network monitoring program. Maryland passed Bill that forbids employers from requesting Facebook information and California, Illinois followed suit as well. Myspace was caught engaging in deceptive practices and had to pay a settlement , since they were revealing personal information to third party despite promising to protect the same. Facebook also acquired Face.com which brought on a host of privacy concerns over biometric data of individuals.Towards the end of the year 2012,Facebook updated their privacy controls and removed profile safeguard from profiles. Instagram also released their changes around this time in terms of privacy policies which raised some more legal questions. 2013 to 2015 - Snapchat was investigated as they were still accumulating PII despite claiming that users could delete their videos and pictures forever , WhatsApp were questioned and complaints were raised regarding Facebook acquisition of the same. Facebook starts tracking user across the web without consent after policy changes. 2018 - Facebook Cambridge Analytica scandal made huge news. Cambridge Analytica breached into the personal data of millions of people's Facebook profiles without their consent and used it for political advertising Facebook got a lot of flak for this scandal and Facebook had to take their privacy policies into new consideration to keep their company afloat and retain their consumers. Laws regarding social networks. A lot of reforms have been done to address the privacy concerns including introducing laws to changing privacy policies of how social network platform should be maintaining to retain their customers. Below are the relevant laws related to social networking: How to stay aware. The following actions may be taken to maintain your privacy when using social networking sites: Overall, maintaining an awareness of privacy issues and social networking sites calls for taking the initiative and making a commitment to consistently reviewing and modifying your settings and behavior. Conclusion. In conclusion, since social networking sites first emerged, privacy has been a big worry. Despite the fact that these platforms have taken steps to allay these worries, including putting in place privacy measures and user permission requirements, there continue to be issues with data collecting, third-party access, cyberbullying, and deepfake technology. Many nations have put in place different rules and regulations to safeguard user privacy online in order to allay these worries. Users need to be aware of these privacy issues and take precautions to secure their personal information online as social networking sites continue to play a large role in our lives. In the next section, one can read about how privacy is impacted by Internet of Things.
415270	1010331	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415270	Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Health Care	Introduction. Three significant ideas are regularly utilized in the assurance of healthcare data inside the United States medicinal services framework: classification, protection, and security. However, every one of these ideas has an alternate vital significance and one-of-a-kind job. The most important part of health care records is privacy. Healthcare records contain detailed information about the patient’s medical history to his data. The protection and security of patients’ healthcare data is a top need for patients and their families, medical insurance companies, and experts. Government laws require a significant number of people and associations that can handle healthcare data and can also provide security, ensuring the privacy of patients’ healthcare data regardless of whether it is put away on paper or electronically. In the USA “HIPAA” rings a bell when medical records security is concerned, it is known as “The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996”. It was passed as the internet was becoming a larger presence in everyday life. It sought to enable the transfer of medical records from paper to electronic data. HIPAA is responsible for privacy, security, and breach notifications about healthcare data. The HIPPA Privacy Rule gives rights regarding healthcare data, which was developed by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to protect the confidentiality of personal health information. The HIPAA also allows patients to constraint how their healthcare data can be used, and the HIPPA Security Rule offers patients the freedom to choose and know how their medical records must be kept secure with authoritative, specialized, and physical protections. The patients must consent in order to disclose personal health information through a contract. The patients may have extra insurance and medical records rights under their state’s laws. There are likewise federal laws that secure health care records. Why Privacy in Healthcare is Important. Health care research and security assurances both give significant advantages to society. Medical research is crucial to improving human health and medicinal services. Protecting patients engaged with the study and saving their privileges is a fundamental moral duty. Legislation is necessary for securing individual privacy to ensure the interests of people in providing their data for research. Patients must provide their medical data for further study; it can drastically speed up the research processes and will be very beneficial to society. Simultaneously, clinical research can profit people; for instance, it encourages access to new treatments, improved diagnostics, and increasingly compelling approaches to forestall disease. Without medical privacy, patients may avoid needed healthcare, and physicians may not enter important information into the patient's records. Medical records contain sensitive information about every individual that could be used to negatively affect a person’s life. This includes fertility, abortions, substance/physical abuse, STDs, etc. Access to such information can damage a person’s reputation which can permanently affect their lives. Our medical records also contain mundane content such as height, weight, or if any bones were ever broken. Physicians need access to our complete medical records to provide an accurate diagnosis. Without an accurate diagnosis, patients may pay for an expensive treatment that was unnecessary or be given the incorrect medicine for a disease. What Constitutes Privacy. Securing data gathered with the consideration of the patient is a fundamental belief in social insurance. Protecting different structures is an essential key to trust. Enhanced privacy includes various angles, including personal space (physical security), individual information (enlightening protection), own decisions including social and strict affiliations (decisional protection), and personal associations with relatives (associational security). Doctors must look to ensure privacy protection in all settings to the best degree conceivable and should: Protecting health care information can be broken down into three concepts: Ways to Protect Healthcare Information. As hackers have an assortment of techniques for breaking into medical service associations’ networks, healthcare IT divisions need to utilize a variety of devices to attempt to keep them out. In many cases, most firms spend a lot on edge security, for example, firewalls and antivirus programming. Regardless of any ill will, the staff members are mostly involved in data breaches because of carelessness. Subsequently, all the IT security programs are dependent upon staff training, including preparing on what does and doesn’t constitute a HIPAA infringement. Staff should be educated about phishing, social engineering, and other attacks that target representatives, and also choose a strong password. Most medical institutions are progressively depending on remote operating systems for their offices. Yet, sadly, those remote systems regularly present security concerns and vulnerabilities. Information can be taken by hacking into those systems. The association might depend on obsolete technology, for example, if medical institutions utilize the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security standard, hacking them will be relatively easy. The more information that is held by an association, the more there is for hackers to take. Medical institutions should remove data, which might not be required or useful. Moreover, it consumes more resources and time to routinely review the data and label it for the purpose of removal. Even as electronic health records become progressively more common, the medical institution may keep a great deal of sensitive information on paper. Thus, suppliers must ensure entryways and file organizers are locked and secured, and cameras and other physical security controls are utilized. Moreover, associations should make sure IT hardware is secure by locking server rooms and using link locks or different gadgets to keep PC and workstations attached to office furniture. It is essential to get ready for the worst; there is very little probability that the associations can always foresee each conceivable IT security occurrence. That is the reason it’s essential to build up a game plan for when a breach occurs. <br> Privacy Laws for Healthcare Data. In the United States of America. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. The most notable and prominent healthcare law in the U.S. is HIPAA as introduced before. The "Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information," or the Privacy Rule, were made to establish a national set of standards of the protection of specific health information. HIPAA is also known as the Privacy Rule or the HIPAA Privacy Rule and was issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, to put in place the requirement of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. The Privacy Rule will also allow a covered entity or organization to use health information for purposes of research without permission under certain circumstances where they can provide specific documentation. The specific documentation must be obtained so that no significant and sensitive information is disclosed under the wrong hands or for the wrong purposes. Sharing data between hospitals and academic institutions can also promote more reliable research to be done. Confidence and trust can be increased in the conclusions of such research done by the sharing of data. The Sync for Science collaboration is the most notable one in the United States which is between the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Harvard Medical School’s Department of Biomedical Informatics, the Office of the National Coordinator for Health IT (ONC), and Electronic Health Record (EHR) vendors. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, or GINA, was a federal act passed by Congress on May 21, 2008 to prevent discrimination based on genetic information relating to health insurance and employment. Similar to the Americans with Disabilities Act, GINA prevents employers from discriminating against certain people on the basis of their genetic information. GINA will also prevent health insurance companies from doing the same to its consumers in providing health coverage. Health Information Technology for Clinical and Economic Health Act of 2009. The Health and Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act was passed as a part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 in February 17, 2009. The HITECH Act aimed to promote the use of health information technology and also strengthened HIPAA. The HITECH Act changed the secretary of HHS authority to charge money penalties for HIPAA violations and increased the maximum amount that could be charged by the secretary. In Europe. The General Data Protection Regulation or the GDPR was enacted on May 25, 2018 by the European Union for its member countries. The GDPR regulates the privacy and security of citizen’s data to any company or organization that collects data of people in the European union. The regulation covers principles of data protection, accountability, data security, when data is allowed to be processed, and more. The GDPR also covers health data as a unique type of data and gives its own definition within the regulation. Unique safeguards have also been made for health data in addition to the other privacy laws which still apply to the same data. In Africa. The Data Policy Framework released by African Union on July 28, 2022 serves as a framework and blueprint for countries to use to maximize benefits from an economy driven by data as well as providing regulatory policies of data to protect people. The framework also aims to improve digital trade and innovation across multiple countries in the union and help guide member countries on how to go through intricate regulatory problems. The framework doesn’t have specific safeguards nor policies to protect health care data but does mention recommendations for countries to make on it. It emphasized the importance of healthcare research and to make new definitions and safeguards for health care data within its recommendations for its member countries. In China. The People’s Republic of China adopted the Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL) on August 20th, 2021. It is similar to the European Union’s GDPR and was designed similarly to safeguard rights and privacy of its citizens with regulation of data processing, transferring, and collection. Its principles include requiring explicit consent in data practices for processing and providing, requiring appointed people in organizations who are responsible for defending personal data, implementing security measures, and doing risk assessments. Many components of the PIPL align with the GDPR framework. Major Privacy Breaches in Healthcare. The measures outlined in the previous chapters have sometimes proven inadequate, either because they were not enforced properly, or their enforcement was not present at all. There have been severe data breaches that have resulted in massive lawsuits with multi-million-dollar settlements. One example is that of Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield, who were attacked by Deep Panda, which is a Chinese hacker group. Their data systems were compromised due to a database administrator having their credentials leaked, possibly due to a phishing attack. The administrator was only noticed the attack to due to an unauthorized query being run with his credentials, which he just happened to notice. The incident revealed a lack of training by Anthem to prepare their employees to avoid blatant or complicated phishing attempts and also revealed that Anthem was storing data in unencrypted form, although this would not have mattered because the hackers already had the administrator credentials. This breach resulted in personally identifiable information of 78.8 million patients being leaked, along with a hefty lawsuit settlement of around $115 million. Memorial Healthcare in Florida had to pay $5.5 million to the Office for Civil Rights, after electronically protected records were accessed improperly by two individuals that used a former physician’s login credentials. The investigation following the breach also revealed that Memorial Healthcare had failed to review and modify user access permissions. This allowed former employees to gain access, which is incredibly dangerous and reckless, as they could be disgruntled or angry at their employers, due to unfair termination or other reasons. The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Health System became victim to an attack by hackers in 2015, the means used by the hackers have not yet been revealed. The attackers were able to copy the entire database, resulting in protected information of roughly 4.5 million individuals being compromised. The information compromised consisted of data from as far back as 1990. Leaked information could be used by the attackers to steal identities and file fraudulent Medicare claims, potentially causing significant financial and psychological harm to patients and employees of the affected organization. Information about the breach was not disclosed to the affected individuals for up to 10 weeks, against HIPPA regulations, which require notifications to be issued in 60 days. This resulted in a class-action lawsuit, which was eventually settled for $7.5 million. A portion of the money, $5.5 million, was set aside for a fund to improve cyber defenses at the institution. This incident shows the importance of timely disclosure, which would allow the affected individuals to ensure that their information was not used for the purpose of identity theft and credit fraud. Privacy breaches in healthcare are extremely dangerous, they result in hefty penalties, lengthy investigations and identity theft for individuals affected. There is one silver lining however, which is intelligence gained as a consequence of the breach, allowing us to improve our methods, frameworks and policies. Statistics. Healthcare data breaches have been shown to have an increasing trend in the past 14 years. 725 data breaches were reported to the Office of Civil Rights in 2023 which consisted of more than 133 million records being disclosed without permission or exposed. Healthcare breaches have also started to become more devastating and impactful. In 2023, 168 million records were exposed, breached, or stolen. The biggest healthcare data breach that has ever been reported was in 2024, where 190 million records were leaked at Change Healthcare due to a ransomware attack. The most common causes of healthcare data breaches have been because of hacking/IT incidents followed by unauthorized access/disclosure. Unauthorized access/disclosure, loss/theft, and improper disposal have been reported disproportionately lower than hacking/IT incidents. Possible Consequences of Stolen Healthcare Data. Healthcare data of patients contain very highly sensitive and private information, which is seen as very lucrative to steal, making it one of the most targeted types of data for hackers. What makes healthcare data so valuable is its longevity since most people are unaware when it has been stolen or breached as compared to a stolen credit card. Such data can contain dates of birth, demographic data, and social security numbers which can be used to commit identity theft. Through identity theft, new credit cards and loans can be opened under the targeted victim’s name causing massive financial burden. It is also not uncommon to see healthcare data to be stolen and used to obtain prescription medications, healthcare devices, and obtain medical services and benefits that are expensive. Healthcare data can also be used to allow for impersonated tax returns to be filed for tax rebates. In some cases, data is altered such as blood type, medicine or allergies which can cause great harm or even death to the targeted victim. Ransomware is primarily used to steal medical data from a healthcare provider. This type of malware will prevent companies or organizations from accessing data by encrypting and promising to decrypt it once they pay a ransom for it. Threats are made to the organization if they do not pay the ransom like leaking the data or never giving back the data. These tactics have been so successful to the point that many cyberattacks simply kidnap data without even encrypting the data because healthcare organizations feel obliged to pay for the ransom. Many healthcare organizations would rather pay, even if there is no real threat of data being exposed, due to the possible substantial damage to their reputations. Extortion or blackmail can also be done to the individual victims by cyber criminals or hackers. The victims will be contacted directly and are threatened with leaking personal information if they’re not paid a ransom fee for it. Healthcare data as mentioned before is highly valuable and can sell for over thousands of dollars on the dark web. This online black market can be very profitable based off the selling of only healthcare data and medical records. Compliance Strategies in Healthcare Privacy and Security. Privacy Impact Assessment (PIA) Framework. Privacy Impact Assessments (PIAs) are a systematic approach used within healthcare to review how patient data is stored and protected through organizational processes. PIAs differ from technical safeguards alone in that they offer a value-based approach of taking into account regulation requirements alongside the operational impact of privacy controls on clinical activity. PIAs can balance the requirements for strong information privacy with operational utility to support the delivery of care. This is especially important in environments where extreme controls on privacy can potentially disrupt decision-making or slow treatment. It is only by carrying out a PIA correctly that the healthcare leaders are able to analyze risks not only from a compliance viewpoint but also from patient safety, availability of resources, and practicability of workflow viewpoints. Healthcare providers must navigate the challenge of protecting patient privacy while also ensuring timely and effective care delivery. Park and has fellow researchers offer an early framework for understanding how organizations can strategically manage this balance between safeguarding information and sustaining operational efficiency. Therefore, PIAs are being considered more and more as the critical compliance and decision-making tools of strategic relevance to modern health information systems. Staff Training and Awareness. Staff training and sensitization are essential in preventing data breaches in healthcare organizations. While technical safeguards are necessary, human error is the leading cause of electronic health record (EHR) exposure. Research shows that over 70 percent of breached records from 2015 to 2020 were a result of unintentional human factors like negligence, carelessness, and susceptibility to phishing attacks. These violations tend to occur when staff bypasses security protocols that are inconvenient to them or unconnected to patient care. Failure to properly train staff may lead to blatant information offenses, for example, transmitting protected health information (PHI) to an unintended recipient or publishing sensitive details to insecure sites. Then, the healthcare organizations are encouraged to provide systematic routine training programs that not only introduce HIPAA regulation but also utilize the tenets of behavioral science for the promotion of safe behavior. In line with a PricewaterhouseCoopers survey included in the study, 87 percent of healthcare staff have additional employee training as the largest means of improving cybersecurity hygiene. Through creating a culture of responsibility and awareness, organizations are able to remove unnecessary risk and support privacy compliance. Encryption and Secure Communication. The global adoption of telemedicine has also had a significant impact on healthcare practitioners' interaction with patients, particularly regarding secure messaging. Unlike traditional email, which does not have end-to-end encryption and is not HIPAA compliant by default, modern telemedicine platforms have secure messaging and video solutions integrated into electronic health records (EHRs). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services temporarily relaxed HIPAA enforcement to allow the use of consumer video communication tools, which facilitated rapid scaling of remote care. At NYU Langone Health, urgent telemedicine visits rose by 683% in just over a month, supported by secure, integrated systems that allowed patients to check in, consult, and share biometric data through protected platforms. Such solutions not only augmented care delivery but also maintained patient trust by adherence to data privacy laws. With video-based telemedicine becoming commonplace, secure messaging solutions will become a vital aspect of healthcare communication, both for clinical and for regulatory effectiveness. Patient Consent in Digital Health. Informed and Implied Consent. Informed consent is a process in which a healthcare professional educates a patient about the risks, benefits, and alternatives of a given procedure, allowing the patient to voluntarily agree or decline. In the context of research databases, informed consent means that researchers are ethically and/or legally justified in using participants' data only if the participants explicitly consented to their involvement. Implied consent is an agreement inferred from a person’s actions, gestures, or circumstances. For example, a patient rolling up their sleeve for a vaccination indicates implied consent for the healthcare provider to perform the injection. On digital platforms, implied consent often appears through statements like, "By continued use of this site, you agree to our privacy policy and terms of use." Dynamic Consent. Kaye and their fellow researchers describe dynamic consent as an interface that "facilitates two-way communication to stimulate a more engaged, informed, and scientifically literate participant population where individuals can tailor and manage their own consent preferences." Dynamic consent in healthcare often involves continuous, interactive consent processes often managed through digital patient portals. This approach allows users to grant or revoke consent continuously, adapting their preferences over time. Digital Consent Challenges and Considerations. Both informed and implied consent present ethical and legal challenges. Issues related to informed consent include determining who is capable of consenting (age, mental capacity, health status), as well as clarifying precisely what consent implies, especially when considering the complexities introduced by digital health technologies. As Kassam and colleagues highlight, "Understanding patient perspectives when implementing meaningful consent is critical to ensure that it meets their needs." In the digital age, many users rarely read lengthy consent forms and instead quickly click "agree" to access digital services. The aforementioned researchers conducted a literature review of 75 studies on digital consent and found that only 33% of studies aimed to measure the actual comprehension of electronic consent forms. Although most participants (68 out of 75 studies) expressed willingness to provide digital consent, their willingness depended significantly on clearly understanding the information provided, specifically details regarding who can access their Protected Health Information (PHI), how it will be used, and the measures taken to ensure privacy. Effective digital consent requires making information accessible and understandable, potentially through translations, simplified language, or clearer breakdowns of terms and conditions. While dynamic consent systems present logistical challenges for maintaining and tracking consent status, they significantly enhance patient autonomy and privacy protection by allowing ongoing control and personalized management of consent preferences. Conclusion. It is very clear from the above sections that most people want to protect their information; most of them want to live a very private life. There are a lot of data breaches that have happened in medical institutions, which leads patients to conceal information from doctors; as a consequence, they are unable to get a proper treatment for their illness. Protecting health care information is not just about protecting the information from hackers. Keeping medical information secret encourages patients to provide detailed information about their medical condition. Protecting health information will also help patients to come forward and offer their medical records for further research, which can increase the standard of care in hospitals. By using the recommendations provided in this article, a lot of attacks can be stopped from being successful. Patients want to provide their medical information, but due to a lack of privacy, they do not. If an exceptional level of privacy can be achieved in medical institutions, it can be very beneficial for the whole of humanity.
415271	480036	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415271	Professionalism/Ikigai at Work	Introducution. is a Japanese concept that roughly translates to “a reason for being” or "something that gives life worth". The term comes from the combination of two Japanese words; iki meaning life or "the condition of being alive", and kai meaning a reason, value, or benefit. Although the concept is mainly used in Japan, it has recently gained exposure in other countries such as the United States. One popular English interpretation of Ikigai revolves around the combination of doing what you love, what you are good at, what the world needs, and what you can be paid for. Each of these four components are equally important in creating a sense of Ikigai under the English interpretation. Without one, the concepts breaks apart into something less holistic. For example, doing something that the worlds needs and something that you can be paid for would be considered a vocation under this interpretation. Clinical psychologist Akihiro Hasegawa of Toyo Eiwa University claims that the term dates back to the Heian Period of Japan which spanned from 794 to 1185. Hasegawa also contends that the popular English interpretation is widely inaccurate. He states that many Japanese people do not associate Ikigai with making money or working at all. The Japanese interpretation of Ikigai more commonly revolves around factors such as personal and family health, intellectual activeness, and fulfilling social roles. While these factors can often include working in some sort of way, the concept of Ikigai for Japanese people is not "directly" related to work. One of the most comprehensive and respected works dealing with Ikigai is "Ikigai-ni-tsuite", or About Ikigai, written by Mieko Kamiya. In her book, Kamiya explains that the concept of Ikigai is very similar to happiness but has a subtle focus on looking towards the future. As a result, someone who is struggling towards a better life in the future can still be within a state of Ikigai even though they may be unhappy at the moment. Kamiya also breaks down Ikigai into two subcategories. The first is objects that make up one's Ikigai. This includes the various people, actions, or objects that directly relate to the feelings of Ikigai that one has. The second category is feelings regarding one's Ikigai object. One example using these two subcategories could be one's family and friends as an Ikigai object and a sense of existence and belonging as the feeling regarding this object. Ikigai Practices in the Workplace. Rajio Taiso. In "Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life" by Hector Garcia and Francesc Miralles (2017), they examined how the people of Okinawa Japan exercise Ikigai to increase their life expectancy. Okinawans, who are known for their many centenarians, state that moving throughout the day, no matter how little, is essential for staying healthy. Garcia and Miralles contend that Rajio Taiso is a key component of Okinawans' daily movement. Rajio Taiso roughly translates to "Radio Physical exercise" or physical exercise over the Radio. These Radio exercises were introduced in Japan in 1928 as a commemoration of emperor Hirohito’s coronation. The broadcasts consist of short warm-up exercises guided by music and radio hosts. Although the broadcasts were banned by occupying powers for being too militaristic in nature after Japan’s defeat in WW2, they were later reintroduced in 1951 after several reworks. Currently, these routines are used in the workplace at the beginning of the workday, in order to raise energy levels and encourage good health. Additionally, the group aspect of the exercises can help build moral and group unity among employees. Nomikai. Nomikai can be roughly translated to "gathering to drink." Nomikais are drinking parties that are held by employers to mark various events from project completions, foundation anniversaries, retirements, etc. They are usually held in restaurants that have been partially rented out. Employees are expected to attend; however, they are not required to drink. Nomikai usually involve certain departments of a company, although larger full company parties can also take place. The party doesn't stop there. After Nomikai, comes Nijikai. Nijikai is basically an after party where attendance is not required and is usually smaller groups of friends who want to keep socializing and drinking. Lastly there is Bonenkai. Bonenkai, or "gathering to forget the year", is the end of year Nomikai of a company where the goal is to forget any arguments or troubles that have occurred during the year and celebrate the coming year. Overall, the purpose of these parties is to help build post-work relationships and camaraderie among employees in addition to celebrating events. Lastly, and probably most importantly, you must show up to work the next day. The excuse that you got too drunk at the party will not be accepted by your boss. While the purported goal of the events is to build camaraderie, the practice has led to unhealthy behavior in many cases. Timinsky notes that salarymen began to engage in the practice regularly in the 1950s, and the practice led many to alcoholism, malnourishment, and sleep deprivation. The lifestyle of nightly drinking bouts among salarymen became so commonplace that drug companies marketed hangover drugs to these professionals by exploiting fears about hangovers and work. Lifetime Hiring. Lifetime hiring is where Japanese companies and employees agree to an unofficial for life contract. Where the employee promises to devote themselves to the company and the company promises to try their best not to fire them. Beginning in Japan around 1955, many Japanese firms started hiring their employees for life. Although this was not a legally binding contract for lifetime employment it came with certain expectations. The employer expected that the new hire would devote their time and loyalty to the company while the hire would expect the employer to take all measures possible to avoid firing or laying off employees. As a result, employees hired under the unofficial lifetime employment practice could feel a sense of economic security and trust with their employer. Simultaneous College Recruiting. is a Japanese custom where companies look to hire new college or high school graduates all at once and begin their employment at a collective start date. One goal of this custom is to help new hires adjust to the workforce by surrounding them with people of a similar age and experience level. Paired with lifetime employment practices, SCR allows employees to build deep and lifelong relationships with their peers, increasing their productivity and satisfaction within the workplace. Ikigai and Working Conditions. It has been shown that having an Ikigai can increase quality of life and even reduce the risk of death from cardiovascular disease. Companies have implemented Ikigai practices to capitalize on increased productivity and success due to worker satisfaction. However, the companies may also implement the practices to distract workers from the poor working conditions to which they are subject. Japanese professionals work longer hours and more overtime hours than many other countries. A survey by Matthews found that while work is often at the center of Japanese society, "very few informants, even the most successful, seemed to find profound satisfaction in work". According to a poll of 451 Japanese professionals, over 54% of them "often" work overtime hours. Studies have shown that those workers who work more overtime hours are more susceptible to cardiovascular problems. Japanese workers are reluctant to use paid vacation days. In 2018, it was found that only 52% of professionals used all of their paid vacation, and many had multiple unused days. A form of Groupthink occurs where employees see that their bosses and coworkers refuse to take vacation days, so they fear that taking days will cause their colleagues to think less of them. An unfortunate consequence of the culture of overwork in Japan is , or death from overwork. Numerous professionals have been lost by Karoshi since the first official case in 1969. One such case was that of Matsuri Takahashi, a 24 year-old worker at Dentsu, Inc. During her eight months at Dentsu, she logged hundreds of overtime hours. She began making disturbing posts on social media and committed suicide shortly after. Miwa Sado was a 31 year-old political journalist who died from heart failure in July 2013. In the previous month, she had logged 159 hours of overtime. In 2005, Shunichi Araki, the President of the National Institute of Industrial Health, wrote an article that recognized the connection between overwork, brain and heart diseases and death, and made suggestions for the Japanese government to reduce the occurrence of overwork. The Japanese government has created legislation to decrease overwork, but some argue that more must be done. In the 1970s, Japanese public transportation could not meet the growing demand due to economic growth. Oshiyas, or , were hired to pack as many commuters as possible into each train car at rail stations. The rail cars regularly reach two to three times the designed capacity. Publications have described the experience as uncomfortable, but the situation can become dangerous, as it did in a case where a window broke from the pressure due the packed cabin. Tanshin funin, which translates to "bachelor husband," is the practice of living in away from one's family to live closer to one's business and to focus more effectively on one's work. These professionals may only see their families on weekends or holidays. Studies have shown that professionals who engage in Tanshin funin are more susceptible to heart disease and common illnesses, drink alcohol in higher quantities, and are generally more stressed than those who abstain from the practice.
415272	3430903	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415272	Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy Policies and Principles	Privacy Policies Principles. What is a Privacy Policy? A policy can be thought of as a rule set forth at an organization such as a company, municipality, or even University. These rules essentially are in place to govern the actions of employees, faculty, or students in keeping with a previously established code of conduct. Policy controls how its staff, teachers, or students behave in accordance with a moral code that has already been established. When referring to a Policy one can think of it as “...a statement imposed from the outside and must be obeyed to avoid incurring some kind of penalty…” A privacy policy is a series of guidelines created to safeguard both individuals' and an organization's privacy. These guidelines are frequently instructions on how to maintain privacy when utilizing a particular technology. What is a Privacy Principle? Privacy principles are fundamental values or theories that define how an individual or organization views privacy. These principles help to shape and direct laws, policies, and practices that govern the handling of personal information. Privacy principles can include things like transparency, accountability, and consent, among others. To ensure that a privacy policy is effective, it must be communicated clearly and in plain language that is easily understood by everyone. This is particularly important in settings like the workplace or higher education, where individuals may come from diverse backgrounds and have varying levels of education and familiarity with privacy issues. Using basic terminology and avoiding technical jargon can make policies more accessible and help to ensure that everyone understands their rights and obligations. Additionally, privacy policies should be concise, well-organized, and easy to navigate, so that individuals can quickly find the information they need and make informed decisions about their personal data. Appropriate Content for Policies and Principles There are a few common aspects of all policies that make them effective, especially in a workplace or higher education environment. A policy should always be written in simple terms in order to best be understood by the most number of people, which also means clear language must be followed. The benefits to stakeholders or individuals affected by this are taken into account when forming a policy. A policy should be well balanced in which it’s not too restrictive to individuals and not too free flowing and broad. It also has clearly defined and easy to understand steps, in this case steps to take in order to have privacy. And one of the most important aspects is that individuals affected by a policy are able to understand it in order to follow it to the best of their ability. Government Privacy Principles The government privacy principles vary depending on the country and its legal framework. However, in general, government privacy principles are intended to protect the personal information of citizens that is collected, used, and disclosed by government agencies. Here are some of the common principles: Below is the Privacy policy created by FTC in USA. FTC In 1998, the Federal Trade Commission in the US codified what already were basic principles of privacy long before the mainstream explosion of the internet. The report was called “Privacy Online: A Report to Congress”, and at the start with: “Over the past quarter century, government agencies in the United States, Canada, and Europe have studied the man ner in which entities collect and use personal information-their "information practices"-and the safeguards required to assure those practices are fair and provide adequate privacy protection. The result has been a series of reports, guidelines, and model codes that represent widely-accepted principles concerning fair information practices.” In this report, the FTC set the groundwork for how it would be involved in enforcing privacy in the United States. With that it pointed out five principles of privacy protection, which include Notice/Awareness, Choice/Consent, Access/Participation, Integrity/Security, and Enforcement/Redress. " Notice/Awareness" The concept of Notice means to know or be conscious of a certain action being taken. In terms of privacy on the web, users are put on notice to how websites view ownership, security practices, and terms of use (like the end user license agreement). Examples of this include splash pages for user to click through that explicitly say by clicking through the user accepts the terms of use. A common one is notifying the user that cookies are being used on the site to track their visit. The privacy statement of a website will also include, in more codified language, a means of providing privacy notice to users. That FTC has deemed that some or all of the following points should be included in any privacy statement and to make sure the user is informed of what they are doing when given away personal information: " Choice/Consent" The main purpose of this principle is to give end users governance over the use of their own personal data. The FTC wanted to mainly focus on the secondary use of data, or “uses beyond those necessary to complete the contemplated transaction.” There are two methods that have become commonplace to deal with Choice/consent, that is either opt-in or opt-out. Opt-in has the users explicitly allow certain use of their data. While opt-out has the user explicitly deny the use of their data. The difference between the two is the default option, opt-in users by default allow their data to be used, while opt-out by default deny’s the use of a user's data for things outside of the initial transaction. "Access/Participation" The third principle involves letting people know that a corporation has information about them and allow them to dispute the accuracy of the information. According to the FTC, “...access must encompass timely and inexpensive access to data…” Meaning that the ability to submit changes needs to be quick and inexpensive to accomplish by the user. The mechanism for these changes must also be simple, have a way that the corporation can verify submitted information, and be able to disseminate the corrected information to all recipients of the data. "Integrity/Security" This principle ties in closely with the Access/Participation principle, with this one having the goal of making sure that date is accurate as well as secure. This principle puts the onus on the data collectors by making them take appropriate steps. Things such as providing consumers appropriate access to data, using data sources that are reputable, investigating where that data is coming from, and relevant technical measure to protect the data once it is in their hands. Some technical measures included by the FTC are: "Enforcement/Redress" The final privacy principle states that “...the core principles of privacy protection can only be effective if there is a mechanism in place to enforce them.” This essentially means that in order for any of these state privacy principles to be effective, proper mechanisms must be in place to enforce them. In the case of no enforcement or redress mechanisms, outside forces take precedent such as industry self-regulation, government legislation, and even regulatory schemes brought about through civil and criminal sanctions.
415285	3405394	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415285	Telugu/Noun	Introduction. A noun is any word that is a name of a person, thing, place, or concept. Simply, a noun is any word that gives a name to something. In English examples include: In Telugu, the word for noun is నామవాచకం(Nāmavācakaṁ) Characteristics of Nouns. Nouns in Telugu have 3 characteristics: Number. Number simply refers to how many of something there is. In Telugu there are two numbers: singular(only one of something) and plural(more than one of something). Number in Telugu works very similarly to the English. In English, a singular noun can be made plural by simply adding an -s(most of the time) at the end of word. The Telugu equivalent to the "-s" in English is the suffix "-lu(లు)". Some examples are below: Sandhi rules for pluralization. Sandhi(సంధి) is a Sanskrit word that literally means connecting or joining. In the context of grammar, it is the set of rules explaining how the pronunciation changes when two words or parts of words are joined. For example, take the English phrase "What do you mean?". When speaking, people often pronounce this as "Whadaya mean?". When they do this, they are connecting the ends and beginnings of words to make their speech more smooth. Similarly, when certain words combine with the plural suffix in Telugu, certain sound changes may occur. For example, the word గుడి (guḍi), which means temple, undergoes a sandhi change in the plural: గుడి(guḍi) + -lu(లు) or -s = గుళ్ళు(gul̥l̥u) or temples Below a list of the pluralization sandhi rules are laid out.: Rule 1: When a noun ends in ṭu(టు), ṭi(టి), nṭu(ంటు), nṭi(ంటి), nḍu(ండు), or nḍi(ండు), the final vowel is elided. Examples: Gender. In Telugu every noun has a grammatical gender, this is in contrast to English where only pronouns have gender. There are two Telugu genders, masculine and non-masculine. What gender a noun is varies on whether it is in the singular or the plural. In the plural. The gender of a noun affects Case. The case of a noun tells the listener or reader what the role of the noun in the sentence is. In English, this is primarily conveyed through either sentence structure(where the word is in the sentence) or helper words(such as to, from, with, etc.). In Telugu, these are expressed by suffixes. A suffix is simply something that is added onto the end of a word. For example, the "s" added at the end of the word "chief" to form the word "chiefs" is a suffix. The various cases are called Vibhakti in Telugu, which comes from the Sanskrit word for declension. To understand some of the cases, the terms subject, verb, direct object, and indirect object must be understood. A verb is simply an action(such as the verb "to eat"), an occurrence(such as the verb "to happen"), or state of being(such as the verb "to exist"). A subject is what does the verb. A direct object is the recipient of the verb. Finally, an indirect object is what receives the direct object. For example, take the sentence "John throws the ball to Mary". The verb is throw, as this is an action. To figure out who the subject is, the question is "what is throwing the ball". Since John throws the ball, he is the subject. Identifying the direct object must be done by asking the question "what is being thrown by John". The ball is the direct object as it is thrown by John. Finally, to find out what what the indirect object is, the following question must be answered, "what is receiving the ball?". Mary is receiving the ball, so she is the indirect object. The cases are listed below:. The suffixes that are bold are the ones commonly used in conversational Telugu, these must be learned. The italicized suffixes are sometimes used in conversational Telugu, but are rarer than the bold suffixes.The non-bold suffixes are very rarely or never used in conversation and are more commonly used in literature. When adding a case to a plural noun, the case suffix comes after the plural suffix. In this case, the plural suffix also changes from -lu to -la. For example, take the word "Kukkalu"(కుక్కలు), or "dogs" in English, if you were to add the Instrumental case suffix to it, it would become "Kukkalato"(కుక్కలతో), or "with dogs" in English. Possession. Possession simply refers to when a noun owns or has another noun. In English this is expressed by "of" or "'s" such as "John's house" or "the house of John". Similarly to English, the noun that owns or has something is put before the noun it owns. In literary Telugu, possession is expressed by the suffix "-yokka"(యొక్క), which is the equivalent of the English "'s". For example "Naa(My) ammayokka(mother's) kukka(dog)"(నా అమ్మయొక్క కుక్క). However, in spoken Telugu, the "-yokka"(యొక్క) suffix is seldom used. Instead, the owner noun is simply placed before the noun that is owned, for example "Naa(My) amma(mother's) kukka(dog)"(నా అమ్మ కుక్క). In this case, the possession is simply understood with word order and context, without the need for a suffix. Possession can also be expressed using the suffixes "-ki" or "-ku" combined with the verbs "un" and "le". The noun that is owned is in the nominative case(Prathamā Vibhakti (ప్రథమా విభక్తి)) and thus does not have a case suffix added to the end of it, then the owner noun uses the "-ki" or "-ku" suffix. After this, if the noun is owned(to have), the verb "un" is used, if the noun is not owned(to not have), the verb "le" is used. The verb must match the nominative noun in gender, number, and person. These concepts are explored further in the pronoun and verb sections, but the following charts give the different forms of the verbs "un" and "le": Examples of this are: Note how in these examples the order of the words does not matter, in some sentences the nominative noun comes first, in others it comes second. Telugu has relatively free word order, thus the order of the sentence can be changed without changing the meaning; this can be done to change the emphasis. The full rules on word order and sentence structure are discussed in that section.
415286	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415286	Information Technology and Ethics/Digital Piracy	Introduction. The Internet is a new global space for everyone which connects all kinds of people within cyberspace and provides a Digital workspace for them to work in that is parallel to the real world but provides much more opportunity through worldwide collaboration and faster speed to achieve goals. This has caused a rippling effect throughout our world where more of people's existence is being moved onto the Digital World and it is impacting everyone greatly with so much new information being put out there. This also includes the legal world with many new questions arising as well as confusion about how such a place can be governed and how laws can be implemented here. The problems that occur in the Digital World have many ethical sides to them and are increasingly difficult to resolve in an ethical way. Businesses also seek to have their intellectual property be protected by copyright law. This for them is a major concern and is related to a major controversial topic of how to address Digital Piracy, a new term popping up with the growth of the internet. Digital Piracy is only one of many types of Internet piracy. According to Norton, Internet Piracy have five different types: Digital Piracy Etymology. To truly understand what the term “Digital Piracy” means the words that comprise must first be understood. The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary (2020) definitions of Piracy is as follows or Oxford's definition is not completely accurate because it limits the Digital Piracy domain to only selling stolen copyrighted materials even though they can be shared free of charge on peer-to-peer file-sharing platforms. To understand Digital Piracy's domain, we must also comprehend the Digital World by starting to understand what the word Digital means. Oxford again defines Digital as or So Digital would mean communicating over this medium provided by computer technology. This can then help us define the term of a Digital Piracy as copying a copyrighted property without authorization using the medium provided by computer technology for any reason. Digital World. The Internet has changed the world and provided many benefits to the people all around it, such as being able to connect previously isolated areas together in a place that has no real geographical border and with that the side effects of having no laws either. Many groups use the Internet to gather and share ideas, conduct business, and even provide consumer services. These benefits, however, can only be used by moving some of your existence onto the internet. There is also a dark side to all these benefits, caused by people moving their beliefs, views, and grudges onto the internet and unlike the real world they have perceived anonymity and no rules to stop them. This attracts people with bad intentions can now commit crimes in this digital world that has no specified geographical area that would break laws in their real-world residence. This blind spot is being seen and acknowledged by many nations and as such, they have started to try and combat the growth of digital crimes. They have begun to do this by migrating their laws onto the internet. This has been causing confusion about who has jurisdiction and what fits the definition of a crime. As well as nations, businesses also seek to have their rights acknowledged and are promoting the implementation of better laws regarding the digital world and some seek to combat one crime in particular, digital piracy, which is stealing their products through copying and reselling through stronger copyright laws. However, this must be balanced with an ethical approach of implementation by whatever agency seeks to regulate the internet. Copyrights (Ethical View). The U.S. Copyright Office defines copyright as: This includes a range of works covering the expanse of diverse mediums including books, movies, songs, and computer software. Copyright exists from the moment an individual creates a work that falls under one of the protected categories. This makes registration with the appropriate offices optional. However, it is required to formally undergo the copyright registration process with the U.S. Office of Copyright if an individual wants to file a lawsuit related to copyright infringement of a U.S. work. A copyright gives the respective creator legal ground to defend the use, reproduction, and modification of a work. It is important to note that copyrights only seek to protect tangible works and not abstract creations such as facts or ideas. It is difficult to prove that a concept belongs to a person, although it is possible to copyright specific processes and methods. Understanding what is and is not covered by copyright causes the exploration of related ideas to become nuanced, discussion surrounding the current scope of copyrights and potential misuse and infringement makes the most sense if the proper works and terms are considered. Copyrights were established to encourage people to produce more original works since there would be a way to defend creator rights. However, there are situations in which copyrights are misused or infringed upon, in which case moral and ethical considerations are needed. Ethical Considerations. Infringement and Fair Use. A common concern is that copyright laws and terms limit the distribution of knowledge, thus being an ethical concern because this can hinder the free exchange of information and ideas. Copyright law in the U.S. gives the creator of a work the right to make copies, distribute material, produce derivative content, and perform or display the work at will Because of this, explicit permission is required in many circumstances to utilize a copyrighted work within legal means. The argument stands that the need for permission withholds universal access to interacting with the work, creating an obstacle for the public to derive further meaning. Failing to secure consent would result in copyright infringement, which is the act of reproducing, distributing, publicly performing and/or displaying, and creating derivative works without prior permission from the owner of the copyright. Notably, there are instances in which any existing copyrights on a work can be ignored without infringing upon the terms, therefore eliminating grounds for any potential unfairness that copyright might cause in regards to accessing materials. Members of the public are allowed to use copyrighted works for specific purposes under fair use specifications, as part of the Copyright Act. Fair use addresses any concerns of the accessibility of a work, within reason the public does not require explicit consent to interact with materials. Most fair use cases fall within one of two categories: Fair use allows a person or party to reproduce parts of a work in order to comment on the material or critique it, the justification behind this use is that members of the public can gain new insight and knowledge from the commentary. An example of this would be including exact sentences from a novel to write an article review of said book. Parodies push this boundary further and allow greater portions of a work to be recreated for the sake of producing a comical version of the original work, such as mimicking a scene from a movie as a comedy skit. Fair use is a means of defense; a lawsuit claiming copyright infringement must be present before the use of a work can be assessed as fair and within legal boundaries. There are four main considerations to make when determining fair use: It matters if the use is for commercial means rather than for educational or nonprofit purposes. It would be legally and morally incorrect to make money off of the unlicensed use of a copyrighted work, but it would be acceptable, in some cases, to reproduce a work for educating, among other things. This would be similar in concept to plagiarism with the exception that the moral dilemma is not rooted in lying about the origin of a work, but rather preventing the appropriate entity from receiving deserved payment. Copyright Misuse. Although copyrights were created to protect the rights a creator has over their work, there are cases in which copyright holders attempt to file for copyright infringement for situations outside of the specified terms. This is an ethical concern as copyright misuse imposes on the potential fair use by a third-party. Copyright misuse is a defense against a copyright infringement claim, the concept was first used in 1990 during the "Lasercomb America, Inc v, Reynolds" case. During this case, the Fourth Circuit decided that the plaintiff had misused copyright on software by including a provision in the license that forbade the user from creating competing software. It was determined that this went beyond the scope of what the copyright protected, therefore claiming infringement was a misuse of the terms on the creator’s behalf. Recent developments in technology have seen increased use in copyright misuse as a defense when it comes to software as this is a commonly licensed product. The moral and ethical issues behind copyright misuse are clear, it is unjust to prevent fair use and licensed use by monopolizing the materials protected by copyright. Effects. Just as nothing happens without a reason, every action has its effect whether it is a nuclear fusion or a butterfly wing movement. Such fundamental concepts are the same regardless of the world we apply them in whether they are real, digital worlds. Digital Piracy has clouded both worlds by continuously impacting every sector, field, organization, and person it touches. Understanding the effects of Digital Piracy might be challenging due to its complexity and overlapping with different aspects. Therefore, all Digital Piracy effects will be categorized or viewed as social, security, economical, and legal effects in order to develop different lenses where we can look to the subject through them. Social effects. Many would have a wrong perception that any content creator, such as their favorite book writer or a song singer, is the copyright holder and the one who makes a profit out of their work. Charles W.L. Hill illustrates this in his paper as follows: Envision, for a second, that you are a hopeful lyricist and artist. You contribute a whole year to composing your first collection. Your new collection is at long last delivered and hits the market. You start making an unobtrusive amount of cash. In any case, you find that your work has been duplicated and disseminated over the web without your authorization or any compensation to you. Presently you start losing your income that your work generates. You can't bear to compose a subsequent collection, because of this budgetary misfortune. Also, you find somebody selling your group at a decreased cost. Accordingly, not exclusively are you losing cash, yet another person is profiting from your work, and besides this that artist needs to work. The previous example can apply on any scale whether for individuals os big organizations and the music industry and how digital piracy could eventually cripple it is a real living threat, Let's consider the music industry as an example. Music piracy costs the recording industry billions of dollars in lost revenue, and as with most things in business, those losses disproportionately affect the lower-level workers in the music industry. That means professional songwriters who earn money writing those pop hits people love are often left without work because of tight budgets. That also means there’s less money for music producers, sound engineers, and sound technicians, as well as people who work in what’s known as “artists and repertoire,” or A&R, the talent scouts responsible for adding new blood to the music industry. So by pirating of just one music album, all the above people gets affected and they lose their motive in doing such kind of job and they stop creating or innovating new things because they start suffering financial crisis due to piracy and they will look out for other jobs to start earning their bread. Security Effects. All-inclusive, there is noteworthy proof to interface programming piracy with the recurrence of malware assaults. While this correlation has not been mapped with accuracy, the proof from industry sources proposes that business sectors with high programming piracy rates likewise tend to encounter high paces of malware infection. Security threats such as viruses, worms, trojans, and spyware are often designed to exploit vulnerabilities in common software products, forcing software developers to constantly develop patches and other fixes to keep emerging-malware at bay. The individuals who use pirated, unlicensed programming are commonly incapable of getting to or download essential patches and necessary updates that guarantee their frameworks stay as secure as could reasonably be expected, and are in this manner progressively vulnerable to assault over the long haul. Additionally, when contaminated, purchasers are frequently compelled to go to specialists to fix the harm done by the malware, regularly refuting any reserve funds from having obtained and utilized the items unlawfully. Economic Effects. Online piracy costs the US economy nearly $30 billion every year, with piracy recordings saw more than 200 billion times, as indicated by a report from the US Office of Trade. The GIPC's report, which was discharged in the organization with NERA Monetary Counseling, found that piracy completed across gushing administrations have now outperformed download-based piracy as the essential vehicle for pilfered recordings. 80% of piracy is owing to spilling contrasted and only a couple of years back, when BitTorrent downloads represented about 40% alone. Piracy Programs have the most popular, with more than 230 billion perspectives consistently around the world, with by far most originating from outside the US. 126 billion of these perspectives were of substance created in the US. Well, known Television programs like Round of Honored positions tried hard to decrease piracy in front of its last season. Legal Effects. It's not merely the copyright holders that are influenced. People utilizing pilfered materials are liable to fines for copyright encroachment that can extend as high as $150,000 per infringement. Indeed, even without financial punishments, getting a cut it out from a copyright holder, requesting payment for encroaching their copyright, is a disagreeable encounter. The unauthorized copying of personal computer software for use in the office or at home or sharing of software among friends is the most pervasive form of piracy encountered abroad and in the United States. Motives. There are numerous attempts to list reasons for digital piracy in order to have a better understanding of it, thereby mitigating it if not ending it. Though, the list gets longer every time which complicates the problem even more. However, if we believe that every action (response) has a motive (stimulus) that triggers it, we can classify pirating reasons into motivational categories. Hence, solutions can be found for every category, rather than for every reason in each category. Kevin J. Shanahan and Michael R. Hyman refer to Digital Piracy as (SCOURing) in their study. In the study, digital piracy was inspected from the lenses of shoplifting with all its related angels. Consequently, the researchers concluded that there are six main motivational categories that drive pirates towards Digital Piracy (SCOURing): Justification. Rationalizing their non-normative behaviors to Justify SCOURing or by beliefs (Kevin J. Shanahan and Michael R. Hyman). They explain it as what pirates do to exonerate their actions with claims such as that these companies can afford it, or that the one who is being pirated cheated first. Some of the pirates do not even feel like they are harming anyone, and the researchers are attributing such feelings to the fact that digital files lack the physical existence; therefore, no victim is being recognized. Economic. The researchers introduced economic motives from two points of view, stealing and profiting. Those who steal just because they do not want to pay for the digital files are seen exactly like those who shoplift; different techniques and environments, but the same motive. On the other hand, those who profit from pirating whether by selling the pirated files or by pirating as a service. According to the study, piracy activities and prices are entangled; whenever the reward from piracy increases, pirating activities become tempting. Regardless of the real reason for such pirates, if there are fewer people who would pay for such contents and services, pirating activities will decrease; law of supply and demand. Believed pervasiveness by peers (P2P). Distributing pirated files in order to establish social links (Kevin J. Shanahan and Michael R. Hyman). Those who aim for social acceptance in their social environment tend to behave in a way that grants them this. The environment or the people surrounding us have the effect to influence behaviors that might not be acceptable in a different situation; cultural differences are proof of that. The researchers point out that in groups, beliefs can be quelled such as the wrongness of digital piracy because of the influence of the majority and the environment. Making online friends is no different than in real life; therefore, the same acceptance criteria apply to join any online group of people. Social norms vary depending on culture. Their impacts become greater in the Digital world due to the fact that people from all over the world when connected are developing their own digital norms so they can deal with each and other; this explains why there are some behaviors that the Digital world citizens will never do except there. Developing a digital citizenship identity and norms based on the real world might mitigate Digital Piracy because any behavior definitions won't differ depending on where it was practiced (Stealing is the same no matter what country it was conducted in). Experiential. According to Kevin J. Shanahan and Michael R. Hyman, this category covers those who do any pirate activity for testing or experimentation, or simply the thrill from breaking security. The study points out that peer-to-peer networks can be seen for pirates as a treasure of illegally obtained content in these networks. Furthermore, peer-to-peer software and network comparisons might also lead to piracy. It is like the first time someone smokes, just to experience it, but instead of just affecting themselves, they affect a whole industry. Believed recklessness. Basically, those who commit piracy crimes out of total ignorance of the law, or thinking that these laws are irrelevant or laughable (Kevin J. Shanahan and Michael R. Hyman). Ignorance or weakness of the law and its enforcement will undermine anti-piracy deterrence efforts due to the lack of fear of consequences. Tech savviness. According to the study, technical skills play a major role in computer-mediated consumption, and tech savviest are those who have these skills and use them in piracy. The researchers point out that Internet usage and the quality of web interfaces made people more tech-savvy; thereby, more fluent and comfortable with using piracy-related technologies. Ethics. With the rise of the digital age, piracy has become a problem for many sectors. Digital piracy occurs when someone, who is not the copyright holder, copies the product, and either uses or sells it illegally. Digital piracy has a large impact on industries such as film, music, and journalism. The ethics of digital piracy is difficult to pin down because it is often viewed as a victimless crime. However, the people who bear the loss of piracy are often writers, creators, and scholars. Often, music, movies, and academic journals are downloaded from the internet without payment. In order to establish a code of ethics surrounding digital piracy, one must establish that there are victims of this crime. <br> Being behind a computer screen often makes people bolder. This causes them to behave differently than they would in public. The anonymity of the internet often causes people to feel less exposed, and therefore more likely to partake in illicit behavior. Digital piracy is a gateway crime that has the potential to lead to larger crimes. In a culture where digital piracy is commonplace, it illustrates a lack of respect for laws. If the laws governing copyrights are not enforced, it becomes more likely that other laws may not be enforced. This breeds a culture in which laws are not held as the ultimate authority they should be. This normalization of corruption has unlimited ramifications for society if left unchecked. Often, people view the benefit of piracy as high, with the potential risk as low due to it often not being regulated and punished appropriately. Once they have established this pattern of theft and not being punished for it, it becomes a habit. This habit then extends to anything they could digitally pirate. It can branch out from movies to music, academic journals, books, and many more. The copyright holders of these pirated goods are then not receiving proper compensation for their work. This causes an economic shift and loss in profits for the creators of digital products. <br> Ultimately, we must band together as an evolving community and establish a code of enforceable laws and ethics surrounding digital media. Without this change, the artists and creators of our society will suffer. In turn, society will miss out on their creative contributions to the world and culture. This would be a huge loss in the realm of entertainment, art, and academic research. It must be established that digital piracy is wrong ethically and legally. Digital piracy breaches copyrights and should be punishable by society and the law. In order to hold people accountable for their actions within the realm of digital piracy, laws must be enforced. The punishment for the crime must outweigh the potential gain to the perpetrator. Without this shift, digital piracy will not be taken seriously as a crime, and therefore will not end. <br> Overall, digital piracy is a violation of copyrights and is illegal. This sector should be patrolled by law enforcement, just as retail shops are. A product sold in a digital format online is still a good that has value. It should be purchased not taken with anything given in return. In order to maintain the growth of digital media, and society’s use of it, content creators must receive adequate compensation for their work. Ethically and legally, digital piracy is wrong. Moving forward, society must make it a priority to police, punish, and protect the appropriate parties involved in digital media copyrights and piracy.
415343	3430914	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415343	Information Technology and Ethics/Introduction	Introduction to Privacy. Privacy, is assurance that the confidentiality of, and access to, certain information about an entity is protected.. In terms of information technology, this means protection of personal/sensitive information that is not accessible to anyone other than the individual self. There are various types of privacy in general. But the most relevant ones for this chapter are: The content that follows is a synopsis of the subjects that will be explored in relation to privacy in information technology. The first chapter will give an in-depth discussion of privacy rules and concepts. It will include privacy legislation and guiding principles, as well as how firms collect and use personal data, as well as consent and data retention standards.- Privacy Policies and Principles The second chapter will focus on the influence of social networking sites on privacy. Social media has become embedded in daily life, but it also offers a variety of privacy risks. This section will look at how using social networking sites impacts privacy, including data collection, tracking, and measures to protect privacy while doing so.- Privacy and Social Networking Sites The third chapter will concentrate on the Internet of Things (IoT) and its implications on privacy. As there are more connected electronics in our homes, workplaces, and even on our bodies, it has become increasingly difficult to maintain our privacy. This section will discuss the many privacy risks associated with IoT, as well as ways for mitigating them.- Privacy and The Internet of Things The fourth chapter will go into privacy in healthcare. The healthcare industry deals with sensitive personal data, and privacy infractions can have major consequences. This section will discuss the importance of preserving individual patient health information as well as the legal frameworks that regulate patient privacy.- Privacy and HealthCare The fifth chapter will go over data protection and how it affects privacy. Because of the expanding number of produced personal data, it is now critical to safeguard personal data from unauthorized access, use, or disclosure. This section discusses the multiple measures and legislation in place to ensure data protection and privacy.- Privacy and Data Protection The sixth chapter will go over finance and how it affects privacy. Due to the importance of safety and security when dealing with money, it is extremely important to maintain privacy while interacting with finances. This section discusses the important laws and statistics regarding finances and privacy.- Privacy and Finance The seventh chapter will look at children and their relationship with privacy. As technology develops, it becomes more and more accessible to children, so keeping children and their data private has had a greater emphasis placed on it recently. This section will dive into privacy concerns, laws, and the importance of privacy for children.- Privacy and Children
415344	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415344	Oberon/ETH Oberon/OberonText	Oberon.Text guide Summary A personal computer needs to be configured and tailored to a given machine environment and to a personal profile. For this purpose, special tools are available in Oberon. They are described in the following sections separately for each implementation. Further platform-dependent details must be obtained from the specific installation guides. What is the configuration tool Oberon.Text? Oberon.Text is a configuration tool in the form of a simple text that can be edited freely. The configuration data is structured according to a simple, self-explanatory and recursive syntax whose formal definition in EBNF (Extended Backus Naur Form) is as follows: Example: Each first-level group, such as "System" and "Printer" in the example, carries the information for configuring a particular application area of Oberon. "Oberon.Text" included in the distribution contains defaults settings which are generally applicable. Some of these values are simple, obvious and intuitive, while other are technically oriented. Tweaking values is made easier with the help information appearing in the interspersed comments. The following description of the various groups give more background information or links to technical details. A group is denoted by a qualified name such as "Printer.Resolution" . Note that this concept of system configuration is open in many senses. Not only can new entries be added freely but the local syntax of entries (within group braces "{" "}") is completely open as well. There are a few low-level configuration data that are used on levels below the text system and therefore cannot make use of it in the mentioned way. For these cases (that users never have to care about) a low-level extension of the above explained mechanism is provided. It is based on a set of pairs (name, value) that are stored in some initial part of the boot file. Cfr. Partitions.GetConfig . For Windows users, it suffices to say that Oberon.Text is to Oberon what the Registry is to Windows, but much simpler and more intuitive to use. System The group "System.InitCommands" is, together with "NetSystem", the one most susceptible to need adjustement. It contains a collection of Oberon commands which must be executed when the system is started. To economize on editing and memorization efforts, a "!" placed in front of a command disables it without requiring to cut it out. "Oberon.Text" included in the distribution, contains such disabled commands to indicate which actions might be appropriate to condition Oberon for an optimal use. The group "System.TimeDiff" specifies the time difference of PC clock to GMT. The original value applies to the Central European Time - summer time. Printer The group "Printer" configures the printer driver and the groups "PSPrinter", "HPLaserPrinter" and "HPPCL" configure the page layout and the printer resolution. Cfr. Printer support. NetSystem The group "NetSystem" is a collection of values describing the network environment. For a direct LAN connection, an NIC is used. In some cases, the DIAL group must be edited too. DIAL The group "DIAL" is used when the computer is connected to the network is obtained via the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) and a modem or terminal adapter (a router not). OFS All the components of this group are described in the File system concept. Sound The group "Sound.Audio" configures the SoundBlaster controller or equivalent. The remaining groups are for configuring the sound CD-ROM but the drivers are currently not functioning, as they are awaiting to be upgraded to the rest of the alpha version. OP2 The group "OP2.Errors" lists all the compiler errors with a comment to help debugging. Gadgets The group "Gadgets.Aliases" lists the aliases which may be used as shorthand in Oberon commands in place of qualified generators of gadgets. The group "Gadgets.Documents" lists pair-wise filename extensions and their corresponding Document type to create when opened. The group "Gadgets.DocumentServices" lists pair-wise service names and their corresponding Document service to activate when invoked. The group "Gadgets.FinderTemplates" lists the entries for creating a Finder Gadget. Programmed access to Oberon.Text For programmed access to "Oberon.Text" a single procedure "Oberon.OpenScanner" in combination with the standard text scanning facility suffices. PROCEDURE OpenScanner (VAR S: Texts.Scanner; entry: ARRAY OF CHAR); This procedure is used within programs to position the text scanner at any desired entry in "Oberon.Text". It takes two parameters, a scanner and an entry name, where the name actually denotes a path and may be arbitrarily nested by qualification. For example, the name "Printer.Layout.Width" positions the scanner to the width specification "210 mm" and "SLIP.Dial" positions it to the dial-in code sequence. "22 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch"
415345	3395618	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415345	Oberon/ETH Oberon/betadocu	Introduction to ETH Oberon / PC Native alpha and beta release Download by anonymous FTP from: ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/Native/Update/ Introduction File system concept Comparison of the Oberon file systems File systems in the beta version Partition management with Oberon Disk image file Partitions viewed by Linux-based Oberon Oberon file system and foreign file systems Multiple Oberon partitions on a machine Oberon installation and installation updating Configuration strings Reconfiguring Oberon on start up Backup / Restore methods Archives Beta version specialities Bibliography Introduction This document is being revised as new versions of the PC Native Oberon system are being produced. The objective is to detail some of the important issues which can contribute to overcome possible installation problems encountered by new users and to explain how this operating system can coexist with other OSs. Contributions are always welcome. The installation procedure consists of a few interaction steps after booting the Oberon-0 boot diskette and need not be described in more details here. Many of the Oberon commands presented are effectively used during an Oberon installation but it is by no means indispensable to master the entire instrumentation to conduct a successful installation. The installation procedure makes use of only a small subset of all what is presented here. Note 1: The first beta version appeared on 20.03.2000 and was updated on 25.04.2000, 26.05.2000 and finally on 08.12.2000. In addition, an alpha version, including several changes and extensions, was made available on 13.05.2001 and is being updated regularly since then. The respective Beta version and Alpha version change logs contain detailed chronological accounts of the modifications made up-to-now. This document places the accent on the alpha version, while the beta version specialities are relegated in separate sections. Readers using the beta version will notice a few major differences but will also get a preview of what the alpha version will bring, if they are tempted to upgrade from their current beta to alpha. Note 2: To determine which version you are currently using, look at the date on the second line in the log, just after booting your system. If you have other Oberon partitions (type 76) on your machine, with an installed Oberon OS, look for the date in Kernel.Obj. If you have further questions, read the FAQ dedicated to this alpha/beta version. To find out whether your machine can host Native Oberon or not, consult the Hardware Compatibility List. This version of ETH Native Oberon introduces a new file system concept, a new generic driver concept, a number of new features and numerous improvements and corrections of the previous release. File system concept The new "partition management" applies to all kinds of mass storage devices: hard disks, storage devices with removable media like diskettes, ZIP disks and CD-ROMs, etc. This does not apply to ZIP drives attached to the parallel port. Most mass storage devices may host more than one partition, ZIP disks in principle too, but not diskettes. Oberon can produce ample information on "all" the existing partitions and free space in a computer system. All the devices will show up under the generic name "Disk" in displayed information as in this short example: Each partition can host a file system of which there are more than operating systems. With its new generic file system support, an active Oberon has access to the data of co-resident partitions hosting a "supported file system" (FS). The supported file systems are listed in the "OFS.Alias" section of Oberon.Text . They are: CAUTION: As always, before testing a new FS implementation, make sure that you do not risk corrupting a critical FAT partition. Exchanging files with a FAT-formatted diskette is safer. These file systems perform anonymous file garbage collection on-the-fly. Previously, file GC was performed only when Oberon was started. Access to a file system is obtained by mounting it with the "OFSTools.Mount" command described later. It is essential that the file system declared in the command parameter matches the file system residing on the partition. Each file system is characterized by a number of states: Case sensitivity in AosFS filenames is consistent with case sensitivity in the Oberon language. The maximum file size is now 2 GB and the maximum volume and partition size have been increased to 282 GB. Comparison of the Oberon file systems The Oberon file system has only slightly evolved since its inception and the figures in the following tables essentially reflect the trend toward larger capacity media, both mass storage devices and RAM. The information given is extracted from "Project Oberon" (Chapter 7) [WG92] and adapted to the two Native Oberon file systems for which the exact figures were obtained from the source modules. We refer to the Project Oberon file system as CeresFS. The implementation of files on a random-access store The scheme chosen in Oberon favors short files (< 64KB) but to keep the on-disk structure small yet still allow large files, each file header conforms to the following schema: The first data sector pointer points itself, the sector containing the header. The on-disk structure is similar to the internal organization of Unix files [Bac86]. Sector pointers are represented by sector numbers of type LONGINT. Actually, the numbers are multiplied by 29, the sector factor. This implies that any single-bit error leads to a number that is not a multiple of 29, and hence can easily be detected. The Scavenger program takes profit of this. The file directory The Oberon system uses a B-tree structure with the following characteristics for its file directory: On a page, space must be available for 2N elements and for N + 1 references to descendants. Hence N is immediately determined by the size of a page and the size of elements. In the case of Oberon, names are limited to 32 characters (bytes), and the object is a reference to the associated file (4 bytes). Each descendant pointer takes 4 bytes, and the page size is given by the sector size (SZ) minus the number of bytes needed to store m (2 bytes). Hence N = ((SZ - 2 - 4) DIV (32 + 4 + 4)) DIV 2 The number of directory entries stored in the tree depends on the tree height. The maximum number is given by the expression: MaxElems = 2N SUM(i:=0..Height-1, (2N+1)^i) Inside the directory page, a binary search among the elements is used (there are between N and 2N elements in a page). Hence assuming you have more than 10608 files in an AosFS, the tree will have an height of 3 (3 directory pages are accessed in the worst case) and a maximum of 3 * 2LOG(102) = 20 comparisons are needed (this is small compared to the disk access time). Besides that, caching can make accesses faster (usually the root page of the file directory stays in the cache). AosFS limit values The maximum file size is 4.0GB because of its triple index structure, but its is effectively limited to 2.0GB because of the 31 bit value for Set and Pos parameters. The maximum volume size or partition size is 282.48 GB, because BIOS imposes a limit of: 1'024 cylinders * 256 heads * 63 sectors = 16'515'072 physical sectors to divide by the sector factor (29) resulting in 569485 physical sectors of 512 bytes. A typical workable Oberon partition for a full system starts at about 40MB. Cfr. ShowAosFSLimits File systems in the Beta version Users of a Beta version, dating back to 08.12.2000 or earlier, must be aware that some of the FSs have somewhat different characteristics and that file manipulations in these FSs are performed in a different manner. As one can imagine, the FSs of the Alpha version described in the previous section are more generic, and this should motivate an upgrade to the Alpha version (which will eventually become the next Beta version). Partition management with Oberon The Partitions module offers a rather complete palette of partition management functions, so that it becomes possible to install a newer version using an existing Oberon system "without" the assistance of another operating system. Most commands addressing a partition can operate on a partition of an arbitrary type. A few operate only on Oberon partitions: Format, UpdateBootFile, GetConfig, SetConfig. A partition is addressed as "dev#part" where "dev" is the physical device designator such as IDE0, IDE1, Diskette0 (for the A drive) or Diskette1 (for drive B), and "part" is the sequence number of a partition on the device. Oberon collects the partition information from the "partition table" located in the first sectors of a device. A summary of the disk partitioning is displayed by executing "Partitions.Show" . Partitions.Show ["detail"] ~ Displays a summary of the partitioning of all the mass storage devices for which a driver is installed: hard disks and storage devices with removable media like diskettes, ZIP disks and CD-ROMs. By default, a minimum of information is displayed but details are added when the parameter "detail" is specified. The amount of free space is also displayed for use with "Partitions.Create". Example "Partitions.Show detail ~": The first line describes the disk: type (IDE, SCSI, Diskette, ...) and position on the controller, e.g. SCSI0.0 size in MB CHS is followed by the numbers for cylindersheadssectors. For a drive using LBA, the report will be "CHS: unsupported". Most ATA and SCSI drives use LBA. Some ATA drives supported both forms of addressing. manufacturer and model the number of times mounted mntcnt In the example, Partition 0 is a virtual partition that spans the whole disk. Devices that do not have a partition table, like a diskette or a CD, have only a partition 0. The disk name of the first diskette drive is "Diskette0" and the partition's name is "Diskette0#00". A ZIP disk can, in principle, have several partitions, as it can feature a partition table. Each subsequent line informs on the location, size and type of a partition or free space. The data is, for a part, extracted from the partition table located in the MBR. Each partition is assigned a "partition type" (see column 5 in the example) which identifies the "file system" contained in the partition. The partition type of the ETH Native Oberon is "76" (decimal) (partition hosting the new AosFS). More than one partition with partition type "76" may exist on a machine. That is not the case for the previous Native Oberon which uses partition type "79" and distinct other values for further partitions. The file system used there is named "NatFS". An active partition (see "Partitions.Activate"), is marked with an "". Depending on the installed hardware, the partition table is displayed after an appreciable time lapse. As an indication, it may take up to 10 seconds to scan and collect the information for a ATA/IDE device. This delay is well noticeable on older computers. Partitions.ChangeType dev#part from to ~ Changes the partition type of the specified partition from the current type (e.g. "6" for a DOS partition) to the new type (e.g. "76" for an AosFS). After that, a file system must be established with "Partitions.Format" . Use after creating a partition with another OS, or for reusing an existing free partition. Note that changing the partition type makes it unaccessible to other operating systems! If you accidentally change the type of the wrong partition, you can always change it back, provided you have not made other changes to it in the mean time. Partitions.Format dev#part [ AosFS \| NatFS [ FSRes [ BootFile]]] ~ Partitions.Format ^ Writes an empty file system on the designated partition, destroying any other existing file system. However, if an Oberon FS is detected and the system is operating in SAFE mode, the command is aborted and a warning is issued. Execute "Partitions.Unsafe ~" (it appears in the system log) to authorize formatting. The second parameter is the file system type that will be adopted for the partition. AosFS is used by default, which legitimates the second command form. A partition must be formatted before it can be mounted. The "BootFile" is the "kernel" of Aos. The file contains a statically linked image of the basic modules of the active object runtime, the dynamic module loader, at least one file system and at least one disk driver. This makes the partition bootable. "BootFile" is "Native.Bin" by default. "FSRes" is the amount of space that must be reserved for hosting the data. By default, 512 KB are reserved. Later on, after the partition was created, if the boot loader must be updated without a need of formatting the partition, you must use the command "Partitions.UpdateBootFile". Currently, Native.Bin is missing and a warning is issued informing that the partition is not bootable. Boot your machine using the Oberon0 diskette to perform a partial installation or an installation update to access Native.Bin. If a diskette is to be used solely as backup medium, set "FSRes" to 1 (0 will not be accepted) since the default value would amputate most of the available space. A "Partitions.Check" command is executed "implicitly". If the partition has been checked before, the check process can be safely interrupted by pressing the spacebar. This will speed up the format operation. Partitions.Safe ~ Partitions.Unsafe ~ "Partitions.UnSafe" enables unsafe commands and issues a warning "Now in UNSAFE mode!" in the System.Log. "Partitions.Safe" disables unsafe commands. "Partitions.Format" is unsafe. Unsafe commands are disabled by default. Partitions.UpdateBootFile dev#part [ BootFile ] ~ Updates the boot loader in an existing Oberon partition. This is necessary if you re-install Oberon in the same partition, or if you move a partition, with one of the many commercial tools available for that purpose, or if you upgrade an existing partition. "BootFile" is "Native.Bin" by default. Partitions.Check dev#part Partitions.Check ^ Checks the sectors of the specified partition, of any type, for readability and reports the outcome in the System.Log. This long-running command can be safely interrupted by pressing the spacebar. Partitions.GetConfig dev#part ~ Partitions.GetConfig ^ Partitions.SetConfig dev#part { str = "val" } ~ The execution of GetConfig displays in the System.Log a valid, executable "Partitions.SetConfig" command enumerating all the configuration strings defined for the specified Oberon partition, provided the partition is bootable. If necessary, the configuration can be immediately edited in the log and written back to disk (or diskette) by activating that command. There is practically no need to construct a SetConfig command from scratch. The parameters are far too numerous to detail. The amount of information will depend on the release used, as it is progressively improved and extended. Obviously, these commands may only address an Oberon partition, which is susceptible to contain configuration data. The partition was possibly booted from a diskette, in which case, the relevant information is obtained by executing: "Partitions.GetConfig Diskette0#0 ~" The configuration strings are used when Oberon is started by the boot loader and they can be also modified at that time. Limitation: This command can only be addressed to a partition on a device using 512-byte blocks. A CD-ROM uses 2'048-byte blocks for example and a TRAP would be induced. The config strings can be inspected and modified only at start time. Practical hint: during an Oberon installation, one has interest to execute "Config.BootPartition menu ~" always, even when a boot diskette is going to be created. In case the diskette gets lost or damaged, create a new diskette quickly, leaving out the configuration part, and to recover the configuration, execute "Partitions.GetConfig dev#part" followed by "Partitions.SetConfig Diskette0#0". In certain circumstances, it may be difficult to decide which display driver was selected initially. Technical hint: The configuration data is stored in sectors 4 to 7 of the partition - cfr. Partitions.ShowBlocks command below. Partitions.FileToPartition dev#part filename [block blocks] ~ Block copies a disk image file to the specified partition, of any type. block is the starting block number in the partition (this offset value starts at 0). "blocks" is the number of blocks to copy. Execute "Partitions.Show detail" to obtain the latter value. When the parameters are omitted, the entire partition is restored. It is strongly recommended to roll back the image file to a partition of the same size as the original one. In particular, "Partitions.FileToPartition Diskette0#0 Oberon0.Dsk ~" is used during an Oberon installation to create an Oberon-0 boot diskette from the disk image file "Oberon0.Dsk". Note: In versions prior to 13.05.2001, the syntax was: Partitions.PartitionFileTo dev#part filename [blocks] ~ which meant: write the first blocks to the partition. Partitions.PartitionToFile dev#part filename [block blocks] ~ Block copies the specified partition, of any type, to the named disk image file which is then saved for backup purpose. "block" is the starting block number in the partition (this offset value starts at 0). "blocks" is the number of blocks to copy. Execute "Partitions.Show detail" to obtain the latter value. If "block # 0", a negative "blocks" value will cause the remaining number of blocks (blocks - block) to be copied. When the parameters are omitted, the entire partition is saved/backed up. The MBR of a disk can be saved to a file (MBR.Bin) by executing "Partitions.PartitionToFile dev#0 MBR.Bin 0 1 ~" Note: In versions prior to 13.05.2001, the syntax was: Partitions.PartitionToFile dev#part filename [blocks] ~ which meant: write the first blocks of the partition. Partitions.WriteMBR dev#0 filename ~ Write the MBR to the specified disk (be careful). The MBR data is read from the named file and the program verifies that the data contains a valid MBR signature "55 AA" at the end. The MBR may have been previously saved, with "Partitions.PartitionToFile" for example. The data in the file is best examined with "Hex.Open" . Hint: This command must be considered as a technical utility, also paired with "Partitions.FileToPartition". It can be used with any operating system and is useful to remove or to write a LILO boot record for instance. This command is not equivalent to Partitions.FileToPartition dev#part filename 0 1 ~ !!! It writes only the boot loader code, the first 446 bytes, in the MBR, leaving the partition table "unchanged". It is the equivalent of the DOS command "fdisk /mbr" . On the contrary, "Partitions.FileToPartition" not only writes the boot loader in the MBR, it also writes the partition table, which can be harmful. Cfr. How It Works - PartitionTables. Partitions.ShowBlocks dev#part block [blocks] ~ Displays arbitrary disk blocks, of a partition of any type, in hex. E.g. Partitions.ShowBlocks IDE1#0 0 1 ~ displays the MBR on the primary IDE slave disk. Troubleshooting a boot problem with this command If your Oberon system does not start properly and simply stalls and displays "OBE", the Native boot loader does not find the second sector. Execute: Partitions.ShowBlocks IDE0#02 0 8 ~ to write the first 8 sectors of the partition. Sector 0 (the first sector) should have "OBERON" close to the start, and 2-byte signature "55 AA" at the end. Sector 1 must have two AA 55 bytes at the start. Example: It is important that the four bytes at offset 1CH in sector 0 designate the sector number of the boot sector. In the example: 40 23 03 00 (reversed in little-endian order) -> 00032340H = 205632 decimal The last value must match what appears in the first column for the partition after executing Partitions.Show detail ~ Another thing to check is that the byte at offset 24H is the boot drive number (80H in the example). This should be 0 for diskette A:, 80H for the first BIOS disk drive, 81H for the second BIOS disk drive, etc. In practice, the rule is relaxed since the software will accept either 81H or 80H. Your configuration should be visible from sector 4 to 7 (or it could be all zero if you always boot via noboot.exe). Partitions.Activate dev#part ~ Partitions.Activate ^ Partitions.Deactivate dev#part ~ Partitions.Deactivate ^ Activates / deactivates the specified partition, of any type; that is, sets/resets the "active" marker of a "primary partition" (see "partition entry" in the partition table). In the list obtained with "Partitions.Show ~", an active partition is marked with an "". When no boot manager is installed, the active partition located on the "first" disk drive is automatically booted. This is true provided the partition hosts an operating and, for Oberon in addition, that the configuration strings have been written in it, during the installation or later. The "active" marker has no meaning when: an Oberon partition is booted with a bootable diskette, created during the installation or later. a boot manager is used. In both cases, any partition, primary partition or logical drive in an extended partition can be booted. Active partition on a disk drive other than the first one: It can be booted too if the machine System Setup allows to change the boot sequence. More than one active partition: The normal case is to allow only one active partition on a disk. If more than one is active, as can easily be achieved, it is expected that the first one found in the physical order is booted, but that can depend on the MBR code. One boot manager (?) was observed which did present a menu with the active partitions. Partitions.Create dev#part sizeMB Creates an Oberon primary partition (type AosFS = 76) of the specified size which will remain unformatted, except for the first sector which is filled with 0F6X. It cannot create a logical drive in an extended partition. Execution is possible only under the condition that no partition is mounted on the host device; that is, using Oberon-0 or using an installed Oberon but on another device with no partition mounted. Cfr. "OFSTools.Unmount": the FS which is automatically mounted at boot time cannot be unmounted. The program verifies that the MBR is valid, i.e. has a "55 AA" signature at the end. This is only important to remember when a low-level formatted empty disk is installed. A valid MBR must then be written first. (* Not in Beta ) Partitions.Delete dev#part type Deletes a primary partition of the specified type. It was decided to have the user specify this, as it is more robust. Execution is possible only under the condition that no partition is mounted on the host device; that is, using Oberon-0 or using an installed Oberon but on another device with no partition mounted. Warning: The partition is unrecoverable! ( Not in Beta ) Partitions.ShowAosFSLimits ~ Displays the AosFS limits in the System.Log. Partitions.Eject dev#partPartitions.Eject ^ Eject the media from the selected device. ( Not in Beta ) Disk image file Cloning is the process of duplicating an installed operating system from one reference computer to one or more other computers. It consists in backing up all the data stored on the partitions of the reference computer and in restoring that data on a target computer. Cloning is used extensively at the ETH for installing the computer laboratories. Oberon implements a simple "sector-based cloning method" in a pair of commands "Partitions.PartitionToFile" and "Partitions.FileToPartition" for cloning a "single" partition. The sectors of a partitions are copied to and from the intermediate file without knowledge of the underlying file system structure. The intermediate file is usually called a "disk image file", or simply "disk image". The advantage of the method is that it can not only be used for an Oberon partition but also for any existing operating system. Usually, a disk image will reside on a server. For example, "Oberon0.Dsk" is a disk image, more precisely a diskette image, which resides on the ETH ftp server ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/Native/[expired]. Cloning is also useful for moving a partition to another on the same or another disk on the same computer. Keep in mind that a third partition must offer enough free space for storing the disk image. Given that an Oberon partition is normally no larger that 50MB, this kind of cloning can be considered realistic and practicable too because it is fast. Partitions of other OSs are usually much larger and finding enough free space is probably out of question. Cloning is not apt to resize a partition - cfr. command "OFSTools.GenCopyFiles". Oberon0.Dsk This image file is at the base of the installation or update of each Oberon system. With it and with the "Partitions.FileToPartition" command, an Oberon-0 boot diskette is created. Booting from this diskette, starts Oberon-0 which is a small ramdisk-based system for configuring and installing a real, full-fledged Oberon system. This boot diskette is a good example of Oberon system on a diskette. The image file is created by a process completely described in the section "Installation diskette" in Native.Tool. Oberon utility diskette The Oberon Utility Disk is another example of Oberon system on a diskette. The image file is created by a process completely described in the section "Utility diskette" in Native.Tool. Disk image format A disk image can also be processed by other popular disk image programs. For example, the Oberon-0 boot diskette can also be created with: Partitions viewed by Linux-based Oberon Linux-based Native Oberon is an emulation of Native Oberon for Linux. The goal is not a tight integration in the Linux environment but binary compatibility with Native Oberon. This implementation does not change the module interfaces but partitions are viewed differently. This is due to the fact that Linux Oberon is installed in a LinuxFS file. Partitions.Show [detail] Displays a table of "virtual partitions". When a Linux-based Oberon is started, the hosting file (default name: oberon.dsk) is viewed as a "mounted" virtual partition. To access a real Native Oberon partition execute: Linux.OpenDisk path Gives access to a Native Oberon (AosFS or NatFS) partition. "path" is its Linux identifier, e.g. /dev/hdb1. The partition will be viewed as "virtual" and its file system can then be mounted. Example "Partitions.Show detail ~": Partitions.Check path Partitions.Check ^ Same meaning as for Native Oberon. All the remaining Partitions commands are not applicable in that context. The configuration is not changed with "Partitions.SetConfig" but by editing "oberon.cnf". Like in Native Oberon, a file system must be mounted prior to accessing it. You can mount a LinuxFS or a Native Oberon partition accessed with "Linux.OpenDisk". Oberon file system and foreign file systems File names are "prefixed" with a name identifying a specific mounted file system, as for example SYS, the prefix of the file system from which the system is booted (default prefix). Example: The full filename of Oberon.Text on a newly installed system is SYS:Oberon.Text . A NamePlate gadget displays the filename at the beginning and the prefix (or directory) at the end, so that the filename is always visible. The prefix may be hidden when the filename is long. A MM click on a NamePlate causes the full name to be displayed in the System.Log. An Oberon system can access not only the data of its own file system type AosFS but also data in other Oberon partitions and foreign file systems. Access to other file systems is controlled by the commands of the OFSTools module. OFSTools.Mount prefix [hashSize] [cachesize] alias (dev#part [",R"] [",X"]] \| params ~ \| ^) ~ Mounts a file system. The first parameter is the prefix under which the file system must be mounted. The prefix is determined at mount time; that is, it is not permanent. After mount, the prefix part of a name is used to find the correct file system, and the part after the prefix is passed on to the file system to interpret. It is not possible to have the same prefix for different partitions/volumes. The order in which multiple file systems are mounted is the order in which they are searched. The order can be changed with "OFSTools.SetDefault" and is revealed by "OFSTools.Watch" . Example: OFSTools.Mount AOS AosFS IDE2#5 ~ After execution, a file "My.Text" residing in IDE2#5, the fifth partition on device IDE2, will be accessible with the name "AOS:My.Text". The second and the third parameters are cache specifications. No cache is installed by default. Cfr. "OFSTools.InstallCache" command. The fourth parameter is the file system type expected on the partition (AosFS in the example). The valid types are listed in the "OFS.Alias" section of Oberon.Text . Although it is conceivably possible for the system to work out the correct file system type to use, deducing it from the dev#part value, it was decided to have the user specify this, as it is more robust. dev#part in the 5th parameter specifies the device and the partition to mount. It hosts either an AosFS, a NatFS or a FatFS file system. A FatFS may be a DOS or Windows FAT FSs; that is, FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32. Files can be exchanged between these FSs and that of an Oberon system using the familiar System.CopyFiles command. System.RenameFiles, System.DeleteFiles and System.Directory may be used too and files can be opened directly as usual. Further, the FAT.Tool allows access to the extended capabilities of the FAT file system that Oberon does not support, i.e. directories, file attributes, and so on. Also a DOS-formatted diskette or a ZIP disk can be mounted. The optional ",R" parameter gives read-only access to the FS. For example, during the installation of a new Oberon system, you are invited to execute: OFSTools.Mount SRC NatFS Diskette0,R ~ This gives read-only access to the mounted Oberon-0 diskette containing an archive of the Oberon modules to install. The diskette may be write-protected or not. Do not attempt to mount a write-protected diskette without specifying the ",R" parameter. A TRAP will occur. Mounting a diskette causes the diskette LED to light and to stay lit until an Unmount command is issued. This should draw your attention because you must unmount the diskette before changing the medium. The optional ",X" parameter is only for use when mounting a FatFS. This option forces the FAT driver to ignore the clean shutdown flag of the partition and to mount the partition for read and write. If the shutdown flag is not set, the partition is mounted read-only to prevent possible data corruption. This situation is reported in the Kernel log. About the clean shutdown flag: The flag indicates that a partition was properly unmounted. If Oberon crashes, the flag will not be set for a partition which was mounted. It is a good idea to run a disk repair utility program, such as the MS-DOS Scandisk, on a FatFS: if Scandisk fixes an error, it sets the clean shutdown flag. If no error is detected, Scandisk does not set the flag, although it should. params in the 5th parameter depends of the FS specified in alias, as is described below. Practical hint: If you want a file system to be mounted when you start the system, you can place a Mount command in the "System.InitCommands" section of Oberon.Text . RamFS size sectorsize ~ Mounts a file system residing in main storage, thus outside of the device / partition hierarchy and which need not be formatted. The RamFS parameter is followed by the size in sectors, followed by the sector size in bytes. This file system is provided as a user convenience for storing temporary data that will be purged when Oberon is terminated. FileFS filename ~ Mounts an existing Oberon hosted in a file specified in the next parameter. Prior to this, the hosting FatFS must be mounted. This command variant makes it possible to exploit legacy data in former DOS-based Oberon systems. Example: OFSTools.Mount FAT FatFS IDE2#5 ~ followed by: OFSTools.Mount DFS FileFS FAT:Oberon.Dsk ~ LinuxFS path ~ (Linux-based Oberon only) Mounts a Linux file system found along the specified path. Refer to the special Linux section below. Accessing the file system of an earlier Native Oberon release First, use "Partitions.Show" to list all partitions, locate the target partition and select it. Then, execute: ::OFSTools.Mount NAT NatFS ^ Accessing a Linux file system from Linux-based Oberon In Linux, determine the "path" to the file system. e.g. /home/userid In Linux Oberon, mount the file system with: OFSTools.Mount prefix LinuxFS path Accessing a Native Oberon sub-system from a Linux-based Oberon In Linux, execute "fdisk" to determine the partition's identifier, e.g. /dev/hda5 In Linux Oberon, access the partition as a "virtual disk" with: Linux.OpenDisk /dev/hda5 and mount the file system (NatFS or AosFS) with: OFSTools.Mount prefix filesys /dev/hda5 OFSTools.Unmount prefix OFSTools.Unmount ^ Unmount the partition mounted earlier under the named prefix. The file system on the media is updated and if it resides on a removable media, the media may be removed. Do not remove a media before it is cleanly updated! When you shut down the system cleanly with "System.Reboot", "System.Quit" or "Ctrl-Alt-Del", the mounted file systems are automatically unmounted first. Also take care not to unmount a file system "before all viewers" displaying documents residing on that file system are closed, otherwise you will induce a series of TRAPs. Important: The FS which is automatically mounted at boot time cannot be unmounted. The status (boot) is revealed by "OFSTools.Watch" . OFSTools.SetDefault prefix OFSTools.SetDefault ^ Set the FS with the named prefix as first FS to access by default. The remaining mounted FSs are left in their current order. The new complete path is displayed in the System.Log. Example: Path: WRK SYS Later on, the order of the FSs can still be verified by executing "OFSTools.Watch" or "System.Watch" . The order of the mounted partitions is important. In the example, WRK comes first, and then comes SYS. This means that when you load a file without specifying a prefix, the system will search through all the mounted FSs in their order, until the file is found. For example, if you load a file called "My.Text", and the WRK FS does not include such a file, then a file in SYS will eventually be opened, if it exists. In contrast, when storing a file without an explicit prefix, the file is "always" stored on the "first" file system (WRK: in this case). To avoid confusion, it is best to always specify a prefix when creating a new file. The TextDocs gadget helps by always displaying the complete filename, including the prefix, in the NamePlate. To direct the placement of files, as for instance when compiling new .Obj files, you may choose between: Instruct the compiler to use a prefix (recommended): "Compiler.Compile \PUSR: {files} ~" Change the default file system with "OFSTools.SetDefault"This is not recommended, as it affects all newly created prefix-less files. To display all files on a specific file system, select the line in the "System.Watch" display and execute "System.Directory ^" . OFSTools.Watch Lists the mounted file systems in their order, with their prefix, alias, partition id, size and amount of free space. (boot) indicates a file system automatically mounted at boot time. Cache performance information is displayed, if installed. A little more details are given compared to what "System.Watch" shows, but the latter command displays heap information in addition. If free space is low, remember that there exists no direct Oberon tool to resize an Oberon partition. Cfr. Partition backup. To give another example, a RAM-based system installed immediately after booting from an installation diskette Oberon-0: A 2MB RAM disk is created by default by Oberon-0. That means at least 3MB are needed for the installation. If needed, Oberon can run in less than 3 MB memory. OFSTools.InstallCache prefix hashSize cacheSize ~ Installs a cache, of cacheSize blocks, for the FS with named prefix. 100 blocks give a good cache performance and takes about 200KB of memory. Use "OFSTools.Watch" to look at the cache performance. This command my not be used with a FatFS, since it uses a built-in data cache optimized for FAT. OFSTools.RemoveCache prefix Removes the cache installed for the FS with the named prefix. Does not apply to FatFS. OFSTools.CopyTo dst src (&file \| { file [=> file ] }) ~ Copies a bulk of files from the file system "src" to another "dst". If a file system is the default one, it may be abbreviated as "". The two first parameters are followed: either by the names of the files to copy. Optionally, each file can optionally be assigned a new name specified after "=>". or by a single name prefixed with "&" which denotes an indirect list. The names of the files to copy are contained in the named file. OFSTools.GenCopyFiles rem add ("mask" \| &file \| { file [=> file] }) ~ Generates a System.CopyFiles command which you can execute, after possibly editing it. The first two parameters specify prefixes. The third (and subsequent) parameters specify a list of files or a mask for selecting filenames. Every filename in the list is taken as source filename. The destination filename is generated as follows: the first parameter is a string to be removed from the filename's head; the second parameter is a string to affix to the trailing part. The syntax is not too intuitive but the command is really powerful and useful for preparing a batch of filenames. The easiest way to see how the command works is to try it out. This is safe, as it does not have any effect itself, other than generating a text that you can review and execute. Copy or resize a partition Assume that valuable data is stored in SYS: and that BACKUP: is a free partition on a system. The power of the command "OFSTools.GenCopyFiles SYS: BACKUP: "SYS:" ~" is particularly impressive in these two usually non-trivial applications: Backup a partition: A copy file by file captures the state of the system at a particular moment. One can then roll back the original system in the event of malfunctions caused by new software or the installation of new hardware. This is a easy technique for rolling back the system to a point where it worked properly. Resize a partition: The copy process reorganizes automatically the files thus offering the possibility to move the data to a smaller size partition, though the prime use will usually be for increasing the size. Cloning offers the advantage that the image file can be ported to another system. Multiple Oberon partitions on a machine Oberon can be installed in a primary partition or in a logical drive. Hence, more than four Oberon partitions may coexist on a single hard disk. But Oberon can also be installed on different hard disks, even of different type (EIDE, SCSI, USB). During the installation, you are invited to select a driver for the controller of the hard disk on which Oberon must be installed. Later on, when you decide to install Oberon on another disk, you must execute the relevant disk driver install command: This may also be done in the System.InitCommands section of Oberon.Text Afterwards you will see the new devices in the "Partitions.Show" display. To see trace information displayed by these drivers, use "System.OpenKernelLog" . Additional file systems To create a new file system, you first have to create a partition by executing a "Partitions.Create" or a "Partitions.ChangeType" command. The next step is to format the partition with AosFS by executing a "Partitions.Format" command. After formatting the partition, mount it with an "OFSTools.Mount" command, e.g. with the parameters USR AosFS dev#part. If you want the file system to be mounted when you start the system, you can place this command in the "System.InitCommands" section of Oberon.Text . You can now access files on the new file system using names like: "USR:SomeFile". You can also create Oberon file systems on removable media like diskettes and ZIP disks (driver available). In the case of removable media, you have to be careful to unmount the file system before removing the media again, to cleanly update the file system on the media. This is done using the "OFSTools.Unmount" command. Suggestion for assigning partition prefixes One should use a small number of partitions. The problem with having too many partitions is that they have to be preallocated, and one has to live with a bad allocation. If the SYS partition is too small to install a new release, what do you do? If it is too big, space is wasted. The recommended partition size starts at 40 MB for a complete release, leaving approximately 40% of user free space, but users may also elect to set their files apart in a HOME partition, as is explained below. The Shark network computers at the ETH had three: SYS: for read-only shared system files RAM: for a ram disk HOME: for the user's own files On a PC, a recommended number is two: SYS: for the installation HOME: for the user's own files It is recommended to make HOME: the default file system by executing "OFSTools.SetDefault HOME ~" , at best when Oberon is started by adding it to the "System.InitCommands" section of Oberon.Text . To make this quite visible add "System.Watch" to that section too. Files with identical names in different file systems This may be the source of a serious problem, with .Obj files in particular. When a module X is loaded, the module loader simply tries to open file X.Obj (no prefix). The file system will search through the search path (in System.Watch order) until X.Obj is found, and module X will be loaded from that file system. If you have multiple copies of X.Obj on different file systems, the search path order determines which one is loaded. This can be to the least confusing and can also lead to a catastrophy with TRAPs and system lockup. The best is to name modules uniquely (by registering a prefix in the module registry on the Native home page), and to avoid duplicate .Obj files. Oberon installation and installation updating The possibility to operate with multiple file systems simplifies the installation strategy. For the purpose of discussing various options, assume that an Oberon system is running on two file systems (SYS: and HOME:). Recall that when Oberon is already installed, no other OS is needed anymore for a further installation (except for creating another Oberon partition, as this beta version does not yet support this). Installation of new release To install a new release without impairing or destroying the working system, say for testing it, one creates an additional partition for the new release. Then, the current file system (SYS:), the new FS (also SYS:) and the user FS (HOME:) can be managed as two pairs: current + HOME and new + HOME. Obviously, with such a setup you do not risk to overwrite some of the SYS: files adjusted to your personal preference, but these particular files must also be customized in the new system. Modified files can easily be spotted by executing "System.Directory SYS:.Bak" resulting in a list, which will probably contain some of these names: EditKeys.Text Mail.Panel Mail.Sig.Text - (your mail signature) MailMessages - (your mailbox) News.Sig.Text - (your news signature) Oberon.Text System.Tool System3.Tool TextPopups.Text and possibly a few more .Tool file names that have been adjusted. Follow the installation instructions to install the new release and start it. Mount the old FS under a name of your choice, e.g. OLD. Most of the files listed above may be copied to the new FS, except "Oberon.Text" which must be merged with the new one, because some new settings may have been added in the new release. Open "OLD:Oberon.Text" and "SYS:Oberon.Text" and copy the old settings into the new text. It might be a good practice to highlight your private data in color. A "MailMessage.Bak" file will only show up after having executed "Mail.Collect" or after having deleted 100 messages. There remains to organize to start either system at will. Many alternatives are offered: make them bootable from diskette, from a boot manager or by activation. Whereas booting from diskette is always possible, the alternatives are conditioned by the boot manager or the partitions' position on the hard disk(s). Upgrading an installed Oberon If you re-install Oberon in the same partition or upgrade it, the risk of overwriting files exists in principle, but the install procedure takes care of creating a .Bak file for each file with suffix ".Text", ".Tool" or ".Mod". Only those files listed in the previous section are really 'critical' and could be lost by erroneous handling (). The installation itself is simplified compared to a full installation. Indeed, a partition is already present, hopefully of a suitable size, and the FS is also present. Formatting the FS is thus not required. Instead, the boot loader must be replaced with "Partitions.UpdateBootFile". After the installation, copy back the critical files from their .Bak version or from a special backup version. Do not simply copy "Oberon.Text", because some new settings may have been added in the new release. Open "Oberon.Text" and "Oberon.Text.Bak" and copy the old settings into the new text. It might be a good practice to highlight your private data in color. () E.g. by attempting another run of the installation before completing the current one. As a measure of precaution, you may thus backup them prior to the installation in any of the manners described in the next section. Configuration strings Native Oberon uses configuration strings for setting low-level configuration options. These strings are ASCII string pairs (name, value) which are stored in a table on the boot device (diskette or hard disk). Permanent values for these strings are normally set during installation using the Install program in Oberon-0. The strings are read by low-level modules in the system using the Kernel.GetConfig procedure. Higher-level modules should use the more flexible Oberon.Text and the Oberon.OpenScanner procedure for accessing configuration information. Cfr. Configuration strings Reconfiguring Oberon on start up Sometimes it is necessary to temporarily override the setting of some config strings.The configuration of a starting Oberon system can be changed "on-the-fly" by holding down the Shift key or by activating Scroll Lock during booting. Within seconds the boot process is interrupted and the config strings with their name and current value are listed on the screen: Enter "h" (for help) to recall the rules for replying to the Oberon Boot Loader (OBL) prompt (terminate each reply with a carriage return): Enter a config string pair and terminate with a carriage return. Since version 2.23 the name strings are no longer case sensitive. To make the changes permanent, enter "w" and the configuration will be written back to the boot device. To continue with booting, enter a final "c". If "noboot.exe" is used to start Oberon (via DOS or MS-DOS mode in Windows 95/ 98 (not ME)), the boot process is also interrupted but the editor of choice determined by a SET Editor= command is called to edit the configuration stored in the "Native.Par" file. When the editor is exited, booting is resumed. If no editor is defined, booting proceeds normally without giving an opportunity to modify "Native.Par". Obviously, config strings can also be changed by editing "Native.Par" whenever required. Only the size of the file containing Oberon (in the Linux file system) can be changed in Linux-based Native Oberon. Backup / Restore methods PC Native Oberon offers a number of methods for backing up sensitive data. File backup/restore to a mountable file system Backing up in another file system (AosFS, NatFS, FatFS) is made possible by the mounting / unmounting facility described in Oberon and foreign file systems. A batch of files is best copied from one file system to a another using "OFSTools.CopyTo". The same command is used to restore the files. Alternatively, the backup / restore operation can be conducted by executing "System.CopyFiles". The command with a list of filenames is conveniently created by an "OFSTools.GenCopyFiles" command. In spite of their limited storage capacity, diskettes are still a favorite backup medium, given the small average file size of Oberon modules and object files. Diskettes are exploited in the same way as hard disks, except that they feature a single partition of very small size, containing a mountable file system. Note that the AosFS can waste space in comparison with the NatFS and the FatFS. The classical drive letters "A" and "B" are not used anymore in commands, except in the "Backup.Tool" commands described next. Since Oberon operates with long filenames, storing files to a FatFS may run unexpectedly fast into a capacity problem. The root directory in the file allocation table can contain 512 entries at most. In other words, there can be at most 512 files and folders in the root directory. To store long filenames and folder names, and their associated 8.3 aliases, one can run out of directory entries with fewer than 512 files or folders in the root directory. The work around is to move a batch of files to a work "folder" in the root directory. Backup.Tool Files are copied from a partition to a diskette using "Backup.WriteFiles", and are restored to the partition using "Backup.ReadFiles". "Backup.Tool" provides the details. For doing that, a diskette does not need mounting. Filenames are limited to the 8.3 format. DOSBackup diskette Files backed up on Windows Oberon using the DOSBackup tool can be restored on Native Oberon executing a "DOS.BackupDirectory "a:/"" command. This will produce a "DOS.Copy" command with the relevant filenames ready for editing before execution. The restored files will recover their Oberon names instead of the 8+3 names enforced by a "DOS.ReadFiles" command. Backup on server via FTP Oberon is inherently fit for communication, FTP in particular. A graphical user interface is at hand for uploading / downloading files to a remote server but the "NetSystem.Tool" provides down to earth commands to achieve the same goal. Partition backup Copy the partition to another one and restore it. Partition cloning Copy the partition to a disk image file and restore it. Archives Archive files play a major role for backup operations and transmission of large amount of data. Soon, a new archive type will be offered, in addition to the custom Oberon archives with the file extension "Arc". The new Zip archives are portable among all Oberon and many other platforms. They are based on the widely used Zlib Deflate compression technique, allowing to compress multiple files into a single zip archive and conversely to deflate the archive. The archiving tools included in this release are only enumerated here: The Unzip, OldFiles and FileUtils tools, documented in Chapter2.Text , have been removed. Beta version specialities This version's Partitions tool can not create a partition, it can only change the type of an existing partition available for reuse. Eventually, you will have to create a partition using another OS (e.g. using Linux or PartitionMagic), and then change its type by executing a "Partitions.ChangeType" command. Partitions.Show ["detail"] ~ The command tells which drive letter is associated with each DOS/Win partition. This information is unreliable since it depends on the version used, and moreover, it is foreign to Oberon. This non-facility was dropped in the alpha version which features a more versatile FatFS. Example: The drive letter is necessary for mounting a DOS-based Oberon and for managing files with the DOS.Tool commands. OFSTools.Mount prefix DosBasedFS filename ~Mounts the file system of an Oberon system residing in the file specified in the next parameter. The file is located in a FAT16 partition. E.g. OFSTools.Mount DOS DosBasedFS c:/oberon.dsk ~ OFSTools.Mount prefix FileFS filename ~Mounts a FileFS of an existing Oberon in a file specified in the next parameter. Prior to issuing the "OFSTools.Mount" command, the DOS-based file must be copied from its host FAT16 partition to the Oberon partition with "DOS.Copy" . E.g. DOS.Copy c:/system3/native.dsk => native.dsk ~ This Mount command variant makes it possible to exploit legacy data in former DOS-based Oberon systems. Accessing a FAT16 partition Instead of mounting a DosBasedFS, one can exchange files between Oberon and a FAT16 file system using the DOS command collection documented in "DOS.Tool", an external medium by means of Backup commands or a server accessed by ftp. Solved differently in the alpha version. File backup to a FAT16 partition A batch of files is written from one partition to another using "DOS.CopyTo", and is restored to the partition using "DOS.CopyFrom". "DOS.Tool" provides the details. The same result can be achieved by executing "DOS.Copy" commands at the cost of more editing of the filenames. There are numerous cases where a "DOS.Copy" command is even required. Executing a "DOS.Directory" command directed to a FAT partition, shows a plethora of "~" embedded in filenames, names which are then obviously invalid as destination filename in Oberon, as in this example: DOS.CopyFrom "E:/ofwmay/work/" "mailsi~1.tex" ~ but this works: DOS.Copy "E:/ofwmay/work/mailsi~1.tex" => Mail.Sig.Text ~ File backup to a diskette Files are copied from a partition to a diskette using "Backup.WriteFiles", and are restored to the partition using "Backup.ReadFiles". "Backup.Tool" provides the details. For doing that, a diskette does not need mounting. Filenames are limited to the 8+3 format. A Backup diskette cannot be mounted. The Backup tool format is not compatible with either NatFS or AosFS. Bibliography [Bac86] Maurice Bach - "The Design of the Unix Operating System" - Prentice Hall - ISBN 0-13-201757-1 [WG92] Niklaus Wirth and Jürg Gutknecht - "Project Oberon - The Design of an Operating System and Compiler" - Addison-Wesley, 1992. "5 Nov 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch"
415346	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415346	Oberon/ETH Oberon/usb	USB support Summary Basic USB support was implemented for Native Oberon (starting Dec. 8, 2000) by Christian Plattner in a semester project. Thomas Frey ported the USB modules to Bluebottle = A2. The support is rather new and not much experience has been gained yet. USB is a very comprehensive standard, and not all devices are automatically supported. Many devices also use proprietary protocols on top of the basic USB link layer, thus requiring an extension of the basic support. See Usb.Tool for more information. For an exhaustive description of the subject, consult: usb.org and Wikipedia. How to install a USB driver If a USB controller is present (many modern computers feature an on-board USB controller), use the System Setup of your machine to enable it. Then, execute the following command: UsbSystem.Start Installs a USB system driver. After that, a USB mouse driver and a USB keyboard driver may be installed. Do not install the driver if the USB controller is not enabled or none is present. Alternatively and preferably, edit the command in Oberon.Text as explained below. Configure Oberon.Text - NetSystem.System.InitCommands In a freshly installed Oberon, this section contains a commented UsbSystem.Start command already. Uncomment it and the USB driver will be automatically installed when Oberon is started. "22 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/"
415347	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415347	Oberon/ETH Oberon/keyboard	Keyboard support This page addresses hardware, configuration and functionality. A usage tutorial is also available. Summary Oberon uses a PS/2-style keyboard attached to a 6-pin DIN connector or a keyboard attached to a 4-pin USB connector. The numeric pad can take over the functions of the mouse, if need be. How to install a keyboard driver A freshly installed Oberon system is set up to operate with a PS/2-style, 101-key keyboard with US layout. Currently, eleven other keyboard layouts are supported: Belgian, Canadian, Swiss German, German, Dvorak, French, Norwegian, Polish, Finnish, Turkish, UK English. Each keyboard, except the US one, is defined by a keyboard map file and all of these can be listed by executing <code>System.Directory Key.Bin\d ~</code> A keyboard driver for a different keyboard layout is installed in these ways: ConfigInput.Keyboard [ mapfilename \| ^ ] Sets up the keyboard driver to operate with a keyboard with the specified layout. A list of existing map filenames is obtained with System.Directory Key.Bin\d ~. There exists no US file; omit the parameter to install a US keyboard. Escape compatibility / Neutralize The Neutralize key is used to remove all marks on the display, including the caret, the marker and text selections. The F2 key is defined as Neutralize key for all the Oberon system implementations. In earlier implementations instead, the Esc key was assigned this function. Doing this has the negative consequence that the Esc character cannot be generated in certain applications needing it, e.g. terminal-emulation applications. The Escape compatibility option is controlled at startup, by the config string EscCompat and lets the user define the meaning of the Esc key: EscCompat = 0 (default) the Esc key retains its conventional meaning. EscCompat = 1 the Esc key is also a Neutralize key. An Esc character must then be generated by F3. In both cases, an Esc character can also be generated with Shift-Esc or Alt-27. Num Lock Num Lock is controlled at startup, by the config string NumLock NumLock = 1 (default) activates the Num Lock mode NumLock = 0 deactivates it How to install a USB keyboard driver UsbKeyboard.Init Installs a USB keyboard driver. The USB system must be active already. How to support another keyboard If no keyboard map exists for your specific keyboard, the Keyboard.Mod is provided to help construct a keyboard table file. Instruction for using it are included in the source. Please submit your work to the developer team, for inclusion in a follow-up release. ASCII and Latin-1 (ISO 8859-1) character sets Oberon is based on the standard ASCII character set code points 00H to 7FH. The characters are produced with the respective labelled keys, including the use of Shift-key, on a US 101-key keyboard. For cross-platform portability, Oberon does not normally support all keys available on the keyboard. The printable character or the function corresponding to a decimal code point can be generated by holding the Alt-key and keying the decimal value on the numeric keypad. To find out a key's respective printable character and at the same time the decimal and the hexadecimal code point, execute "EditKeys.GetKeyCode" and follow the instructions in the System log. The command is documented in "EditKeys.Tool" . Code points 00H to 1FH Code points 20H to 7FH All characters are printable except DEL. Code points 80H to FFH The assignment of special language characters to code points 80H to 95H is a property of the fonts delivered with Oberon. In HTML, any ISO Latin-1 character can be written as &#xxx; , where xxx is the decimal code point of the character, in place of the entity reference. Of the remaining code points, some are used by Oberon and others are unassigned. Latin-1 characters - ISO 8859-1, Latin script - can be produced on a US keyboard, as shown in the table below, using the Alt-key or a dead key stroke (the Shift key is implicitly required where A, O, U, " or ^ appear). ASCIITab tool The ASCIITab.Tool offers an alternative to typing accented characters, and more generally any code point, as ALT-key combinations, provided the Gadgets-based GUI is installed. Executing <code>Desktops.OpenDoc ASCIITab.Tool</code> opens a text document viewer containing a table from where to pick characters for insertion in the text being edited in some other text viewer. The table of 8 rows by 32 columns contains the printable characters in Oberon10 font (the Oberon default font). Set the caret in the text, and in the table MM click the character to insert at the caret. To change the font of the table, edit the font name in <code>Gadgets.ChangeAttr Font Oberon10.Scn.Fnt ~</code> as required, select the table (MR click) and execute the command. After this, deselect the table and proceed with editing. For a larger font, it is necessary to resize the table. Since the table is a gadget having ASCIITab.NewFrame as generator, it can also be inserted anywhere at the caret with <code>Gadgets.Insert ASCIITab.NewFrame ~ </code>. Writing Oberon in lower case only Persons affected by Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) may wish to write Oberon in lower case characters only. Three ways to make this possible are described in the FAQ. "11 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch"
415348	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415348	Oberon/ETH Oberon/mouse	Mouse support This page addresses hardware, configuration and functionality. A usage tutorial is also available. Summary The Oberon TUI and GUI can be controlled at best with a 3-button mouse as originally designed. However, many potential Oberon users have systems fitted with 2-button mice and are not ready to acquire another mouse in spite of the low cost. The 2-button support is particularly welcomed by users liking track balls. Oberon can be controlled: When Oberon is started, it is ready to be controlled with a 2-button mouse according to 3., irrespective of the mouse type. If the mouse has effectively 2 buttons, hitting the F8-key switches the mode of operation to 2. But, if on hitting the F8-key Oberon recognizes the signals of a 3-button mouse, it will switch the mode of operation to 1. The change of mode is made apparent by the tiny double-arrow icon at the left of the NamePlate of open documents in the GUI and by an equivalent icon in the menu bar of documents in the TUI. With a 3-button mouse installed, one can practice the modes 2. and 3. by simply ignoring the middle button, though the button retains its functionality and a mixed mode operation is always possible. Note 1: Track balls are usually fitted with 2 buttons and it is becoming increasingly difficult to acquire a 3-button track ball. A 4-button track ball represents a mediocre alternative since it requires to use the index finger for the ML and MM clicks, which makes a ML + MM interclick difficult to execute. Note 2: "+" denotes an interclick, as in MR + ML meaning: press MR, hold it down and press ML before releasing both buttons. "&" denotes the concatenation of ML clicks. Note 3: A right-handed mouse is assumed, but a left-handed mouse is also supported (see below). How to install a mouse driver Oberon can support a wide range of mouse types of all commonly used brands. The most widespread is the PS/2-compatible mouse, or bus mouse, attached to a 6-pin miniature DIN connector. All others mice connect to serial ports, either built-in or on expansion cards. Each machine is allowed up 4 serial ports. How to select the correct mouse driver As from this version, a mouse can easily be replaced by another of a different type and with a different interface. More than one mouse may be connected to a machine: the system can detect them and the user can select the best one. The next three commands have been designed specifically to let the system sort out mice, instead of letting the user question which parameter is appropriate, as is required for the third command. Previously, the mouse driver was chosen interactively during the installation. A mouse driver for a different is installed in these ways: To to select the correct mouse driver at each system start do: ConfigInput.WatchMouse [ seconds \| 5 ] Lets the system watch a mouse movement for a number of seconds. If a mouse manifests itself, the mouse driver is configured to operate with it. If not, a system log message invites the user to configure the mouse driver. Moving a mouse may be enough to let the system recognize that mouse. Else, pressing Ctrl-Shift launches a SelectMouse command described next. ConfigInput.SelectMouse Lets the system attempt to configure a series of mice with different specifications on the available COM ports. The search ends when a mouse is effectively reacting as expected, else a PS/2-style mouse is configured as final default. A Mouse Configuration user interface is telling which mouse type the driver was configured successfully. By following the instructions in the menu it is still possible to choose a different mouse of a different type or attached to another port, or to accept the final choice which is displayed in the System log. This system service makes it easy to edit the correct command in Oberon.Text. ConfigInput.Mouse mt [ mp [ mb ] ] ~ Sets up the mouse driver to operate a mouse of type mt, connected to the port mp, with mb buttons. One should preferably let the system select the correct mouse (cfr. previous command). Thoroughly choose a combination of parameters fitting the mouse characteristics, else mouse control will be lost. To remedy such a mishap, activate Scroll Lock to transfer the mouse control to the keyboard. mt (respectively MT), the mouse type is: mp (respectively MP), the mouse port is 1 .. 4 for COM1 to COM4 for a mouse with a serial interface. 1 is the default value. Not applicable to a PS2 mouse; use 1. mb (respectively MB), the number of buttons is: Practical hint: Two such commands can be used in combination to switch mice on a laptop: ConfigInput.SelectMouse PS2 1 -3 ~ to operate the stick (between G and H) and 2 buttons below the space bar ConfigInput.SelectMouse LM1 2 -3 ~ to operate a serial 3-button mouse installed for working with Oberon The mouse configuration selected at installation time is stored in the configuration data and reused when Oberon is started. This information can be modified on-the-fly at boot time or permanently stored. The mouse type is specified as MT= ", the port as MP=" and the number of buttons as MB="" and the values are chosen as described above. Mouse commands in text (1) Delete the text stretch/gadget and paste what is then in a scratch pad back at the caret with Edit.Recall, TextDocs.Recall or with the [Recall] Iconizer in System3.Tool of the GUI. (2) Implicit open - TUI: Edit Open / GUI: Desktops.OpenDoc (3) The combination of Delete and Copy to corresponds to a cut-and-paste operation in other text editors but a pre-condition must hold true: no other selection may exist, else the selection will be copied. Mouse commands on the menu bar of a viewer (1) The menu bar can only be moved within the limits of adjacent menu bars or screen border. (2) The document can be relocated in the adjacent track or in the same track above or below another document. If the menu bar is dragged on top of another, the document below it is closed. Inside the NamePlate in the menu bar, mouse clicks have the following meaning: Mouse commands on the scroll bar of a viewer Mouse commands in the control area of a gadget Most visual gadgets are "rectangular" in shape, and for those gadgets the control area is a border a few pixels wide "inside the edge" of the gadget. Inside the gadget, but not in the control area, the gadget does whatever it is supposed to do (Buttons can be pushed, CheckBoxes checked, etc). In the control area, the gadget responds to the control mouse combinations listed in this table. How to replace the mouse by the keyboard The full functionality of the mouse can be transferred to the "numeric pad" of the keyboard by activating Scroll Lock. To return control to the mouse, deactivate Scroll Lock. "5" - takes over the function of the MM key (activate) "Ins" - takes over the function of the ML key (set caret) "Del" - takes over the function of the MR key (select) The 8 keys surrounding the "5" - move the mouse focus The Ctrl key is possibly also available as MM key. How to define a left-handed mouse A left-handed mouse, with buttons arranged in reverse order [ MR, ML ], is defined by a config string "MM=digits" (Mouse Mapping). "digits" is exactly 3 digits, with each digit representing a mouse button: 0 = ML, 1 = MM, 2 = MR. It is convenient to use the Ctrl-key to the "right of the keyboard" in conjunction with a left-handed mouse. MM = "012" - right-handed, assumed when Oberon is booted MM = "210" - left-handed MM = "021" - Logitech cordless mouse How to install a USB mouse driver UsbMouse.Init Installs a USB mouse driver. The USB system must be active already. "4 Aug 2001 - Copyright © 2001 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/"
415351	3125743	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415351	Oberon/ETH Oberon/disk	Disk support Summary ETH Native Oberon supports mass storage devices attached to controllers of the types ATA/EIDE, Adaptec SCSI, NCR SCSI and USB, in a number conditioned by the machine hardware and the controller characteristics. A suitable driver must be installed first, as explained below. The attached devices may be hard disks or disk drives with removable media, such as CD-ROM, iomega ZIP (100 or 250MB) and Jaz disk drives. Use the System Setup program of your machine to configure the disk drives. Native Oberon can reside in a primary partition or in a logical drive of any EIDE disk attached to the first or the second controller as master or slave disk. Limitations are described in BIOS support. Slim is in: Slimline 2.5in. drives fitted into the vast majority of notebooks can also be considered for installation on a conventional PC, as they use the same ATA/EIDE interface but have a 44-pin interface connector IDC44. A cheap adapter connector is enough for matching it with the 40-pin flat cable connector. Any number of RAM disks can be defined for storing temporary data which is purged when Oberon is terminated. Apart from conventional disks, Oberon can be installed on other miniaturized next-generation mass storage devices, eminently suitable for use in embedded systems: Not supported How to install a disk driver during the installation The installation is initiated by booting the machine from an Oberon-0 boot diskette. Little later, Oberon-0, a small ramdisk-based system, takes control of the machine and presents the Install.Tool on the display. The user is prompted to install a suitable driver by executing a single one of the following commands: From now on, the installion of a complete disk-based system can proceed. Launch a Partitions.Show command to let the system display information on the disk drives recognized. The driver's identification is recorded in a configuration file which will be used each time the system is started. How to install a disk driver in a running Oberon system An additional driver is "dynamically loaded" (no reboot required) by executing the command corresponding to the hardware to control: Disk partitioning Partitioning considerations explains the purpose of dedicating a partition to ETH Oberon on any of the installed hard disk(s) and how it can even be avoided altogether. In addition, ways to start an ETH Oberon are presented in Bootstrapping an OS on an x86-based PC, with application to ETH Oberon and further documents linked to it. If disk partitioning is deemed necessary, it is performed using: Further activities, such as formatting a partition (i.e. creating an empty file system), are dealt with in File system concept. Technical 1: Disk driver and file system config strings The config string IDE=irq, control port, register port must be specified if: More config strings in Configuration strings. Technical 2: Disks and controllers characteristics incl. jumper settings and utilities Consult: . [expired] For developers: How to write a disk driver If all attempts to use one of offered drivers fail, you could volunteer to write a suitable one, using the Guidelines for writing a disk driver. The FatFS driver (FAT16 / FAT32) was written using Microsoft documentation. "22 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: " [expired]
415352	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415352	Professionalism/Poppy Northcutt, Apollo, and Women in Tech	Background. Importance of Equality in the Workplace. Equality in the workplace, specifically in technology related fields such as aerospace engineering has ethical impact. Women should not be belittled on the basis of sex, but this has happened repeatedly throughout history. Women have not been recognized or appreciated for their significant contributions to the field of . This phenomenon is illustrated by equality concerns present during the . Poppy Northcutt was the only woman in the control room on this mission. The mission would not have been possible without her calculations, but Northcutt felt discriminated against. When asked about her time during Apollo, she said: “I was certainly aware of the issues that were emerging, working in that environment I could see the discrimination against women.” Taking progressive stances toward equality regularly pays off across the board in success, respect, financials, recruitment, lasting impact and legacy, and community support. Gender Inequalities in Space Programs. Women have been an integral part of NASA operations since 1922, filling important roles such as mathematician, computer, astronaut, engineer, and supervisors, without ample recognition. Before electronic computers, all mathematical equations and computations would be done by hand by people, often known as human computers. Many male employees at NACA left to fight overseas in so more and more women were needed to fill their roles (NASA, 2019). These women were significantly underpaid and unappreciated compared to their male counterparts. Unlike their male counterparts, who were paid salaries and overtime, “computresses” were hourly workers, capped at nine hours a day, or 54 hours a week. However, if women wanted any chance of getting promoted, they needed to work the same hours as the men, resulting in many hours of unpaid work (Al-Heeti, 2019). The gender inequality present in technology-related fields has led women to leave science and engineering jobs at rates higher than their male counterparts. In the aerospace industry, only 24 percent of employees are women, and there has been little change in years, according to a study done by . Women make up only about a third of NASA’s workforce. And, they comprise just 28 percent of senior executive leadership positions and make up only 16 percent of senior scientific employees (Davenport, 2019). Brief History of NASA. NASA began in 1941 as NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics). NACA was a small government organization intent on researching the limitations and potentials surrounding flight as well as its scientific principles. During the cold war era, NACA began research into missiles. This inspired the concept of manned rocket vehicles, which led to an interest in spacecraft. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched On October 1, 1958, NASA was formed as an expansion of NACA with the intention of defeating the Soviets in the space race. Signed by President Dwight Eisenhower on July 29, 1958, the "provided for research into the problems of flight within and outside the earth's atmosphere" and established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Apollo Missions. was a significant mission in history. It was the first crewed mission to leave Earth’s orbit, successfully orbit the Moon, and return the crew to Earth. This mission served as preparation for Apollo 11, the mission in which a man walked on the moon for the first time. Before the Apollo program, only men had been idolized and credited as the face of NASA’s mission control room. But when Apollo began, amid this sea of men, there was one woman: Poppy Northcutt. Frances (Poppy) Northcutt. Brief Biography. Frances (Poppy) Northcutt was a "computress" and mathematician at TRW Systems (later to become Northrop Grumman) in 1965. At TRW, Northcutt's skill caused her to stand out. She was assigned to the orbital calculations team for the company’s major contract holder, NASA. Being recognized for her excellence with this work, she was then hired by NASA, working in the Mission Control's Mission Planning and Analysis room on orbital maneuver calculations (Planetary, 2019). Northcutt joined the Apollo Program in 1965 and worked in the space program for 5 years. During that time she contributed to the success of Apollo missions 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13. Northcutt was the first female engineer at NASA’s mission control (Ely, 2008). She faced the same sexual discrimination as other women working in the field, but chose to work long hours to strive to have the same responsibility as men. Despite her efforts, her pay was capped at 54 hours a week. When promoted to engineer, she met further pay discrimination. Northcutt said, “The pay raise was so high, they didn’t have the mechanism to approve that, and I was still being underpaid". In an attempt to balanced her pay with her male counterparts, she was scheduled for the maximum frequency of raises possible (Karlin, 2019). This experience helped inspired her later work for gender equality. On this, she says, “When income is based on your past pay, and your past pay was discriminatory, you never solve the complete discrimination problem. So even if I got caught up, I would still never get caught up"(Ely, 2008). Northcutt's Work on the Apollo Missions. Northcutt's first position at NASA was plotting critical return-to-Earth trajectories for Apollo 8. This trajectory, called the free return trajectory, used the moon’s gravity to slingshot Apollo 8 back to earth while conserving fuel. Part of her job was initial testing of equipment and hardware that would be used for later lunar missions. Apollo 8 was also the first test of Northcutt and her team’s calculations (PBS, 2019). In Apollo 13, an oversight in pre-launch preparations damaged one of the three oxygen tanks. This lead to its violent rupture once in orbit on the way to the moon. The explosion damaged the fuel cells as well as a second oxygen tank leaving the service module crippled. This was particularly dangerous because, unlike the previous Apollo missions, Apollo 13 was not put on a free return trajectory. Northcutt’s team troubleshot the strategy to course correct Apollo 13, getting it back into the free return trajectory. Northcutt was critical in the mission's proclaimed "successful failure". For their success, Northcutt and her team were awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom Team Award (Karlin, 2019). Northcutt's Experience with Sexism. Northcutt's strong advocacy for women’s rights originated with her personal experience with sexism. Being the sole women at work posed many challenges. In one instance, Northcutt heard other flight engineers discuss enjoying viewing one channel in particular. Upon looking pulling it up, she found it was a video feed directly on her while she was flight testing (Powell, 2019). Her experience in the media was far worse. She had to endure cringe-worthy interview comments, once being asked “How much attention do the men in Mission Control pay to a pretty girl in miniskirts”. She was regularly interviewed and put on TV as a rare exception rather than an engineer who had earned her position. Northcutt contended the media attention was worth the discriminating comments as she was able to reach a new generation of young girls, letting them know it was possible for women to reach her level of success. Young women empowered by Northcutt's television appearances sent her letters. These letters inspired Northcutt to continue her efforts (Karlin, 2019). Beginning with her original workplace, TWR, Northcutt improved the company’s affirmative action and pregnancy leave policies. She also took on a leadership role in the National Organization for Women, leading women’s strikes while still employed at NASA, putting her job and career at risk. In 1972 she helped pass the Texas Equal Rights Amendment which decreed equality under the law regardless of gender, skin color, race, national origin or religious identity. She then became the first Women’s Advocate for the city of Houston in 1975 (Ely, 2008). In 1984 Northcutt earned her law degree from the University of Houston Law Center. She then served the first felony prosecutor in the domestic violence unit of the Texas Appellate Court, followed by a career as a defense attorney. Today Northcutt continues to advocate for women by providing legal services for pregnant teen. She also actively educates young voters and women from immigrant communities about the importance of their political participation (Ely, 2008). Other Women in NASA. Women from hidden figures. Media can have a substantial impact on the knowledge and recognition of people throughout history. Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson, and Dorothy Vaughan were three incredible women who worked at NASA but were not recognized for their work until years later. These women were the stars of the and book Hidden Figures in 2017. Katherine Johnson had a pivotal role at NASA in the calculations used for the country’s space missions, yet remained unrecognized for decades. She did the trajectory analysis for the Mercury missions, and John Glenn insisted she did the same job for his orbital mission in 1962 (Martin, 2017). Finally, in 2015, at age 97, she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Mary Jackson was a “human computer” at the all-black West Computing Section at NASA. In addition to extracting the relevant data from experiments and flight tests, she spent much of her time helping other women advance in their career by advising them on potential educational pursuits (Howell, 2017). Dorothy Vaughan began working at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in 1943 and became and expert programmer in FORTRAN, the popular computer language at the time. In 1949, she was promoted to be the first black NACA supervisor (Shetterly, 2016). Status of Women in NASA. In recent years, NASA has made a visible effort to praise the women that have helped and continue to help them. On their website, there is a page dedicated solely to women at NASA, where they state: “Women in STEM have, and continue to, play a critical role in how we explore the universe and what it has to offer.” (Ramji, 2019) The page recognizes women who have had significant impacts on NASA’s progress. For example, was the first teacher selected to go to space as part of the Teacher in Space project in 1986. and were the first team of all-female space-walkers in October 2019. More recently, NASA has announced the new Artemis mission which plans to land the first woman on the Moon by 2024. Impact on Women in Tech. The number of women at NASA and in science is growing, yet men continue to outnumber women, especially at the upper levels of these professions. According to the Society of Women Engineers, women have increased their numbers in many professions previously dominated by men, including law, business, and medicine; however, the number of women in engineering in the U.S. has not increased since the early 2000s. This graph, using data supplied from the American Physical Society, shows this trend as there has been a plateau of growth in female STEM bachelor degrees in recent years (APS, 2017). According to the US census bureau, in all engineering and computer occupations, the median earnings of females are less than those of males. The size of the gap varies by discipline, with women receiving anywhere from 86% to 95% of the median earnings of their male colleagues (SWE, 2019). Despite issues with earnings gaps and STEM degrees, women in tech are coming together more than ever before. Many professional groups such as Women@NASA, Women in Computer Science (or WICS), and Society of Women Engineers (SWE) have formed as a result. Because of women like Poppy Northcutt, who faced discrimination in the workplace but continued to work, women in tech are now gaining more support and recognition.
415356	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415356	Oberon/ETH Oberon/ports	Serial and parallel port support Summary Oberon supports parallel or serial ports for controlling peripheral devices such as mice (serial), printers (parallel or serial), modems (serial), routers, bridges, firewalls. Hint: Communication devices such as the Zyxel Prestige 100 ISDN Router and the Zyxel ZyWall firewall can easily be configured via their serial control port with the "V24.Panel" , the GUI of a simple terminal-emulation application. The bloated configuration software delivered with the devices can quietly be ignored. Parallel ports All of the three possible parallel ports are supported. The ports are set up as follows: and operate in unidirectional mode only. Hence, no IRQ is assigned or used. A bi-directional protocol is not implemented. A machine is usually equiped with a single parallel port set up as shown above. If an add-on I/O card with additional ports is installed, the address and the IRQ assigned to a port are usually jumpered on the card. The jumpers setting must comply with what is shown above. For additional information consult Wikipedia. How to control a parallel port by program Use the procedures in module Centronics.Mod in your own program. They support output only. The Centronics module imports SYSTEM and uses the PORTIN / PORTOUT procedures. The latter are for use with Native Oberon of course. Note that a module importing SYSTEM is not portable. The PlugIn version of Oberon for Windows uses the Native Oberon compiler and consequently, PORTIN and PORTOUT are also useable. Under Windows NT and Win 2000, executing one of these procedures will however lead to a "privileged instruction" TRAP. A similar implementation is found in Oberon V4, but the formal parameters in InCh and OutCh are permuted because the Oberon V4 compiler uses the C language convention for sequencing the parameters. Serial ports All of the four possible serial RS-232 ports are supported. A machine is usually equiped with two serial ports, either built in on the motherboard or on an add-on I/O card. Built in COM ports are usually configured with the BIOS set up program, but may be configured with jumpers in older computers. COM ports on add-on cards are normally configured with jumpers on the card. By default, in Oberon, the base address and the IRQs of the ports are set up as follows: The base addresses above for COM1 and COM2 are standard. There are several alternate addresses that can be used for COM3 and COM4. If these are hard-wired into a board or card they will normally be paired as shown. If they are individually selectable, it is desirable to use them in the pairs shown below: The support, together with the BIOS set up program of the machine and the jumpers, allow to arrange the COM ports among the serial interfaces as desired and to associate them with the best suited IRQ lines. The following commands are available for setting up the ports. ConfigV24.SetIRQs { [ xxxH \| 000H ] IRQx } ~ Assign four pairs of base address + IRQ to the serial ports. No duplicate address is allowed. Uninstalled or disabled ports are assigned the address 000H. The IRQs may be chosen among the free (i.e. non-conflicting) IRQs of the machine. Duplicate IRQs may be assigned, provided the ports are not used simultaneously. It is common practice to see COM3 using IRQ 4 and COM4 using IRQ 3, as is done by default. The final settings are displayed in the System log in the form of a new ConfigV24.SetIRQs command ready for editing and executing. This command is best placed in Oberon.Text ahead of a possible ConfigInput.Mouse or ConfigInput.WatchMouse command, specially if a serial mouse is attached which should be recognized immediately when Oberon is started. ConfigV24.GetIRQs Display the serial port settings in the System log. The current settings are displayed in the System log in the form of a new ConfigV24.SetIRQs command ready for editing and executing. For additional information consult Wikipedia. For the programmer V24.Mod is the device driver of an asynchronous RS-232 interface and in OSI terminology, it handles protocols on level 2a - "the media access control". Client modules must implement the protocols of level 2b - "the logical link control". The receiving part is timing critical: the receive buffer may overflow and data may get lost as a consequence of an overrun condition. The buffer has a fixed length of 4'096 bytes. Serial connect In addition to using an external modem connected to a serial port, it is also possible to establish direct communication to another computer by connecting the serial ports through a crossed serial cable (also known as a null-modem cable) and using a generic communications program. "V24.Panel" was designed for this purpose. The most likely use you will have for this technique is trapping debug output from a problematic machine to another faultless machine for analyzing the debug information and diagnosing the problem. This technique is described in Low-level tracing. "11 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/"
415357	46022	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415357	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Decisions	Introduction. You are aiming to make a programming language. However, there are many existing languages in the market. What is the purpose of yours? Well, it is mostly about the minute differences in the syntax and the output code that creates the resultant diversity of languages. Mostly it is about memory format and speed of execution. However, generally these two cannot exist together. Thus there are to be certain tradeoffs that in the end will determine the importance of your language and where it stands in the global market. There are some minute factors such as general scope of variables, redundancy of instructions, style of compilation and execution speed differences, which may seem trivial at first but when they add up in a long source file, they can mean the difference between the program execution time in minutes and hours. These minute factors remain the driving force in the continuing research for new and better programming languages. The following sections will cover some major decisions you have to undertake before you even start on your language Base Languages. It is very difficult to compile to machine language, and generally the next best step, assembly language is undertaken. However, even in assembly language, the actual file input and output operations necessary for compilation are very complex and difficult to write. However, fortunately there exist some high-level languages in which to write our compiler. Note that the selection of the Base language is not important for the end output quality, but for the compilation speed and ease of writing the compiler. This project is likely to be very long and thus it is imperative that you select a language in which you are comfortable. Usually execution in compiled languages such as C++ and C is much faster than in Interpreted Languages. However, they have the disadvantage of having lower portability, and thus the choice of the Base language depends totally on your priorities. Memory Format. Memory nowadays is very high, (usually around 8 GB RAM) , thus the earlier unthinkable format of default static memory layout can be considered. In this format, the variables declared within a function remain active, i.e. they retain their value even after the function returns control, up until the termination of the program. This means that functions can hold their values for longer, an important fact that can allow for much shorter and efficient programs. However, most languages have what is called 'Stack' variables, where variables are pushed onto a memory unit called stack , and they remain there until the function ends. However, after their life ends, the stack is not cleared but left as it is , just that now it is available to further variables who overwrite the previous variables. However, this leads to 'Garbage values' which can lead to program errors. Also, it demands a complicated system of data management.However, stack variables occupy much less space and are also accessed faster. Further, there is the option of register variables, which remain in registers which are accessed up-to 30 times faster than stack variables. However register variables require huge levels of complex data management which would make the compiler more complex. After that, there is the option of .[MODE] directive in assembly. This depends on the type of processor you are writing the compiler for. For 808386 processor use .386 for 808486 use .486 and so on. Some assembly languages support multiple modes for one processor, however each mode is best suited for its own specific processor. Further more , there is the MODEL directive , namely FLAT model, BIG, TINY, LARGE and MEDIUM. Each is best suited for its own type. In this book we use the FLAT model. A lot depends also on the MODE of the OS. Here we use the protected mode which provides 16 TB (can vary from machine to machine) of "virtual memory". Moreover, in the case of actual memory allocation, there is NEAR and FAR pointers used for NEAR and FAR model respectively. In protected mode, the OS assumes NEAR mode and thus NEAR pointers. Another thing to consider is the size of your variables. Commonly three variables int, char and float are used. In C compilers for 32-bit environment , int takes 4 bytes, char takes 1 byte and float requires 8 bytes (for double). There are further directives short, long, single and double which you may or may not include in your programming language. Most assemblers handle memory allocation on their own, however with some you have to be more explicit and give precise instructions as to where exactly you want your variables to be. Speed. Every language-maker knows that by far the most important factor distinguishing programming languages in these days is the speed of execution. However, speed does not come easy and if you want speed , you better be prepared for many days of hard labor in the process of what is known as optimization. Moreover, speed often clashes with memory layout, thus you need to decide which is more important to you. Redundancy is another factor, but to remove redundancy you need to write very long algorithms that check for every possibility of redundancy.
415358	3095725	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415358	Create Vampires	"Create Vampires" is a book, intended as a guide around literary pitfalls, and as a non-Fictional resource written for readers fascinated by vampires and similar monsters! Vampires "Of The Imagination". Although vampires are creatures of folklore, monsters from the afterlife that are sometimes called the "un-dead," vampires are uniquely different from ghost, those lingering spirits who refuse to die. Although vampires, by definition, are animated corpses, vampires of the imagination must feed on human blood in order to continue their earthly existence. This unique quality makes vampires a popular and original type of fiction, slightly different from other creatures found in folklore. About This Book We hope this book will clear up many mis-notions, and common misunderstandings associated with the "un-dead," especially a common confusion "about" the actual people who did inspire vampire folklore, verses the evolved horror creations called vampires of the imagination. Preface: The Factual Roots Of Vampires. <br> What Type Of Book Is This? This book will introduce 5 "original" fictional creations (or oddly unique persons): This book, intended as a short guide for people, should focus on why a vampire-person is a original fictional creation. We hope this book will include tips that will help writers, and questions that challenge our notions. What type of book can help people became better writers? A factual book with useful information. A combination text-book, tutorial, and "self-study" course-option is intended, yet if done wrong, results may be an experimental book, in need of improvements and development. [Many links "do not" direct to electronic pages] Reference. Definition: What are Vampires? The definition for a "vampire" varies dependent on what dictionary one uses. For example: Dictionary.com has a general definition: Vampire: n. a preternatural being 2. (in Eastern European Folklore) a corpse, animated by an undeparted soul or demon. According to Wikipedia.org, a vampire is "a creature from folklore that subsists by feeding on the vital essence [ the blood] of the living." Create A Vampire: <ref>https://www.wikihow.com/Look-Like-a-Vampire<ref> Tips: Stereotypes To Avoid: Kid Vampires. Creating child-vampire types. History of Vampires: African Folklore: American Folklore: Eastern Folklore: Eastern European Folklore: Latin Folklore: Vampires and Popular Culture: Authors Who Created Vampires: [Unconfirmed] "Carmilla by S. L. Fanu" Writers Who Did Not Create Vampires: wiki:The_Vampire Scientific Evidence: For Vampires: Against vampires: Paul Barber in his book Vampires, Burial and Death has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of pre-industrial societies attempting to explain the natural, but to them inexplicable, process of death and decomposition. DEATH :w:Death
415362	4283673	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415362	Information Technology and Ethics/Privacy and Data Protection	Introduction. In this section, we are discussing privacy and data protection. We will be focusing on a few laws and policies passed to protect a person’s privacy online, specifically concerning data protection. This is in response to the many technologies that have arisen with time. The issue with rapid advances in technology has caused many new avenues for nefarious people looking to obtain someone’s personal information. This has led to an increase in the need for data protection. In this specific section, we will discuss the background of Privacy and why it has changed. How did this lead to a need for data protection? What are the technologies that were developed for Data Protection? What laws and policies were passed for Data Protection? As mentioned before, this chapter focuses mainly on privacy and the issues concerning data protection. This is so you might understand that no matter how privacy has advanced in many forms in our society, there is a constant measure made to try and protect a person’s privacy and their personal information on the web. How has Privacy evolved? Privacy was created with a different mindset when the concept was first introduced in our society. It has always been considered a basic human right and has always encompassed many areas of a person’s life. The right to the privacy of the home, the privacy to your possessions, the privacy of your information. It is usually the government that has to protect and make sure that every citizen has a right to privacy in their lives. It can be quite difficult clarifying though, as many times documents concerning privacy and the subjects it protects are vague. In the US specifically, the Fourth and Fifth Amendments are used as the main source for determining what violates a person’s privacy today. This is because the right to privacy is not explicitly clarified in the Constitution, there is a lack of documentation at times to help clarify privacy and this has led to many having to look at whatever documentation they could and deciding if that is considered part of a person’s privacy. As well as protected by the government as well. As stated by Senator D. Brent Waltz “Even the most casual student of American Constitutional scholarship will note that the notion of “privacy” as a distinct legal construct is lacking in our founding documents.”(Waltz, 2014,p. 205). With the advancement of technology and the “Internet of Things,” privacy has become a big topic when dealing with matters of information online. What is Data Protection? Data protection can be described simply as measures or technologies used to make sure that a person’s data or information is protected. Specifically, it aims to protect 3 aspects of data that can be clarified more by what is known as the C.I.A triad. C.I.A Triad. The C.I.A Triad has nothing to do with the CIA, but is a model for organizations to look at certain aspects of information. It helps organizations by making sure several aspects are covered. By managing these aspects well, they can create reliable cybersecurity policies and procedures to protect that information and allow for proper data protection. CIA stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability, and these aspects allow for proper data protection. Confidentiality. Data protection tries to protect the confidentiality of your information. It is the process of limiting access to information and data. It basically means that the information provided can only be seen by certain people, and making sure anyone unauthorized can not view or access the information. It is related to privacy, as it answers the question of who will use the data. People don't want their data to be seen or accessed by everyone. It can lead to damage to their assets or privacy. To achieve confidentiality of information, organizations use policies that educate employees on what they can view or not and tools such as data storage and cryptography to add security to the information. Examples of Confidentiality being breached are data dumps or disclosures of personal information on the internet. Integrity. The next aspect of information in the C.I.A triad is Integrity. It is the process of protecting data to make sure that it stays unchanged and in the original condition that it was received. That means the information must not have been edited, modified, or deleted in any way unless authorized. The integrity of information can be at risk anytime it is being acquired, stored, or exchanged. This can be because of attacks from malware and viruses such as worms, trojans, logic bombs, or boot viruses. It also can be caused by buggy software or noise when transmitting data. To achieve integrity and maintain it, checksums and error-correcting are used to verify if bits or hashes were changed, and see if the integrity of the information was lost. Availability. The last aspect of Information in the triad is Availability. This means that access to the information is always ready to be given to those that are authorized. To explain it, it is like a building with a keycard reader on the door. When you scan your card, you expect to be able to enter the building and use the resources inside. If the reader reads your card, but the door glitches and doesn’t open, you are denied Availability. This applies to information and data as well. ESG Data Protection Family Tree. Now how does Data Protection accomplish the aspects stated above? Well, Data Protection covers this by many activities. E-Discovery and Compliance:. It is the gathering of knowledge and information in electronic forms. It is the process of locating, extracting, analyzing, and reviewing digital data such as images, files, emails, network traffic, and more. It helps to draw a picture or, allow for there guidelines for people in the field of E-Discovery that are tasked with locating essential information. Archiving:. Archiving is the process of securing information, especially inactive information for an unknown amount of time or a tremendous amount of time. the information can be brought out anytime and can be referenced but it is mostly not usable currently but still should be protected. Backups:. Backups are creating copies of the information. Basically creating a secure copy of them so that if the original data is tampered with or corrupted, that you can use the backup copy to restore the original data. Snapshots:. Snapshots are the process of recording the state of a machine at a specific time. Usually for storage devices, taking a snapshot is a good way to create a copy of data and information, similar to backups. Data and Information can be restored to that specific time of the snapshot. Replication:. Replication is a very costly part of data protection that is quite necessary for the disaster recovery process. Involves replicating and duplicating the data and then move it to an offsite location so that it is protected. This is more so for organizations to recover after attacks, natural disasters, and other incidents of great damage or harm to the data and information under them. Availability:. Availability is making sure that the data and information are accessible at times to whoever has access to it. To make sure it is not completely restricted and unattended to or unsupervised. Disaster Recovery:. Disaster Recovery is the process of an organization making sure to recover from disasters and look at the state of their data. Basically seeing what might have lost Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. This involves using the tools and processes above and also trying to find what caused the disaster and how to plan for it in the future so that they would be able to recover more effectively if it ever happens again. Business Continuity:. Business Continuity is the process of creating systems and tools to help with the recovery process and deal with threats in the future. Basically planning ahead, to secure themselves, and make sure that threats can be taken care of or avoided again. General Data Protection Regulation (European Union). Yet there is more to ensure data protection than just tools and processes. There are many regulations, laws, and policies as well to help and ensure proper data protection. One of these regulations that are considered to be strongly accepted by many is the GDPR. Since 1995, Europe's data privacy has been regulated under the Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament along with the Council of 24 October 1995. The regulations would be on the protection of individuals with concern to the treatment of the data, 1995 O.J. (I. 281) (Directive). These regulations were viewed to be ineffective due to the rapid evolution of technology, they want to offer better protection and rights to EU citizens, and unification of data protection laws. This resulted in the creation of the “General Data Protection Regulation”(GDPR), which its final text was approved of in 2016. The GDPR came into implementation on May 25, 2018. The GDPR's main goal is to hold companies more accountable to user’s data and strengthen the control of users on their personal data. It does this by having provisions that require a business to safeguard the personal data and privacy of EU citizens for every transaction that transpires within the EU. Exportation of personal data outside of the EU is also regulated by the GDPR.This legislation would force companies to have separated consent forms for the different types of data they collect along with the feasibility to retract consent. It would also prevent companies from the collection of data for children under 16 without a person that holds “parental responsibility”.Companies that have had their databases breach would have to release a notice to those affected within 72 hours. It will also give the consumer the ability to wipe out all data that has been collected on them by companies. Types of data that is protected by GDPR are basic identity information, web data, health and genetic data, biometric data, racial or ethnic data, political opinions, and sexual orientation. The GDPR defines roles within a company for who is responsible for ensuring compliance with the GDPR’s regulations. These would be the data controller, data processor, and the data protection officer (DPO). Any company that violates the rules of the GDPR would be subjected to a fine of up to 4 percent of annual global turnover or 20 million euros, whichever is larger. GDPR Principles to process data ethically. The GDPR states the principles in Articles (5-11) on how all the personal data should be processed. Data controllers are expected to process personal data in an ethical manner. The six principles that account for ethical data processing are: Privacy policies. Organizations should practice good ethics by following GDPR guidelines. According to Northwestern, A person’s name, email, phone, address, and SSN all count as being a user’s personal data as it identifies the user, “in practice, these also include all data which are or can be assigned to a person in any kind of way”. Since these data entries are considered personal, the policies that govern them must use these data entries to a very limited extent. Ethical organizations should be protecting this information and only gathering the necessary information. For the processor, the data must be limited to the extent required by the controller, and then must swiftly be deleted to ensure that the user’s information can not be used for other purposes except what is required. For the controller, the information provided by the processor must be categorized for deletion based on the conclusion that was resolved from the issue. For instance, within Oracle’s privacy policy is a statement reading, “engage in transactions with our customers, suppliers and business partners, and to process purchases of our products and services, will be retained for the duration of the transaction or services period”. Failure to follow these guidelines is not only unethical but can lead to penalties. US Privacy Law. In the US laws related to data protection are quite diverse. They have defined laws related to a different sector and medium-specific data security laws, for example, they have different laws and regulation are applied to financial companies, telecom department, health care, credit report, children's information gathering, etc. Moreover, every 50 states in the United States have their own laws and regulation which an organization has to abide. So, if anyone is trying to set up an organization they first have to regulate with the federal (if the bill is passed by the Congress)and then the state laws. As the US doesn’t have a Federal law specifically for the data protection or data breach all the 50 states came together and created rules and regulations. The state laws mostly focus on protecting data, proper privacy policies are created by the organization, how and what are the steps that are taken in securing and safeguarding SSN and driver’s license number, and the timeline for notifying about the data breach. Now, if we talk about the privacy laws California tops the chart it alone has more than 25 state laws that are related to data privacy/protection. Recently the state has introduced a new law California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018 (CCPA) which will be effective from January 1, 2020. On March 21st, 2018, South Dakota has signed a new law that is implied to an organization that are conducting business in the state. Considering the factor of having the most strict laws related to the financial sector New York tops the chart. Though the US privacy laws are very complex and difficult to understand, it’s very important to understand them and abide by the rules and regulations. Not only the state the Attorney General of the state or Federal Trade Commission has the right to take action against the organization too. They have set up rules and regulations too.
415374	99248	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415374	Privacy Policies in the Digital World	Chapter Summary. This chapter will inform the reader of the most recent privacy legislations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). Readers will also explore what privacy policies are and why they are necessary. Privacy legislations have significant changes designed to better address the realities of an evolving, digital world while increasing the level of compliance and accountability for organizations processing personal data. Important concepts include greater transparency for individuals on how and why personal data is processed while strengthening the rights of individuals with regard to their personal data. This chapter will take a deep dive into the details that make up privacy policies/legislations. In addition, the chapter will discuss how the US is following in the European Union’s footsteps in implementing federal updated privacy legislation to protect consumers and mandate companies to address privacy controls and risks in our evolving digital world. 1.7.1 Privacy Policy Overview. Privacy policies are legally binding statements that specify how personal data is collected, processed, and stored. As computing power increases allowing for technology to become an everyday tool, the amount of personal data being collected from individuals is exponentially increasing. Personal data can be anything that can be utilized to identify an individual including, but not limited to, an individual’s name, contact information, address, etc. With the idea of big data increasingly becoming a reality, it is imperative to ensure that proper privacy policies are in place. Privacy policies ensure the security of the collected data and guarantee the use of data follows only the guidelines shared with the individuals whose data is being collected. For privacy policies to be effective they should be clear and highly visible. Privacy on the internet is a concern because there is a lot of valuable information being sent and received online. Privacy Policy agreements are mandatory in the United States if any personal data is to be collected. To enforce the need for privacy policies and the proper collection and use of personal data, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has enforced state and federal level laws outlining the do’s and don’ts surrounding data collection, data procession, data storage, and data usage. The FTC has outlined five principles to promote fair data collection practices. These principles are commonly referred to as the Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPP), which are:notice/awareness,choice/consent,access/participation,integrity/security,and enforcement/readiness. The first principle, notice/awareness, requires industries to provide consumers/users with a notice before they can proceed to collect any personal information. Choice/consent outlines the option for the consumer with the option for how their information is used. Access/participation allows consumers to view the data being collected on them and provides them with the opportunity to edit any of the collected data. Integrity/security requires the data collected to be stored in a safe and secure manner. Lastly, enforcement/redress requires that the above four principles are constantly reinforced throughout the entire data collection, processing, usage, and storage process. 1.7.2 Privacy Policies. The United States has little to no federal privacy policies to protect consumer data. The amount of data that consumers disclose to various websites and applications is staggering and there is very little regulation surrounding the collection, security, use, and storage of consumer information [in the United States]. There is no current framework for federal privacy laws in the United States compared to other countries. The European union has released a General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which clearly outlines the protection of consumer data and processing. Canada has enacted a Privacy Act which highlights the purpose of the act, the policies that are required for data collection, retention, and disposal. Additionally, the Canadian Privacy Act outlines any possible exemptions from the policy and how users are allowed to access their data. Countries such as Russia, Singapore, United Kingdom, and Philippines have also created privacy policies to effectively govern and protect consumer information. The United States is following slowly behind. Below we will explore some of the current privacy policies enforced in the U.S. and globally. US Privacy Act (1974) The US Privacy Act of 1974 gave US citizens the right to access any data held by a government agency, the right to copy that data, the right to collect data errors, and the ability to restrict access to data on a need to know basis. The regulations of the US Privacy Act include: Right of US citizens to access any data held by government agencies Right of US citizens to hold a copy of the same data Agencies should follow data minimization principles during the data collection process Access to data is restricted on a need to know basis Sharing information between other federal and non-federal agencies is restricted and only allowed under certain conditions HIPAA - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (1996) It was passed by Congress in 1996. HIPAA is responsible for the following: It provides the ability to transfer and continue health insurance coverage for millions of American workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs It reduces fraud and abuse in the health care sector It mandates standards for information on electronic billing and other health-care processes It requires the protection and confidential handling of protected health information The HIPAA Privacy regulations require all parties in the health care sector (including providers and organizations), as well as their business associates, to develop and follow procedures that ensure the confidentiality and security of protected health information (PHI) when it is transferred, received, handled, or shared. Different forms of PHI include paper, oral, and electronic. Additionally, It minimizes health information to be used and shared to the minimum extent that is necessary to conduct business with. HIPAA and the US Privacy Act of 1974 only defines policies regarding consumer health and government data, leaving the majority of other forms of consumer data to be governed by policies defined by industries and/or corporations. Some states have taken it upon themselves to create legislation to change what data the people have access and control over and almost all states have a notification policy to let you know when your data has been breached, but that would not be preventive like many of the proposed federal bills would. COPPA - Children’s Online Privacy Act (2000) COPPA is responsible for regulating personal information collected from minors. It was initially established to prohibit online companies from requesting PII from children that are under 12 years old, unless a verifiable parental consent is present. After updates to the regulations were conducted, the scope of the law was expanded and broadened the types of PII that it covers (screen names, email addresses, photographs, audio files are included). COPPA additionally protects the privacy of children by allowing access only to companies that are capable of ensuring confidentiality and security. CCPA- California Consumer Privacy Act California is in the process of passing the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). The CCPA outlines that eligible California residents will have the right to: · Know what personal information (PI) is being collected about them · Access their PI twice in a 12-month period · Receive a copy of their PI being collected · Know if their PI is being sold or disclosed, and to whom · Request their PI to be deleted · Receive an equal level of service when exercising their rights The right to know, delete, access, be made aware of any portability, and opt-out are necessary in order to ensure that consumers have visibility towards their data. Having federal/state wide privacy policies standardizes the proper methods and practices associated with data collection. California passed the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) unanimously, went into effect at the beginning of 2020 and will begin to be enforced in July. This is groundbreaking legislation and gives the power back to the people. Since it is only a state level act, it does not have any direct effect on the other 49 states but could set a precedent. It would also be a huge step forward because California is the home of most technology companies. This act would require companies to disclose what information they are collecting, why they are collecting it and who is using the data. It also gives the customer the right to have any unwanted data deleted or to have the companies not share the data that has been collected. This would follow suit with California’s amended constitution stating that privacy is an “inalienable” right of the people (Chau, 2018). This legislation will apply for any company that operates within the state and “either makes at least $25 million in annual revenue, gathers data on more than 50,000 users, or makes more than half its money off of user data” (Edelman, 2020). This would affect many large companies, including Facebook, Google and Amazon. When someone with an IP address based in California accesses a website they will get a banner on the screen saying “Do Not Sell My Personal Information.” This will stop websites from targeted ads because no cookies will be sold to third parties. If companies do not comply with CCPA, users will be able to sue. The attorney general’s office will have the responsibility to bring any other companies that have violated the law to court. They have already said they will not be bringing cases to court just based on resources. GDPR-General Data Protection Regulation The General Data Protection Regulation is a privacy policy established in the European union. It describes the law on data protection and privacy in the European Union. It also addresses the transfer of personal data outside the european union. As the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) applies to consumers outside the European union, it is something that countries around the world have slowly begun to adopt. The data protection principles outlined within the GDPR are: · Data fairness and lawfulness · Data purpose limitations · Data minimization · Data accuracy · Data storage limits · Data integrity and confidentiality · Data protection being the core foundational process The GDPR extends consumers in the European Union’s rights including access, consent, portability, restriction, and erasure of PI data. EU consumers under the GDPR have the right to discover how PI is being used and for what purpose. However, this does not apply to only industries and/or corporations within the EU. For example, if an individual accessing a US website/platform from within the EU the US website/platform will have to align with the GDPR policy. For this reason, many countries are slowly moving towards adopting their own privacy policies similar to the GDPR. 1.7.3 GDPR V.S. CCPA. Both the GDPR and the CCPA are meant to define how businesses handle consumers’ personal data, but there are just as many similarities as differences between the two. The CCPA was passed over 1.5 years later than the GDPR, and much of its policies are based on the GDPR. Both of them also carry penalties for companies found in violation, and they both address the right to be informed, right of access, and right of portability. All of these encompass consumers’ rights to own their private data. Specifically, they both give consumers the right to deletion of personal data, opting out, and data transparency. There are some key distinctions between the GDPR and the CCPA other than just location. The CCPA applies to Californian businesses that either have over $25 million in revenue or whose primary business is handling consumers’ data. The GDPR applies to any businesses handling European citizens’ data. Another big difference is the monetary punishment for the two, and the requirements for monetary punishments. The GDPR allows for up to 4% of a company’s annual turnover or $20 million, whichever is bigger. This punishment can be applied before and violation has happened if the company is determined to be at risk or has been irresponsible with their handling of data. The CCPA on the other hand is much lighter: violations occur up to $7,500, but allow consumers to mass-sue the company in violation. The requirements for these violations are only after a breach or incident has occurred. Many argue that this is too lenient and is too late for any real data breach prevention to occur. Overall the GDPR is focused on creating a “privacy by default” legal framework for all of the EU, while the CCPA is focusing on creating transparency in California’s huge data economy. 1.7.4 The Future of U.S. Privacy Law. The creation and adoption of a new US privacy law similar to GDPR could positively impact the country from various aspects to include economically, politically, and culturally. From an economic perspective, implementing new and updated privacy law in the US not only protects our consumers but our US based corporations. When we think of implementing new US privacy law similar to GDPR we have to implement it both from a consumer and corporation perspective. Having a new federal privacy law rather than having each state create its own privacy law similar to CCPA would be a more common sense and efficient method to implementing new data privacy law in a digital world. Focusing on the corporate and economic perspective implementing new and updated privacy law is not a want it’s a critical need for the US. The US as an economic super power and having the largest economy in the world needs to align to global data protection standards such as GDPR. Aligning to global data protection standards will ensure the US maintains a competitive advantage in the global digital economy. As a country and having so many US based Technology companies integrating with global protection standard to include GDPR is an economic must. From a political perspective, there are also positive impacts of implementing a new privacy law in the US similar to GDPR. Politically, it could be a good strategy to implement new privacy law similar to the EU as it would improve and maintain EU and US relations. The EU and the US are interconnected politically and economically as they heavily support the needs of each other. Data privacy in the digital world and economy should be no different than support each other’s Wars. From a cultural perspective, the US is more than ready to adopt its own GDPR based privacy policy and CCPA is a perfect example of how consumers are in favor of stricter data privacy and security laws. GDPR sparked US consumers to demand a country and culture of digital and data privacy. US consumer have a shift in how and when US based organizations protect the data they collect, where it’s stored, and how it flows. The focus now in the US is protecting digital and data privacy as a legal imperative as protecting property or contracts. Similar to EU citizens/consumers our US citizens/consumers are now more than ready to treat privacy including digital privacy as a “Human Right”. Conclusion. Privacy policies are essential components of society, especially in the digital age. With the amount of personal data available on consumers increasing exponentially, privacy policies and legislations are imperative to outline and standardize proper data collection, use, and protection methods. Efficient privacy policies are visible for both the user and the corporation, business, or government entity collecting any user information. These policies and legislations should clearly outline what data is being collected, how it is being collected, what measures are taken to ensure that data is protected in all stages, who [if anyone] the data will be shared with, how that data will be shared, how the data will be stored, and how to access the data being collected. Following the European Union’s lead the rest of the globe has begun to create national level, standardized privacy policies and legislations to effectively protect user data.
415379	3430914	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415379	Information Technology and Ethics/Conclusion	Conclusion. Privacy is a major concern in today's world with respect to our information and its chances of getting breached. Sharing information over the internet will not always ensure privacy as the internet is vast and deeply interconnected. However, we can put efforts into achieving privacy. Data protection comes through laws, policies, principles, and regulations. One such regulation is GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation), whose primary purpose is to make companies or organizations accountable to users' data and reinforce the control of users on their personal data. GDPR can implement principles on how the user's data should be processed. Apart from data protection in general terms, privacy plays a vital role in the healthcare industry. Because health care research and security assurance are essentially significant to society, it is a fundamental duty to save patient's data and privileges in order to enhance human health and medicinal services. Another reason for securing the individual's privacy is to build the interest of people to provide their data for clinical research for further study, which can increasingly help in improvising the research process. In return, this becomes more favorable to society in the way of encouraging access to new treatments, upgrading diagnostics, and thus drastically putting irresistible efforts towards forestall diseases. Privacy in health care includes different angles such as physical security this can be personal space, information of individuals, and decisional information. The success or failure of a financial service firm can depend on how it balances the use of confidential customer information while maintaining privacy. To capitalize on emerging growth opportunities, financial firms need to be flexible in sharing confidential customer data—whether across different departments, affiliated partners, or non-affiliated third parties such as technology or outsourcing firms, while complying with regulations and protecting the company’s reputation. The key lies in this delicate balance between data sharing flexibility and maintaining data privacy. Kids are often attracted by the lure of online games and social media. Children must be reminded never to share personally identifiable information or financial details with online applications or services and teach them the difference between safe and malicious applications. Popular social media services like Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok require users to be at least 13 years old to sign up, however, many underage users still join. The 13 year old age limit comes from the US Children's Online Privacy Protection Act. Educate children about the impacts of sharing sensitive details on social media and the risks of interacting with strangers online. If one wishes to monitor your children’s online activity, use parental controls on their device. Without the cooperation or assistance of social media giants, privacy in social media is not completely achievable because it is entirely dependable on how they modify their settings and policies in the interest of the users' data protection provided with all the laws and regulations placed. Irrespective of how sophisticated or user friendly the platform is made, it is not as powerful as its users because ultimately its revenue is made through the users who are active on these social media platforms, which can be utilized to raise their voices which makes them codependent. Thus with changing times, many advanced technologies are getting invented through which privacy issues can still be persistent. This is a constant battle that can only be controlled through stringent laws and regulations, which includes creating awareness among consumers to champion their own privacy rights. Privacy in finances is also very important. Whether they are protecting their own financial information, or they work at a financial institution and are protecting others, they have both a legal and ethical responsibility of the utmost importance to maintain. One of the most important things for people to do to keep finances safe is take good care of protecting private credentials. With those credentials, malicious actors can simply pose as someone they're not, and do whatever they want with the financial information they access. Also, if this privacy is violated, organizations with any sort of presence in the EU could face at minimum a €20 million fine.
415386	46022	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415386	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Line by Line Input System	Processing the File. To make a compiler obviously you have to take input from a file.Thus you need to be familiar with File I/O in at least one language you are comfortable in. Now how do you get the statements? Each line in a programming language is terminated by a very specific character which is NOT a newline. Most generally it is a semi-colon(;) or an opening brace({). So to get a complete line we only need to input up till the terminating character. Note that this approach means that you cannot have the terminating characters within even a string or a character, but that they have to be represented by their ASCII code. Algorithm For Input. 1.Input Character 2.Check if Character is terminating character 2.1.If true , add character and terminate process 2.2.Else add character and continue 2.3.If line contains EOF(end of file) character, terminate program after processing line. [Usually done by the means of flags] 3.Repeat from step 1 This algorithm will take input from the file and then store it in the character array assigned to it. Processing Keyword. Now, once you have the complete logical line, what are you going to do with it? Obviously you are going to process it. But how? There are two methods to it. 1. Lexing and Parsing the line<br> 2.Getting keyword and taking appropriate action thereafter In method 1 we take the line, run it through what is known as a 'Lexer' which breaks it down into tokens a 'Parser' which analyses it. Based on this it makes a wise decision and sends it to be processed accordingly.However this approach needs a very sophisticated system.<br><br> This book seeks to skip the processes of Parsing and Lexing and go straight into processing. Thus this book uses the Pseudo-Parser and Pseudo-Lexer approach (Method 2) which Lexes and Parses the statement differently for each type of statement, which allows for simpler compilers and lot of grammatical freedom. The algorithm for this approach is rather simple: 1.Take character from character array storing logical line till we encounter a 'delimiter' like ',",[space] and { 2.Compare the keyword thus derived with the set of all defined keywords. 2.1.If one matches, send the line to the matching function to process it. 2.2.If none match, produce an error message After this process is over, check for flags set by the line-input system, if the flag is set, terminate program.
415392	134830	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415392	Programming Basics/Introduction/What is programming?	A computer can’t do anything on its own. To do a task, you have to tell it what to do and how to do it. For example, let’s imagine a computer whose task is to cook a dish. The recipe contains the steps to follow to cook this dish. More specifically, the recipe is the program that tells the computer how to execute this task. The computer needs a recipe to cook the dish. But, how to get this recipe? It is simply a matter of creating the instructions necessary to run the program. In other words, you have to go through the first fundamental process of creating a program, which is programming.
415400	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415400	Oberon/ETH Oberon/WebBeta	Beta version change log The following list documents the changes that have been made in the latest beta versions of Native Oberon. Until approximately 2017, updates were at ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch. The changes listed here are being tested by beta testers all over the world, and will eventually make their way to the next release. "26 Aug 2001 - Copyright © 2001 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch"
415403	3181019	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415403	Horticulture/Urban Gardens	Urban horticulture specifically is the study of the relationship between plants and the urban environment. It focuses on the functional use of horticulture so as to maintain and improve the surrounding urban area. With the expansion of cities and rapid urbanization, this field of study is large and complex and its study has only recently gained momentum. It has an undeniable relationship to production horticulture in that fruits, vegetables and other plants are grown for harvest, aesthetic, architectural, recreational and psychological purposes, but it extends far beyond these benefits. The value of plants in the urban environment has yet to be thoroughly researched or quantified. Today urban horticulture has several components that include more than just community gardens, such as market gardens, small farms and farmers' markets and is an important aspect of community development. Another result of urban horticulture is the food security movement where locally grown food is given precedence through several projects and programs, thus providing low-cost and nutritious food. Urban community gardens and the food security movement was a response to the problems of industrial agriculture and to solve its related problems of price inflation, lack of supermarkets, food scarcity, etc. Production practices. Crops are grown in flowerpots, growbags, small gardens or larger fields, using traditional or high-tech and innovative practices. Some new techniques that have been adapted to the urban situation and tackle the main city restrictions are also documented. These include horticultural production on built-up land using various types of substrates (e.g. roof top, organic production and hydroponic/aeroponic production). Because of this, it is also known as roof-top vegetable gardening/horticulture and container vegetable gardening/horticulture.
415407	46022	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415407	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Simple Data Types	Simple Data Types. What does 'Simple Data Types' mean? The term refers to data types such as float, int and char declared in single format. Thus this type of data declarations exclude arrays and structures which are covered later. Format for Simple Data Declarations [further definitions] type of variable variable name 1 [,(or);] [variable name 2] ... [further definitions] can be: short long single double static local extern type of variable can be: float int char variable name can be any ASCII character(in some languages Extended-ASCII or UTF-8) beginning with an alphabet(A-Z)(a-z) Assembly equivalents for common data types. Assembly language , however does not recognize these data types. In fact, there is no distinction between an int and a char, or even between an int and a float (just that float variables are stored in a different format). Assembly language does not recognize static, local or extern variables. All variables declared in the BSS or DATA section are static and all variables declared with Macro LOCAL are local. Local variables are declared in CODE sections Also you cannot declare more than one variable in one logical line. Assembly language recognizes the following type of variables: BYTE(equivalent to char)(takes 1 byte) WORD(equivalent to short int)(takes 2 bytes) DWORD(equivalent to int)(takes 4 bytes) QWORD(equivalent to long int)(takes 8 bytes) TBYTE(equivalent to long long int)(takes 10 bytes) REAL4(IEEE format)(equivalent to single float)(takes 4 bytes) REAL8(IEEE format)(equivalent to double float)(takes 8 bytes) REAL10(IEEE format)(equivalent to long double float)(takes 10 bytes) The first group is the integer group which store non-fractional data<br> The second group is the fractional group which stores fractional data Algorithm. 1.Scan for identifiers 1.1 If "static" set static flag 1 1.2 Else static flag 0 2.Scan for data type 2.1 If "int" set int flag 1 2.2 If "float" set float flag 1 2.3 If "char" set char flag 1 3.Until ',' or '=' or ';' is encountered, get character and store in name array 3.1 3.1.1. If Float flag set write name and "real8" 3.1.2. If Int flag set write name and "dword" 3.1.3 If Char flag set write name and "byte" 3.2 3.2.1 If '=' 3.2.1.1 Until ',' or ';' is encountered get character and store in value array 3.2.1.2 Write value after type 3.2.2 If ';' terminate process 4 Repeat step 1 Sample Conversions. Original Code: int a,b,c; Resultant Code: a dword ? b dword ? c dword ? Original Code: int a=1,b=2,c=3; Resultant Code: a dword 1 b dword 2 c dword 3 Note: All uninitialized variables are to be declared in the .BSS or .DATA? section while all initialized variables are to be stored in .DATA section. All local variables are to be declared in .CODE section in the following format LOCAL [name of variable] [type of variable]
415416	134830	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415416	Programming Basics/Introduction/What is an algorithm?	Programming is a process similar to problem solving. It consists of posing a problem, breaking it down into several small problems, then solving each of these small problems in order to arrive at the final solution. The breakdown of this problem will lead to the creation of an algorithm. Algorithms are written in plain language so that it is easily understandable even by non-programmers. There are two main ways that algorithms can be represented-pseudocode and flowcharts. Pseudocode allows to represent textually an algorithm using annotations and informative text for each steps being used. Flowcharts allow to represent graphically an algorithm using different symbols for the steps being used.
415417	134830	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415417	Programming Basics/Introduction/What is coding?	Algorithms are never written in a language that computers can understand. The purpose of coding is to enable the use of these algorithms in a program by translating them into a language that computers can understand.
415418	134830	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415418	Programming Basics/Introduction/What is a programming language?	Whenever you want to implement an algorithm, you’ll have to translate it into a language that computers can understand, which is known as a programming language. A programming language can be defined as a high-level language or low-level language. A high-level language uses instructions encoded in a language more suited to humans. While a low-level language uses instructions encoded in a language more suited to computers. Each type of programming language has a different way of writing instructions. The instructions in a high-level language are called source code and are written in plain text. The instructions in a low-level language can be written in two different ways. Either by using binary numbers, and in this case the instructions are called machine code. Or by using mnemonics, and in this case the instructions are called assembly code.
415430	3168881	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415430	Oberon/ETH Oberon/WebAlpha	[ Change log \| To-do ] Alpha version change log The following list documents the changes that have been made in the latest alpha version of Native Oberon. The changes listed here are being tested by the author, and will eventually make their way to the next beta version. Note that this log is updated more often than the ftp server, so if you see a change here that is not yet available on the ftp server, send mail to request an update. The author of a change in indicated in parenthesis, with pjm as a default. To-do (outdated) "5 Jan 2003 - Copyright © 2003 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon-web at inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: www.ethoberon.ethz.ch"
415438	3181019	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415438	Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert	Main Page =Developing a Sense of Place= The term “sense of place” has been used in many ways. Probably its main usage over the past century has been in the field of literature, as a judgement of how central the geographical location of a work is to the meaning of that work, or of how strongly the artist’s sensory descriptions render an emotional response to the setting. A rapidly growing usage, however, is in the contemporary environmental movement – as a reference to the degree of one’s connection to or one’s appreciation for one’s immediate natural surroundings. This sentiment is expressed in as many different ways as there are believers – “love of the Earth,” “oneness with Nature,” “healthy ecosystems,” and so on and on. But the basic idea is that, if we can come to see ourselves as part of our environment rather than separate from it, we might have a chance to find a sustainable balance for backing away from global environmental collapse. Probably, achieving such an outlook would mean turning away from the Western Industrial model of civilization that now thoroughly dominates the planet and toward a more holistic, relationship with nature, perhaps even recapturing some of the insights of primitive and indigenous peoples. Education has the role of offering us access to information and of preparing us for future activities in society. Extending over those specific uses, however, is developing the essential habits of mind – creativity and critical thinking – as well as the sacred responsibility of finding our true place in universe. That is where a Sense of Place comes in. =Arizona Western College’s Honors Colloquium, 2020 & 2021:= For two consecutive years, this special-topics course at Arizona Western College has sought to access knowledge from all relevant fields of study, focused primarily on the Sonoran Desert bioregion – of which Yuma and the nearby mouth of the Colorado River are located very neat the epicenter. The intention has been for the resulting comprehensive awareness to serve as a microcosm for understanding the complex interrelationship between human culture and its natural surroundings, with an eye toward finding a workable paradigm for addressing a growing environmental crisis. In the process, it has critiqued the traditional stratification of academic disciplines as an obstacle to an integrated understanding of the place of humans, individually and as a species, within the broadest systems of the biosphere. The course has included components in the biological and physical sciences, beginning with a survey of the role of geography and climate in the continual reshaping of the landscape. It also has included an examination of the symbiotic and dynamic relationship among the species of fauna and flora in this exceptionally diverse bioregion. The course also has studied the impact of human habitation in the region and analyzed the evolving perception of the region in popular culture – art, literature, cinema, folklore, and so on. It also has considered the role of cultural institutions – political, legal, economic, religious – in determining decisions related to such issues as land use, water allocation, and environmental regulations. And it has investigated the origins of human attitudes toward the physical environment, wilderness landscapes, the American West, and the Sonoran Desert in particular. Course activities have rotated among guided class discussion, guest appearances by disciplinary and professional experts, direct sensory experience of local locations, and student-driven projects. This book is the story of the journey undertaken together by the students and the instructors – a journey that was suddenly reoriented from the traditional classroom to an all-online (Zoom & Canvas) format by the Coronavirus pandemic. Site Structure: Like the college course upon which it is based, this Wikibook is organized essentially in two parts. The first, theoretical, portion – labeled INTERACTIONS – is broken down by the academic components (Biodiversity, Geology, Water Use, Public Policy, and so on). For this portion, the students “interacted” with two types of sources – established authors through excerpts from their seminal writings, and local professionals who have devoted their lives to sharing their knowledge of some aspect of the Sonoran Desert. Some of these guest lecturers visited us in the virtual classroom while others led a field trip off site. The second major section of the Book – labeled LOCATIONS – represents the actual application of the more theoretical background supplied earlier. For this portion of the course, the students created a collaborative Project that included this Wikibook. The other part of the Project was to break into three teams, each creating a Google Tour/Voyage based on the subregions of the Sonoran Desert: =INTERACTIONS - Key Readings & Local Luminaries= For the readings, students interacted in a robust online Discussion Board, each beginning a new thread that addressed a series of prompts about the material, then reading and responding to each other’s postings over the course of a week. For the guest lecturers, they kept a Journal describing the activity and offering reflections upon their significance. This section of our Book contains a page for each of the seven major course Components, with subsections for each of the related readings and guest lecturers. The Discussion prompts are reproduced at the top of their respective subsections, followed by selected passages from among the students’ postings. For the classroom visits / field trips, the ensuing selections from the students’ Journals are divided between objective observations (Description) and critical analysis (Reflections). Component One - Sense of Place Component Two - Biodiversity Component Three - Geology/Climate Component Four - Water Component Five - Human Ecology & Conservation Component Six - Resource Use & Policy Component Seven - History & Culture =LOCATIONS - Subregions of the Sonoran Desert= For two consecutive years, the Honors Colloquium group at Arizona Western College conducted an examination of selected locations across the 6 commonly accepted subregions of the Sonoran Desert. The overall goal of the two groups was similar, but the varying results reflect the unique personalities of the contributors. In addition, there were significant differences in methodology, with the 2020 group emphasizing breadth and the 2021 group emphasizing depth. Also, the 2021 group results distinguish between all 6 subregions while 2020 group collapsed some subregions under broader headings. 2021. Each location was chosen as an exemplum of one of 4 broad areas of inquiry – Biodiversity, Geology/Climate, Land & Water Use, and History/Culture. The overall question that runs through all 4 of these themes, however, concerns the human impact upon the natural environment, and the consistent attempt is made to identify imminent threats as well as opportunities for addressing those threats. Each of the 6 pages begins with an overview of the subregion, including a mention of what factors distinguish that subregion from the others within the Sonoran Desert. Lower Colorado River Valley Arizona Uplands Plains of Sonora Central Gulf Coast Vizcaino Magdalena 2020. Each subregion contains an overview of the biodiversity, geology, climate, water, and land use that is unique to the respective subregion. To begin, each student chose one animal species and one plant species to guide an investigation between and . The species was selected based on ecological and/or cultural significance. The relationship between the sustainability of human populations and the conservation status of the plant species and of the animal species is explored. The exploration focuses on the overlap between the habitat requirements of the plant and animal species, and the ecosystem services that those habitats provide. Each subregion contains a description of the geologic origin and character of the area and the cultural use of minerals (such as mining). An overview of the climate is provided with respect to the geological landforms, which together result in the biotic zones that occur in the area. Within this landscape setting we examine the link between water use and land use. Through all of this emerges some common themes uniting the sustainability of human societies and the conservation of biodiversity. The unique characteristics of the biogregion impart unique opportunities for the sustainability of human societies in the area. They also impart unique threats. We close each subregion with an overview of these opportunities and threats. Arizona Uplands & Plains of Sonora Lower Colorado River Baja Peninsula & Sea of Cortez Each of these tours identified roughly 20 locations within their third of the larger bioregion and researched those locations according to the broad categories of Biodiversity, Geology/Climate, Land & Water Use, and Threats & Opportunities. They loaded this information into the application along with effective multimedia components. =Video Overviews= 2021. ⇒ YouTube. ⇒ YouTube. ⇒ YouTube. 2020. ⇒ YouTube. ⇒ YouTube. ⇒ YouTube. =Map Voyages= 2021. ⇒ Arizona Uplands & Plains of Sonora ⇒ Lower Colorado River Valley ⇒ Vizcaino, Magdealana & Central Gulf Coast 2020. ⇒ Arizona Uplands & Plains of Sonora ⇒ Lower Colorado River ⇒ Baja Peninsula & Sea of Cortez
415440	396820	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415440	Professionalism/Sign Stealing in Major League Baseball	Background. A sign in baseball is a cue that is relayed from one member of a team to another, usually to coordinate strategy. Sign stealing is a term used to describe when a team attempts to understand a competitor’s signs in order to gain an advantage. Sign stealing itself is not against the rules of Major League Baseball. It has even been acknowledged as “part of the game” and an enjoyable aspect of baseball. Over the course of professional baseball’s existence, however, rules regarding sign stealing aided by technology have been put in place in response to various sign stealing scandals. In the early 2000s, Major League Baseball sent out a memo reminding teams of the limitations on use of electronic equipment during games; the memo specifically mentioned that using electronic equipment for sign stealing is prohibited. One of the earliest cases of technology aided sign stealing was carried out by the Phillies during the 1899-1900 season; the team used a buzzer system to notify batters of upcoming pitches. Another notable case occurred about 60 years later when teams were accused of using cameras in centerfield to steal signs; the teams stopped using these cameras when discovered. In the 1980s, a team was known to use a light in its scoreboard to indicate upcoming pitch type to its batters. Punishments for electronically aided sign stealing have been a bit inconsistent over the years; more recent cases have resulted in fines and suspensions. Teams are cautious and try to make sign stealing difficult, but competitors may still attempt to steal signs and take on the risks it presents. The motive for sign stealing is usually competitive advantage. Major League Baseball’s better performing players tend to earn more money and gain more recognition than others; top earners have signed contracts worth over one hundred million dollars. Furthermore, teams that compete in the postseason are rewarded a portion of the revenue it earns; better teams earn larger portions. Teams often divide their revenue among players and coaches, but other staff may receive bonuses as well. While the competitive advantage brought about by sign stealing can have a huge upside for teams and their players, it comes at a cost to opposing players. Opposing players’ talent levels may not be perceived to be as high as they truly are, which could diminish these players’ careers. So, sign stealing can be a source of controversy, especially when aided by technology. The Houston Astros Sign Stealing Scandal. Sign stealing has recently been thrust into the national spotlight with the Houston Astros Scandal. The Astros have been one of the most successful MLB teams in the past decade, with a World Series Championship in 2017 and another World Series appearance in 2019 . Initial Accusations and MLB Investigation. On November 12, 2019, former Houston Astros Pitcher Mike Fiers told the Athletic that the Astros used center field cameras to steal signs during their 2017 World Series Championship season . He noted that his goal in coming forward was to “clean up the game”, as pitchers across the league are “losing their jobs because they are going in there not knowing” As a result of Fiers’ comments, the MLB launched an investigation of the Astros, where they found the Astros guilty of using two different forms of sign stealing. During their 2017 playoff run, the astros installed a monitor just outside the dugout that streamed live footage from their centerfield camera, which they used to steal signs between the opposing catcher and pitcher. Astros’ players and coaches in the dugout then used a coded “trash can banging system” to alert the batter what pitch was coming next. The report pegged former Astros Bench Coach Alex Cora and former player Carlos Beltran as the two masterminds behind the sign stealing scheme . While many players and media members have speculated about the Astros use of illegal buzzers and sign stealing during their 2019 playoff run, the MLB’s investigation found no wrongdoing outside of the 2017 season . Response from the Astros. In the aftermath of the investigation, many Astros players released statements of apology. Perennial All Star Jose Altuve emphasized that “the whole Astros organization feels bad about what happened in 2017,” while Alex Bregman stated that he “regrets the choices made by my team, my organization, and by me”. What garnered more national attention were the comments made by Astros Owner Jim Crane. Crane opened his statement by removing all blame from the shoulders of players, pegging them instead as victims of “the failure of our leadership” . He further claimed that sign stealing “didn’t impact the game,” and that the Astros “had a good team, won the World Series, and we’ll leave it at that” . Reactions around the MLB. Opposing players throughout the MLB used social media to express their anger with the Astros scandal. Orioles third baseman Danny Valencia used the term “Houston Asterisks” to question the validity of the Astros 2017 World Series Title, while pitcher Alex Wood said he “would rather face a player taking steroids than one who knew what pitch was coming” . Former Blue Jays Pitcher Mike Bolsinger is suing the Astros for unfair business practices, as he claims that sign stealing “changed the course of his career” . After spending years in the minor leagues, Bolsinger was finally given a chance in the majors in August of 2017, where the Astros scored four runs in just a third of an inning. Bolsinger has not pitched in the majors since. Oddsmakers in Las Vegas anticipate retaliation from pitchers across the league, as “sportsbooks put out an over/under total of 83.5 for the number of times the Astros will be hit by a pitch in 2020” . This number has only been reached five times for any team in the past decade . Cheating Scandals in Professional Sports. Cheating scandals have been ubiquitous in professional sports since their inception. Some forms of cheating are consistent across multiple professional sports, while others are unique to individual sports. Similarly, the impact and repercussions associated with each scandal varies. The following cases are generally recognized as some of the most notable. The Black Sox Scandal. In 1920, eight Chicago White Sox baseball players were indicted for colluding with gamblers during the 1919 World Series. The players, along with five gamblers, agreed to lose games on purpose, called ‘throwing games’, for financial gain. The so-called Black Sox Scandal of 1919 resulted in the players’ acquittal in 1921, but all eight players were banned from professional baseball that same year. Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, baseball’s first commissioner and commissioner at the time of the scandal, said “Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player that throws a ball game, no player that entertains proposals or promises to throw a game, no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing games are discussed, and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever again play professional baseball” [4]. Lance Armstrong Doping. In 2012, cyclist Lance Armstrong decided to stop fighting against illegal doping charges, one year before he ultimately confessed to using illegal performance-enhancing drugs. The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) ruled that Armstrong would receive a lifetime ban from professional cycling, and he would be stripped of all winnings, including seven Tour de France titles [6]. The USADA CEO at the time commented that the case was “the most sophisticated, professionalized and successful doping program that sport has ever seen”. New England Patriots Spygate and Deflategate. In 2007, the New England Patriots were found to have illegally videotaped opposing coaches’, starting the scandal called ‘Spygate’ [8]. The team was fined $250,000, head coach Bill Belichick was fined $500,000, and the team lost a first-round draft selection. A team of investigators also found evidence of Patriots’ illegal monitoring of many other teams up to seven seasons prior. The team was then suspected of intentionally underinflating footballs for the 2014 AFC Championship game. Team ownership and players denied the accusations, and the evidence against the team was not strong. Nevertheless, the scandal, dubbed ‘Deflategate’, resulted in a four-game suspension of quarterback Tom Brady, a $1 million fine to the team, and the loss of multiple draft selections [9,10]. Steroid Use in the MLB. Performance enhancing drugs have been used by many MLB players to gain an advantage, and it is contended that PEDs are widely used throughout the entire league today. Players like Mark McGwire, Sammy Sosa, Roger Clemens, Barry Bonds, and Alex Rodriguez had taken steroids throughout their illustrious careers. Though the MLB did not test players for PEDs before 2003, it is estimated that over 30% of professional players use them [12]. Players are faced with suspension and potential fines if caught taking PEDs, but many are enticed by an average increase of about $2 million in annual salary as a result of an OPS increase of about 0.100 from steroids, as one report found [13]. Effect of Technology on Cheating. Technology increases the amount of information and the speed at which information is available. While increased information availability undoubtedly leads to more efficient solutions, unclear rules of how this information can be used creates scenarios where cheating can occur. For example, before technology allowed a dugout to view close up images of a catcher and pitcher in real time, sign stealing was respected as “part of the game” of baseball. As technology increases the possible ways cheating can occur, rules must be updated to draw clear lines about how technology can and cannot be used and punishments must factor in the losses incurred by opposing players and teams. In high schools and colleges across the country, thousands of students have benefitted from the use of study tools such as Quizlet, Chegg, and Khan Academy. Like high-tech cameras in baseball, these resources provide students new avenues to cheat where outside aid is not permitted and where such avenues may not be available to all parties. The difference between students using these resources to gain additional tips and instruction versus searching for homework solutions or online test answers is where clear rules must be illustrated to prevent technology being used in an unfair way. Similarly, questions on what is considered public information complicates what constitutes insider trading, which can lead to millions of dollars of profit at the expense of other investors. Information will only continue to become more accessible as technology advances, further suggesting the need for clear rules and strict punishment of cheating to keep the playing field level across all industries.
415442	3260616	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415442	Professionalism/Stanley Pons, Martin Fleischmann, and Cold Fusion	Overview. , a hypothesized phenomenon, contrasts with nuclear fusion in that it would be self-sustained at room temperature. Scientists first began hypothesizing cold fusion in the 1920’s. Several claims to success had been made and disproved over the century, but the most famous case was made in 1989 by two electrochemists at the University of Utah, and . With public desire to amend the energy sector, their publication, originally sent to the , became a worldwide sensation, marking cold fusion as the most published research topic that year. Due to the experiment's vagueness and experimental error, replications were widely unsuccessful, and most reports that did substantiate Pons and Fleischmann's claims were retracted within days. Pons and Fleischmann's downfall is attributed to professional misconduct: accusingly forging data on gamma ray emissions to match those expected of fusion, "" attacks on critics, and undermining , an American physicist who made progress on . Pons, Fleischmann, and Jones originally agreed to simultaneously submit their findings to Nature, yet under pressure from the university, Fleischmann and Pons submitted their findings a day earlier, shortstopping Jones. With backlash from the scientific community, Pons and Fleischmann reclused from the public and continued their research in the dark, remaining lifelong advocates of cold fusion. Today, the field has adapted alternative names to avoid the associated stigma. Historical Context. The initial receival of Pons and Fleischmann's announcement was influenced by the "" logical fallacy. Pons and Fleischmann's announcement was made just as the had passed, which illustrated 's political influence on U.S. foreign policy. The scientific community was being pressured to create a solution to energy dependency on the Arab States, and environmental activists were lobbying for a new direction in the industry. Several pressing issues were under the scope of the media: , the , and the , which occurred just as the announcement was made. Potential Impact on Society. Cold fusion technology would mean readily available, clean, and cheap energy. At current consumption rates, radiation is expected to be harmless. Cold fusion would offer an emission-free alternative to fossil fuels, yet a rapid shift to the technology could cause financial collapse. Uranium, oil, natural gas, and coal industries would become obsolete as well as current infrastructure including wind turbines, electrical facilities, and power grids. suggests that cold fusion would increase energy usage due to increased efficiency in energy production. If not regulated, cold fusion could produce hazardous radiation where generators are densely used despite minimal waste byproducts. Overuse of cold fusion technology would be expected in impoverished areas with dense populations and low government oversight. Cold fusion generators could produce heat waste which would cause local temperature influxes. is common in such regions, which requires complex engineering to reduce toxic waste products. With readily available energy, small-scale desalination by boiling could become routine, demanding millions of waste sites for heavy metal and mineral disposure. Previous Cold Fusion Research. Cold fusion was first suggested in 1909 when unintentionally observed anomalous heat releases from hydrogen plasma between tungsten electrodes. Intrigued, he confided with , who dissuaded further research as the results seemed to break the conversation of energy. The ability for palladium to adsorb and split molecular hydrogen was discovered in the nineteenth century by . Its use as a catalyst led to experiments like that of and , who in 1927, published results claiming that palladium could fuse hydrogen into helium through “nuclear catalysis.” It was later shown that the observed helium was from the atmosphere, and their publication was retracted. That year, however, John Tandberg did manage to observe seemingly fusion-based helium and excess heat through electrolysis with palladium electrodes. His Swedish patent was denied since he could not explain the phenomenon. Tandberg resumed his work when was discovered, but to no avail. In the 1950's, experiments on muon-catalyzed fusion suggested practical cold fusion, but proved to be net-energy negative. Cold fusion was first idolized in 1956 when published 's work on muon-catalyzed fusion. The Impact of Pons and Fleischmann. When Fleischmann and Pons had observed “hundreds of times more heat than the chemistry could account for,” they had unknowingly replicated Tandberg’s experiment with deuterium-heavy water in palladium catalyst. The couple claimed that running a current through the electrolysis cell caused phases of increased temperature, which would last for days. During these periods, the extracted power was over 40 times that of the power supplied. Initial Reception. After Fleischmann and Pons announced their results on March 23, 1989, members of the scientific community attempted to replicate their results. A group at Texas A&M reported the presence of neutrons and tritium, confirming their original results. Scientists at Georgia Tech also confirmed Fleischmann and Pons' results, but retracted their findings three days after. Research from the found neutron counts that were slightly higher than expected, but the group did not deem it evidence of cold fusion. Many groups followed up on cold fusion, but had a lack of evidence from the start or felt they had false positives. The consensus of the scientific community seems to be that Pons and Fleischmann went public with their results without adequate testing or scientific rigor. The Rapid Development of Stigma. In one year, cold fusion went from one of the most promising fields in science to a . The scientific community began to ignore Cold Fusion research in a way that resembled the fable "," yet the mass disregard for the field happened after a single false alarm (Pons and Fleischmann's research). A stigma developed around Cold Fusion due to Pons and Fleischmann challenging core ideas about how to do science. They challenged reproducibility, which is central to the scientific method. A November 1989 report from the U.S. Energy Research Advisory Board to the U.S. Department of Energy stated: "The claims of cold fusion are unusual in that even the strongest proponents of cold fusion assert that the experiments, for unknown reasons, are not consistent and reproducible at the present time." Pons and Fleischmann were challenging the framework of science rather than operating within the framework. To use 's terminology, Pons and Fleishman were attempting revolutionary science rather than ordinary science, and it was this challenging of the scientific method that created the stigma surrounding the field. Researchers pursuing Cold Fusion research commonly use the terms or to avoid the stigma associated with Cold Fusion. Psychological Biases. Confirmation Bias, Overconfidence, and Sunk Cost. Pons and Fleishmann told reporters that they were very confident in their results and that they had observed them many times, yet they seemed to avoid disconfirming evidence and took every positive experiment as support for cold fusion. They repeatedly avoided questions from CalTech researchers, who were attempting to replicate their experiments with higher quality equipment. After Pons and Fleischmann invested years and over $100,000 of their own money into cold fusion research, they likely felt a need to deliver positive results due to the Sunk Cost Fallacy. Low Falsifiability. The statement "Cold fusion is possible" has very low , meaning that it is very hard to prove the statement "Cold fusion is not possible". The idea that cold fusion is not possible is based on current scientific theories. The is the currently accepted model that describes the criterion for determining whether a combination of density, confinement time, and plasma temperature will result in a net positive energy output in fusion reactions. The formula estimates 30 million degrees or more are required for a net positive fusion reaction. Ultimately, cold fusion researchers are challenging well-accepted theories. As says: “There is no theoretical reason to expect cold fusion to be possible, and a vast amount of well-established science that says it should be impossible." Close was involved in efforts to replicate the original 1989 experiment, but was unsuccessful. This begs the question, should we be investigating something just because we can't rule it out completely? Does the small chance of revolutionizing energy make it worth investigating, despite not having theoretical grounds suggesting that cold fusion is actually possible? Current State of Cold Fusion. Stigma around cold fusion has not completely faded. Currently, only a fraction of scientific journals accept work on the subject, though the general disposition is changing. Thousands of papers have been published on the matter, and a growing network has created books describing the science, reviews for nontechnical audiences, and educational websites. At least eight countries are invested in cold fusion since the potential benefits are too great to ignore. U.S. Naval Research. In 2004, a group from the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command, including Martin Fleischmann, published a paper on palladium cathode experiments. The paper again argued that there was excess heat and net power gain through the cell. In 2019, the U.S. Navy applied for a patent for a fusion device. The device described is definitely not cold fusion, reaching temperatures over 200 million degrees Celsius. Google's Research. Google has been researching cold fusion since 2015. According to Google, they are doing it for the following reasons: Google pursued three possible methods of cold fusion, one being very similar to that of Pons and Fleischmann. None of their experiments produced results anywhere near sustainable cold fusion, but the scientists did feel that some of their results warranted further research. Some scientists approved of the scientific rigor that Google brought to the field while others believed they should have stayed away from cold fusion. Curtis Berlinguette of the University of British Columbia, a principal investigator involved in the project, said "This is what we are supposed to do as scientists."
415443	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415443	Emerging Technologies in Transportation Casebook/3D Printing	Introduction. This case study on 3D Printing and Transportation was written by Brendan Lyon and Marisa Migliore, graduate students studying Transportation Policy, Operations, and Logistics and Transportation Engineering. It was created for Dr. Jonathan Gifford's Emerging Technology, Transportation and Public Policy class in the George Mason University Schar School of Policy and Government. Topics covered include current and possible impacts of 3D Printing on transportation manufacturing, infrastructure and logistics, as well as the policy implications of these impacts. Table of Contents. Introduction Effects on transportation
415444	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415444	Emerging Technologies in Transportation Casebook/3D Printing/What is 3D Printing? Software & Hardware	3D printing is a process that adds material layer by layer to create a physical object from a three-dimensional digital model. Because only enough material needed to make the shape is used, it has the potential for cost and material savings compared to other manufacturing methods. Other advantages compared to traditional manufacturing include: Disadvantages include: The 3D Printing Process. Preparing the Model. The process begins with the creation of a 3D model, usually using CAD (Computer Aided Design) software. Some common CAD software packages used to model objects for 3D printing include SOLIDWORKS, SketchUp, Autodesk Inventor (commercial), FreeCAD and BRL-CAD (open-source). Alternatively, an existing object can be scanned by a 3D scanner to create a 3D model. Once the CAD file has been created, it must be converted into a format that approximates its shape, including any curves, with x, y and z coordinates. The most commonly used format is an .STL file, but other filetypes, such as .3MF and .OBJ, are also used. The .STL file, or other file approximating the object’s shape, must then be prepared for printing with a process called slicing. Sometimes slicers are incorporated into software created by the manufacturer of a printer (e.g. MakerBot’s MakerWare). Other slicers are standalone programs, including Simplify3D (commercial), Repetier (freeware), Cura and KISSlicer (open-source). During slicing, the virtual object is oriented for printing and converted into layers. The output of this process is a .gcode file, which contains the instructions for where the machine should add or solidify material to produce the object. Printing Processes. Although there are many 3D printing processes, three are most commonly used. Whichever method is used, 3D printers perform every step needed to transform raw material into the final shape once the machine is set up with material and its .gcode instructions. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Fused deposition modeling, the most widely used 3D printing process, begins by heating a filament of material (usually plastic or plastic composite) until soft and pliable. Then, the hot material is extruded through a computer-controlled nozzle and deposited onto a build plate into the desired shape for each layer. After each layer has hardened, another layer is deposited on top, and this is repeated until the entire object has been completed. After printing is finished, the object can be sanded and cleaned. Since overhanging parts of an FDM printed object cannot be created without a support structure, these supports must be removed after printing. Stereolithography (SLA). Stereolithography uses photosensitive liquid resins. Computer-controlled lasers are directed at the resin to solidify it into the desired shape of each layer. Once a layer is complete, either the vat of resin or the object itself is moved vertically so that the next layer can be added. After the object is finished being built, excess resin is removed using a solvent and the object must be cured. Although stereolithography can produce smoother objects with finer detail than FDM printing, it must use photosensitive materials and so it is more limited in terms of producing functional objects. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS). This method of 3D printing begins with a deep bed of powdered material, often metal. Guided by the .gcode file, lasers heat the surface of the powder in the desired shape for each layer. This sinters, or binds together, the particles of powder. The bed of powder is then moved downward and a new layer of powder is applied. The next layer of the object is sintered together on top of the first, and the process is repeated until the entire object has been formed. Like SLA printed objects, SLS printed objects must be cured before use. 3D Printers. Printers range greatly in size and capability – for example, the LulzBot Mini FDM printer has a build area of 6 inches by 6 inches (15.24 cm by 15.24 cm), while industrial size FDM printers such as the Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM) machine can produce pieces the size of a car. As of April 2020, prices range from around $200 USD for small printers to over $1 million USD for industrial size machines.
415446	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415446	Emerging Technologies in Transportation Casebook/3D Printing/Direct effects	As of this writing, 3D printing is already being used in the production processes of several sectors of transportation. Automotive Industry. Vehicle development is one area where 3D printing is commonly employed. Manufacturers have used the technology to quickly create scale models of its vehicles and working prototypes of parts like air vents which can then be tested to ensure they function correctly and are comfortable to use. Producing these prototypes with 3D printing requires less expense and time than traditional assembly, which streamlines the overall design process. Spare parts for trucks are also being created using SLS printing, which allows for on-demand production and reduces the need for manufacturing and storing spare parts in bulk. Vehicles with FDM printed bodies have also been produced, although it has so far been restricted to concept and limited production vehicles. The material used in these vehicles is a plastic composite, reinforced with carbon fiber. Local Motors’ Strati car and Olli shuttle are two examples, as well as a working replica of a Shelby Cobra created by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Aviation. Aircraft parts often have high costs and highly specialized designs, making them ideal candidates for 3D printing production. 3D printing aircraft-grade parts is expensive but is less expensive than some current production methods. Importantly, 3D printing has the potential to reduce the weight of parts. Less weight means less fuel is needed to operate aircraft, which can mean large cost savings as fuel is very expensive. If parts are redesigned with 3D printing rather than traditional manufacturing in mind, dramatic reductions in the number of parts can be achieved. Many simple parts can be consolidated into one complex part that would be infeasible to produce with traditional techniques such as machining. The reduction in parts also means less wear and tear for mechanical components such as engines, and the ability to make more complex structures can allow for more efficient designs. Some 3D printed parts have been developed but are not currently used in commercial aircraft, such as Airbus’ design for a partition between the galley and passenger cabin intended for future use in the Airbus A320. The 3D printed design uses a lattice structure that gives it high strength for its weight, and a 45% overall reduction in weight. One turboprop engine developed by GE has over 30% 3D printed parts, and is expected to be installed on its planes in the near future. Redesigning the engine for 3D printing resulted in a 10% decrease in weight, a 20% decrease in fuel use, and allowed engineers to combined 855 parts into only 12 parts. Other 3D printed metal parts are already installed in aircraft, including engine components. GE manufactures components such as engine door brackets using 3D printing, and CFM International 3D prints metal fuel nozzles for the Airbus A320neo’s engine that increase overall fuel efficiency. There are several challenges, such as metal print area limits and imperfections such as voids that require post-processing, that prevent adoption of 3D printing technology on a larger scale. Transportation Infrastructure. So far, there have not been any bridges or roads for motorized vehicles built using 3D printing. However, no fewer than five pedestrian and cyclist bridges have been created with the technology for public use in Spain, the Netherlands and China. The bridges are made from various materials, including more unusual ones like plastic and concrete composite and fiberglass-reinforced plastic as well the common construction materials of concrete and steel. The longest, created by the Tsinghua University School of Architecture in Shanghai, China, is made of concrete and is over 26 meters (85 feet) long. Several techniques can be used to 3D print the large pieces required for bridge construction, including 6-axis industrial robots, and large area gantry and crane 3D printers. Concrete shapes can be built in a process similar to FDM printing, and steel can be welded together layer by layer with the use of an industrial robot arm. There are some challenges involved in 3D printing concrete, as it cures or hardens more slowly than materials such as plastic. Typically, bridge components have straight lines for easy manufacturing and constructability. However, 3D printing allows curved shapes to be built right into components and many of these bridge decks have been constructed with internal support patterns that add strength but would ordinarily be difficult and costly to produce. For example, the MX3D steel bridge in Amsterdam is entirely composed of curved shapes ideal for withstanding stresses, and the Gemert bicycle bridge has a unique, loop-like reinforcement structure within the concrete bridge deck. Designs created using generative algorithms, which run through many possibilities to find one with ideal strength and material usage and often yield rounded or web-like shapes, are much easier to construct using 3D printing. These algorithms were used in the design of the world’s first 3D printed bridge open to the public in Madrid, Spain, as well the MX3D bridge. Although the printing system used to create these bridges can be costly, the production of the bridge itself can be faster and more cost-effective. Tsinghua University’s bridge in Shanghai cost two-thirds of what a conventional concrete bridge would cost as it did not require as much manual labor and required no formwork, or molds, for the concrete. = =
415448	3264265	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415448	Professionalism/Dan Graves and ITT Educational Services	ITT Technical Institute (or simply ITT Tech) was a for-profit technical institute with 130 campuses nationwide. It was founded in 1969 as a response to the Higher Education Act. The Higher Education Act increased federal money given to universities and included low-interest loans for students. ITT profited by purposefully recruiting students who were not qualified to attend traditional college, but would qualify for federal financial aid. A 2014 senate investigation into ITT Tech's practices eventually led to the company declaring bankruptcy. ITT Tech was wholly owned and operated by ITT Educational Services. Dan Graves was a recruitment representative for ITT Technical Institute. With Susan Newman, another ITT Tech representative, Graves filed a lawsuit against the company in 1999 on behalf of the US government. Graves claimed that ITT Tech had an incentive salary structure that paid recruiters commission based on earnings from each student recruited. Graves argued this practice should disqualify ITT Tech from receiving compensation through the Higher Education Act. Following years of litigation, Graves' lawsuit was dismissed in 2004. ITT Tech Financial and Recruitment Behavior. ITT Tech charged relatively high prices compared to their community college competitors. The school charged an average of $45,000 for an associates degree and $77,000 for a bachelor's degree. The bulk of their revenue came from federal financial aid funds, with an estimated 70% of the ITT Tech's money gained in 2015 was from federal financial aid funds, and they had the industry's highest rate of loans go into default in student's first two years of attending the school. ITT Tech looked to target prospective students who might think their institute was their only option. Recruiters were told to use a so-called "Pain Funnel" where they were encouraged to ask progressively more hurtful questions. This tactic was used to guilt students into enrollment. The institute also ensured a seamless enrollment process when students did decide to attend the school. In some instances, one signature could get a student both into a school and applied for federal financial aid. The institute did not allocate much of their resources back into improving their school. Instead, a significant portion of the profits went into paying recruiters commission and upper management relatively high salaries. In 2009, "ITT CEO Kevin Modany received $7.6 million in compensation, more than 22 times as much as the president of Indiana University at Bloomington." As a result, some companies would blacklist potential employee's with ITT Tech diplomas on their resume. 1999 Lawsuit & Dan Graves. Dan Graves was a recruitment representative for ITT Technical Institute, hired in 1999. As a recruitment representative he was earning between 5 and 10% commission from each student that enrolled through him. Earning commission from students incentivized Graves and other recruiters to enroll as many students as possible, with no regard to whether or not they should be enrolled. For precisely this reason, the Higher Education Act prohibits participating organizations from using this incentive-based pay structure known as "incentive compensation". This should have disqualified ITT from the Higher Education Act loan and student aid programs. Dan Graves and fellow recruitment representative Susan Newman, hired in 1998, filed a lawsuit against ITT and its auditing agency PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) in 1999, claiming that ITT had been improperly certified to comply with the Higher Education Act. This claim relied on the fact that ITT had not disclosed its incentive compensation pay system, and PwC had failed to notice and disclose it as well. Graves and Newman no longer worked for ITT as of February 2000 . The case was unsealed on May 30, 2001. Higher Education Act Title IV Student Aid. Higher Education Act Title IV loans are backed by the US Department of Education. If a student defaults on their debt, the lender is reimbursed by a guaranty agency, and that guarantor is then reimbursed by the Department of Education. If recruiters at ITT are incentivized to take on any student with no regard to how well they are able to pay off their loans, ITT would effectively defraud the US government. For this reason, HEA forbids incentive compensation. Even today, it remains difficult to track education loans, and it is ballooned in size to nearly 10% of the US national debt. Approximately 45 million people have student loan debt. Bankruptcy of Computer Learning Centers. Computer Learning Centers (CLC) was a for-profit education company very similar to ITT Tech. In late 2000, the Department of Education cited incentive compensation violations very similar to the case brought by Graves and Newman. As a result, CLC was fined $187 million and filed for bankruptcy less than two weeks later. The Department of Education was blamed by CLC investors for shutting down a legitimate business, leading DoED officials to reconsider their view on compensation violations. In 2002, then Deputy Secretary of Education William D. Hansen concluded that "the preferable approach is to view incentive compensation prohibition as not resulting in monetary loss to the department." This memo was rescinded in 2015. Graves Lawsuit Outcome. Following the change of opinion of the Department of Education regarding incentive compensation, the Texas Southern District court dismissed the case in 2003. Graves appealed, and the decision of the district court was upheld. Graves appealed again the United States Supreme Court, but certiorari was not granted. Graves' team saw this is as "an institutional failure by the government and a complete abdication of responsibility to enforce the Higher Education Act." Post-Lawsuit Investigations. The Graves Lawsuit wasn't a total loss. During and following the case, various investigations were opened. In 2002, the US Department of Justices filed a statement of interest in the case. According to court filings from a separate case, the California attorney general and the US Securities and Exchange Commission both launched investigations in 2002 looking into falsified grades and attendance records for financial aid qualification. The California AG investigation resulted in a fine of $750k, while the SEC investigation did not yield any penalties. In 2004, following the statement of interest, the DOJ started an investigation into student financial aid fraud, money laundering, and racketeering. This investigation was eventually abandoned. Senate Investigation. The Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP) committee investigated ITT Tech in 2014. The committee found that the school used a recruitment technique called the "Pain Funnel" and "Pain Puzzle" to emotionally manipulate potential students into enrolling. The investigation revealed that the school fraudulently reported income sources to fit federal regulations. Through a complex system of Wall Street investors and private banks loans called the ITT PEAKS program, the school was able to report federal funding as non-federal funding, violating the 90/10 rule. The investigation also revealed that ITT Tech used federal funding to set up a scholarship given to nearly every student, which contributed to the fraudulent 90-10 quotient. ITT Tech also hid its high loan default rate by labelling defaulting borrowers under "forbearance" and "deferment". Both the high default rate and high 90-10 quotient make ITT ineligible for federal funding under the HEA. Demise and Aftermath. ITT Tech was disqualified from Higher Education Act aid programs on August 25, 2016. Less than two weeks later on September 6, ITT Tech filed for bankruptcy. All 130 campuses were shutdown, and nearly 8,000 employees lost their jobs. Although ITT gave students "temporary credits" (essentially a type of grant) before shutting down, debt collectors were still pursuing the students. The "temporary credits" were converted into high-interest, private loans that students were likely to default on, leading to additional charges against ITT. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau forced credit lenders to cancel private loans given to former ITT Tech students, but this does not help with students' federal loans and other damages. In 2018, ITT Tech settled and forgave the debt of 750,000 former ITT students. The settlement also refunded an additional $3 million that had been paid by students to the school and gave affected students a $1.5 billion claim against ITT. In September 2018, Deborah Caruso, the trustee of ITT's bankruptcy, filed a claim against the Department of Education and ITT lenders for $250 million. This suit, mainly focusing on the fraudulent ITT PEAKS lending program, claims: "ITT’s PEAKS Loan Program was a for-profit education version of the sub-prime mortgage lending catastrophe, in which students rather than new homeowners were the victims. For the benefit of ITT insiders and Defendants, the PEAKS Loan Program allowed ITT to defraud students and evade regulators, while shielding the fruits of ITT’s fraud from claims of students through a complicated structure involving multiple trusts and a circuitous flow of funds between ITT and Defendants." The suit resulted in a $600,000 payout. Generalizations and Chapter Improvements. Dan Graves showed that sometimes the government and regulatory agencies can fail: he pointed out fraud and lost his job. Even though his work spawned investigations, none of them were able to stop the fraudulent behavior until 2016. This case should act as a demonstration that sometimes ethical risks fail in the short term, but there are usually lasting effects that will lead to an overall success later on. In this case it took 17 years. This is also somewhat evident in the aftermath of the shutdown of ITT. The Department of Education has failed former ITT students, processing federal debt forgiveness requests very slowly, only 33 out of about 16,000 as of November 2018, requiring students to seek compensation through private means. There are several ways this chapter can be improved. Different for-profit educational organizations, including both fraudulent and legal, should be investigated, especially the case of CLC that led to the change of opinion by the Department of Education. This would lend important perspective on the ethics of incentive compensation and would show if this behavior is unique to ITT and CLC, or if the practice is or was common.
415449	396820	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415449	Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Introduction	We began this project with the idea that sustainability is related to a Sense of Place. We applied this idea to the Sonoran Desert to guide our discovery between the connection of sustainability and Sense of Place. What follows is the results of our process. These results clearly only begin to scratch the surface and we hope this book can be just point of beginning.
415462	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415462	English-Hanzi/Water and other non-caloric drinks are the best	Water and other non-caloric drinks are the best. Sugary drinks increase blood sugar, increase body weight and increase the risk of getting diabetes. 水和其他无热量的饮料是最好的。含糖饮料会增加血糖，增加体重并增加患上糖尿病的风险。
415466	3097823	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415466	Programming Basics/Introduction/What is a translator?	The execution of a program depends on the programming language. For example, a program written in a high-level language cannot be executed right away, because it is written in source code, and the source code is only human-readable and therefore cannot be understood by computers. The source code must therefore be translated into machine code with the help of a translator. There are different types of translators. High-level languages can be translated into machine code in two different ways, either by using an interpreter, which allows to translate instructions line by line. Or by using a compiler, which allows to translate all the instructions at once. Any low-level language written in assembly code can also not be understood by computers. Assembly code is translated into machine code using an assembler.
415478	3395618	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415478	Oberon/ETH Oberon/printer	Back to: Native Oberon Hardware Compatibility List Printer support Summary Oberon supports network printers and local printers connected to parallel or serial ports. TCP/IP connectivity is required for accessing network printers. Drivers are included for HP Laser, HP PCL, PostScript and Linux printers, as well as for network printers using the LPR protocol. Windows Plug-In Oberon includes a Windows printer driver (WinPrinter) for use with the Windows Print Manager. Oberon.Text in the distribution is already trimmed to fit the european A4 page size. Little more need be specified to customize the printer support. The parallel and serial ports are operated in unidirectional mode only, a mode not requiring the use of IRQ lines. Consequently, the IRQ 7 usually associated with LPT1 is free for use for other purposes. The Lexmark Optra Color 40 postscript color inkjet printer is known to work. Not supported Windows-only printers, such as the Canon LBP-660 for example, requiring GDI are not supported. Dot-matrix printers are not supported. Selection and installation of a printer driver A printer driver is installed "on-the-fly" by executing the relevant command: HPLaserPrinter.Install A driver using PCL positioning codes. It will probably generate smaller print files and typically print faster. It does not support color. HPPCL.Install A driver building a bitmap of each page which is then sent to the printer. It supports color on a color printer (CYMK system) and gray shades on a b/w printer. LPRPrinter.Install A Line Printer Remote client. Be sure to set EMail in Oberon.Text, as some LPR servers check it. LinuxPrinter.Install' A driver for Linux Native Oberon (LNO). PSPrinter.Install A driver for PostScript capable printer. The HPLaserPrinter and the HPPCL drivers are different implementations of a HP PCL driver made by different people. The three drivers HPLaserPrinter, HPPCL, PSPrinter have been tested with the Institute's HP Laserjet 8000 printer, and all three work. The latter two produce shades of grey. Alternatively and preferably, configure Oberon.Text as explained below, instead of installing a driver on-the-fly. Each driver is associated with a page format specification. How to install a default printer driver - Configure Oberon.Text Edit the appropriate command in the field Printer.Default= and the driver will be installed automatically when the first print order is issued. If the first parameter of a Desktops.PrintDoc command is "Default", the print output will be directed to the printer named in Printer.DefaultName= . The following values can be assigned: Pageformat specifications / Resolution - Configure Oberon.Text Each printer driver is associated with a set of settings in Oberon.Text: In the distributed software, the paper size is assumed to be the standard european A4 size: 210 mm * 297 mm (Width and Height specified in mm). Left, Right, Top, Bottom margins are specified in cm. For HP printers, the minimum LeftMargin is 6 mm and the minimum TopMargin is 12.5 mm. The Resolution is also specified there: 300 and 600 dpi are supported. Adjust these values, if need be. For the HPPCL driver, the number of color planes to use must be specified: Any other value will be mapped to 1. The assigned value can be overriden by executing the command "HPPCL.SetPlanes number" . Page numbering and page header TextDocs.PrintSetup ["\hoff" \| "\hon"] ["\poff" \| "\pon"] Switch printing of a header line or page numbers off or on. Both are "on" by default. The header text is the document name in the NamePlate. Printer fonts Make sure that the documents to print only use the Oberon raster fonts (Oberon and Courier) and that these fonts are available as 300 dpi or 600 dpi fonts in the Oberon directory. The fonts can be found in Pr3Fnt.zip and Pr6Fnt.zip (downloadable from ftp://ftp.ethoberon.ethz.ch/ETHOberon/ [expired]). Other fonts can be installed. Printing a document Desktops.PrintDoc printer-name [ "\" options ] filename {filename} ~ Desktops.PrintDoc printer-name [ "\" options ] * Print a list of files or the marked document. printer-name can take any of the values which can be assigned to Printer.DefaultName= (cfr. How to install a default printer driver) or simply "Default". In the latter case, the value assigned to Printer.DefaultName= is used. When the PSPrinter driver is installed, since PostScript data is generated, "printer-name" is a printer port name or a filename. When the LPRPrinter driver is installed, "printer-name" must be an LPR queue name. Options are used only in conjunction with the PSPrinter and LPRPrinter drivers. Portrait printing is used by default, but this can be changed by specifying options: l - 2-up, i.e. 2 pages in landscape (rotation in implied) d - 4-up, i.e. 4 pages in portrait e - encapsulated PostScript output r - rotated, i.e. landscape x - duplex A filename with suffix ".eps" or ".EPS" implies encapsulated PostScript. The option \e is superfluous. Technical hint: The file is created with a header copied from the supplied model PSHeader.Text . In the Oberon GUI, print orders can be comfortably controlled with the [Print *] Iconizer in the Popups.Tool . How to print/view a Postscript file Note: Oberon offers no Postscript file viewer of the kind Ghostview for Windows. Network printer control and administration LPR or Line Printer Remote is an Oberon print client. The print server, often called Line Printer Daemon (LPD), is installed on a host. The print server waits for the client to send a print job and is capable of handling multiple printers and print queues. Since it has (usually) only a single IP address, the queue name designates the intended print queue. LPR/LPD is a platform-independent printing protocol that runs over TCP/IP. Originally implemented for BSD Unix, its use has spread into the desktop world and is a de facto industry standard. The specification for LPR is defined in RFC 1179 (Request For Comment). LPRPrinter.PrintPSFile queue@host [ "\" options ] ps-file Sends a print job to a print server, opening a TCP connection (default port 515) to the host which owns the remote printer. The PostScript file (ps-file) is tranferred to the print queue of the specified host. LPRPrinter.ShowJobs queue@host Display a list of the print jobs waiting in the printer queue of the specified host. LPRPrinter.RemoveJob queue@host [ job-nr ] Remove the specified job or, if no job-nr is given, all jobs from the printer queue on the specified host. LPRPrinter.BannerPage [ "on" \| "off"] ~ Condition the print server to separate the different print job outputs with a banner page. Printing a banner page is turned off by default. When the parameter is omitted, the condition is toggled. "on" may be replaced by an equivalent "y", "j" or "t". "off" may be replaced by an equivalent "n" or "f". The case is indifferent. LPRPrinter.MailBack [ "on" \| "off" ] ~ Condition the print server to send a completion message to the address specified in EMail in Oberon.Text. If no address is found, the message is addressed to [email protected] which does not exist. Mailing back a completion message is turned off by default. When the parameter is omitted, the condition is toggled. "on" may be replaced by an equivalent "y", "j" or "t". "off" may be replaced by an equivalent "n" or "f". The case is indifferent. PrinterInfo Panel The PrinterInfo.Panel is a small specialized GUI serving different printer-oriented purposes: "22 Nov 2001 - Copyright © 2001 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/"
415479	49843	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415479	Sustainability and Sense of Place in the Sonoran Desert/Arizona Uplands & Plains of Sonora	Introduction. This is an overview of various factors of two regions of the fascinating Sonoran Desert, the Arizona Uplands and the Plains of Sonora. Throughout this page we go through the biodiversity and life found in these regions, the geological and climate aspects of the two regions, the use of land and water, and some opportunities and threats found within the regions. Please enjoy our take on the information of the beautiful and magnificent Arizona Uplands and Plains of Sonora. Biodiversity. Elf Owl. Life Span<br>. <br> Facts and Physique<br>. <br> Jaguar ("Panthera onca")<br>. Panthera onca otherwise known as the jaguar is a type of cat that is found across the Americas: Southwestern United States, Mexico, Central America, south to Paraguay, and northern Argentina (Jaguar, 2020). The jaguar belongs to family Felidae, mammal, in the order Carnivora, carnivorous with teeth adapted for flesh-eating. The jaguar is the third-largest cat in the world surpassed by the lion and the tiger. The jaguar is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, which suggests that the jaguar may be threatened with extinction soon (Jaguar, 2020). It doesn't quite qualify for threatened species since the population has not yet decreased dramatically in a short period. Although, the jaguar's population is constantly decreasing due to various factors. <br> "El Jefe"<br>. Due to the deterioration of their habitat caused by hunting, buildings, and conservation of livestock. There are only a couple of jaguars that have been spotted in the United States, southern Arizona. "El Jefe" was first recorded jaguar in November 2011, by cameras for the Jaguar Survey and Monitoring Project by the University of Arizona."El Jefe" resides in the Santa Rita Mountains near Tucson Arizona. There have been two other jaguars spotted around this area. "Sombra" was spotted in 2016. There is very little information on this jaguar (New video, n.d.). Therefore, we are not sure if it is still alive. The other jaguar was named "Yo'ko". He used to live in the Huachuca Mountains in southern Arizona. It was photographed repeatedly between December 2016 to May 2017. In June 2018, it is believed that the jaguar was found dead by a lion trap in a ranch in Mexico, the spot patterns of dead jaguar matched with Yo'Ko's (Hickok, 2018). To this day "El Jefe" is the only one out of the three that has been repeatedly spotted up until 2018. It is believed that he has traveled back to Mexico in search of a mate. <br> Habitat<br>. The jaguar lives throughout the Americas in a wide variety of habitats. They prefer dense, tropical forests and rainforest which provide a large amount of coverage (Jaguar-Panthera onca, n.d.). Jaguars are also found in scrubland, reed thickets, coastal forest, swamps, thickets, pampas grasslands, and mountain scrub areas (Nogueira, n.d.). In northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, jaguars are found in oak woodlands, mesquite thickets, and riparian woodlands. Jaguar's habitats require three main characteristics to support their diet and lifestyle: water, dense coverage, and prey.<br> Diet<br>. Jaguars are known carnivores they have a wide variety of prey: birds, mammals, reptiles, fish. One of their main prey consists of large animals and livestock, they tend to eat the heart, liver, and spleen first; they don't ingest the intestines (Jaguar-Panthera onca, n.d.). Their daily consumption is around 1.2-1.5 kilograms per day. They usually hunt at night and mostly on the ground. There are times when it climbs up trees in order to hide from their prey and attack from above. Their large teeth and powerful jaws allow them to instantly kill their prey and drag them to a secluded spot where they can eat (Nogueira, n.d.). In this area, El Jefe has been known to eat prey common in the Santa Rita Mountains: white-tailed deer, skunks (except for their ends), and other small, slow animals that allow them to prey on (Bill, 2016). <br> Facts<br>. (Jaguar Facts, 2020). Threats<br>. The jaguar is classified under "Near Threatened" species internationally. In the United States under the Endangered Species Act, it is classified as endangered. The last verified jaguar in this area was killed by a hunter in 1963 (Koren, 2016). Jaguars face many threats either directly or towards their habitat, disrupting their life and ability to maintain alive. The main threat to jaguars is humans. Humans have hunted these mammals for a long time and various reasons: trophies, fur, and protection of livestock (Jaguar, n.d.). Jaguar habitats have also been harmed by burning their homeland in order to place buildings. El Jefes habitat is currently endangered due to Trump's border wall and the Rosemont copper mine. Coyote. The Coyote ("Canis latrans") is a canine that lives in North America, roaming the plains, deserts, mountains, and forests (Bradford, 2017). Coyotes are primarily carnivorous, they prey on rabbits, birds, deer, reptiles, fish, invertebrates, and amphibians. Occasionally, they eat fruits and vegetables. Humans are considered to be the biggest threat to coyotes, followed by gray wolves and cougars. The average coyote weighs about 20 to 50 pounds (Bradford, 2017) . The hair of this animal varies depending on where they are geographically located, determining whether the color is grey, white, tan, or brown (Bradford, 2017). Habitat<br>. Coyotes live in North America where they roam the mountains, plains, forests, and deserts of the United States, Mexico, and Canada (Bradford, 2017). Although coyotes are known to easily adapt to different habitats, they typically prefer to live in open areas like deserts and prairies. As humans take more and more land, coyotes can also be found living around large cities, where they are beginning to adapt. Diet. Although they are thought to be only meat eaters, coyotes are actually omnivores--eating vegetation and meat (Bradford, 2017). Generally, coyotes are scavengers and are predators of small prey, but occasionally, they shift to large prey. Coyotes will prey on birds, rabbits, reptiles, fish, deer, invertebrates, and amphibians (Bradford, 2017). Some fruits and grains they feed on include, berries, apples, peaches, watermelon, carrots, beans, wheat, and corn. Most of the time coyotes hunt alone, but when hunting for large prey such as deer, they will hunt in packs (Bradford, 2017). For those that live in large cities, coyotes will normally kill pets and livestock, eat pet food, or garbage(Bradford, 2017). Life Span. The average lifespan of a coyote is six to eight years in the wild, while those in captivity can live twice as long ranging from thirteen to fifteen years (General Information About Coyotes, n.d.). They are affected by a variety of diseases and parasites which include, intestinal worms, heartworms, fleas, and ticks (Disease, 2020). They may also be affected by parvovirus, canine distemper, and mange (Disease, 2020). However, humans are considered to be the greatest threat to humans. In rural areas, the major cause of death is due to trapping and hunting, while in urban areas, the cause of death is primarily automobiles (General Information About Coyotes, n.d.). There has been an average of automobile collisions from 40 to 70 percent each year (General Information About Coyotes, n.d.). Catalina Vista as an area in Tucson where one may be able to find coyotes even in urban areas. I wanted to highlight how much of an impact we are to the animals around us. In this case, coyotes are appearing in urban areas where they can be seen wandering around scavenging for food. The population of coyotes is increasing and their conservation status is of least concern. Importance. Coyotes play an important ecological role in the environment by helping maintain healthy ecosystems and boosting biodiversity. As they are the top carnivores in some ecosystems, they regulate mesocarnivore populations, which include, foxes, skunks, opossums, and raccoons. Facts. (Coyote Information, Facts, and Photos, 2015). Sonoran Pronghorn Antelope ("Antilacapra americana sonoriensis"). Habitat. The Sonoran Pronghorn is endemic to the Sonoran Desert favoring its broad valleys. Before it became endangered the Sonoran Pronghorn was primarily found in Southwest Arizona and Northern parts of Sonora, Mexico like Hermosillo. It wasn't until 2012 that the Sonoran Pronghorn was reintroduced into the flatlands of Southwest Arizona and Mexico. Diet. The diet of the Sonoran Pronghorn consists of herbs, cacti, and desert grasses. Their rudiment stomachs allow them to digest rough textured foods, like the ones listed before. Along with the ability to digest these foods, their stomachs allow for better water retention. Threats. Elements that contribute to the Sonoran Pronghorns being an endangered subspecies are predators, climate and human disturbance. Some predators of Pronghorns include cougars, wolves, coyotes, and bobcats. Climate and climate change can take part in threatening the Sonoran Pronghorn population with long-lasting droughts. Human disturbances such as roads, fences, water developments, mining disturbances, and other human interactions also play a part in the disappearance of the Sonoran Pronghorn. Variable Sandsnake ("Chilomeniscus stramineus"). http://www.reptilesofaz.org/Graphics/Snakes/herp-c-cinctus-ath-mrcp.jpg Adaptations. for burrowing in fine gravel and sand include The black stripes are in contact with orange-red body coloration distinguishing this snake from the similar-looking Western Shovel-nosed Snake. The Variable Sandsnake has mildly toxic saliva (Brennan, T. C.). Habitat. This snake is found across most of south-central Arizona. The Variable Sandsnake is found primarily in the Arizona Upland subdivision of the Sonoran Desert scrub community. It is usually encountered above the flats in or near drainages and canyons with loose gravel or sand substrates (Brennan, T. C.). Diet. The Variable Sandsnake feeds on a variety of insects including Reproduction. Mating takes place in spring. A group of up to 4 eggs is laid in the summer (Brennan, T. C.). Threats. There are no major threats that have been identified, though some local populations have declined, for example as a result of urbanization in the Phoenix area (The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2007). Arizona Poppy ("Kallstroemia grandiflora"). The "Kallstroiemia grandiflora" most commonly referred to as the Arizona Poppy is an annual herb found in the southwestern deserts. This flower is found in many places throughout the Chihuahuan and the Sonoran Desert (DesertUSA, n.d.). It is a native plant of this area belonging to the family Zygophyllaceae which includes plants found in dry habitats. This flower is known to survive harsh, dry climates due to the unique structure of its' seed allowing it to survive up to various years (DesertUSA, n.d.). Habitat. The Arizona Poppy blooms mainly from July to October which coincides with summer rainfalls. It grows abundantly in flat, sandy grasslands throughout Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas. This flower prefers open plains and mesas from sea level to 6000 feet (DesertUSA, n.d.). A state park that has an abundance of the Arizona Poppy is Picacho Peak State Park located between Casa Grande and Tucson, Arizona. Importance. The Arizona Poppy is widely known for its vibrant colors and enhancing the scenery of wide-open plains, but it provides benefits to animals. These flowers deplete scent, but they are essential to forty-six species: bees, wasps, flies, and butterflies. They are used for pollen and nectar as well as food for dove and quails (DesertUSA, n.d.). Facts. (Plant Database, n.d.). Fish-hook Barrel Cactus. The Fish-hook Barrel Cactus ("Ferocactus wisilizeni") also called the Arizona barrel cactus is a species of flowering plant in the cactus family Cactaceae (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). The fish-hook cactus is characterized by its two-foot diameter, long hooked spines, and barrel body shape (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). On the cactus, yellow/red flowers and yellow fruit grow at the superior surface. This species of barrel cactus can be found in Northern Sonoran, Mexico, and in South-Central Arizona (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). The fish-hook barrel cactus has a life span of about 50-100 years (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). The conservation status of this plant is vulnerable and the population is decreasing. Habitat. The fishhook barrel cactus is found throughout South-Central Arizona and Northern Sonoran, Mexico (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). It grows primarily in grave slopes and desert shrubs, but it can also grow in deserts often on rocky, gritty, or sandy soils on the hillsides from 1,000 to 4,600 feet elevation (Barrel Cactus, n.d.). The fishhook barrel cactus does not need much water to survive as it can tolerate dry soil moisture, but it does require lots of sunlight. This heat-tolerant plant contains "fishhook" spines along the cactus body to protect it from herbivores. At the top of the cactus, the plant grows yellow/red flowers and yellow/red fruit (Fishhook Barrel Cactus Fact Sheet, n.d.). Importance. The fishhook barrel cactus is important not only because it enhances the beauty of the desert landscape, but it provides fruit to animals and birds. Javelina, birds, and deer eat the fruit; the birds especially like the seeds. The fruit can also be used to make candies and jellies. Velvetpod Mimosa ("Mimosa Dysocarpa"). Habitat. The Velvetpod Mimosa resides in arroyos, washes, and brushy hillsides. It is native to Arizona, Texas, and Mexico but can also be found in New Mexico. Growing conditions that are favorable to the Velvetpod Mimosa are dry and rocky soils, lots of sunlight, and some but not much water, given that the plant has a high drought tolerance. Importance. Many small mammals in the Velvetpod Mimosa's habitat rely on the shrub for food and cover. Seeds from the plant provide food for Scaled Quail or other birds that live underground. Livestock can feed on the leaves of the plant. It is also an excellent source for nectar. The dense thickets of the Velvetpod Mimosa provide cover value for ground birds, quails, and small rodents. Foothill paloverde ("Parkinsonia microphylla"). The Foothill paloverde (also known as the yellow paloverde or the little-leaved palo verde) is a bristling, upright-branching tree that is slow growing and ranges from 15 to 30 feet tall. Palo Verde is Spanish for 'green stick' referring to the tree's green bark. It is considered a large shrub or a small tree standing. It has very little leaves and when in blossoms in late spring the flowers are bright yellow (Foothills Palo Verde Fact Sheet). The leaves are yellowish green, and during extensively dry and hot periods the tree will shed them. The Foothill paloverde can survive leafless in hotter periods because it performs photosynthesis in its bark (hence the green color). The tree may not flower every year, depending on the amount rainfall (Parkinsonia microphylla, 2020). Habitat. It is native to the Southwestern United States in southeastern California and southern Arizona; and to northwest Mexico in the states of Sinaloa, Sonora, and Baja California. The plant is mostly found on slopes and is one of the most common trees of the Sonoran Desert. The Foothill paloverde can withstand more heat and because of this, it is found in the upland areas of the desert where the soil is coarser (Parkinsonia microphylla, 2020) Ecology. The Foothill paloverde is a honey plant. In times of scarcity, the twigs may be gnawed by livestock. Rodents will often carry and store the seeds underground, where some of them will germinate after a rainy season (Parkinsonia microphylla, 2020). Importance. The Foothill Paloverde tree is an iconic tree of the desert. One of its roles is to act as a “nurse plant” to young saguaro cacti by protecting them from the cold in the winter and from the intense sun in the summer. The Foothill Paloverde serves as an attractive focal point in the landscape and they are drought tolerant, once established and provide filtered shade year-round (Foothills Palo Verde Fact Sheet). Threats. Some threats to the Foothill Paloverde include Geology and Climate in the AZ Uplands and Sonoran Plains. Tectonic Plates. The slow continental drifting of landmasses are called tectonic plates (or lithospheric plates) and they drift across the lines of latitude and longitude (Plate Tectonics, 2020). The tectonic plates have been moving since the beginning of time (Plate Tectonics, 2020). Movement of the tectonic plates affects the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, climate, storm tracks, and the duration and timing of seasons (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 71). Each year, the tectonic plates move slowly across the Earth by several inches (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 71). When the continents collide, one plate will usually be forced underneath the other plate, which will result in the upthrust of mountain chains (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 71). Movements of these faults can turn a flat plain into a massive mountain range. As the mountains take form, biomes begin to develop along their slopes. Mountains. Tucson Mountains. Located west of Tucson, Arizona, the Tucson Mountains is not impressively high as they only reach up to 4,687 feet (Tucson Mountains Tucson AZ, n.d.). They may be short in stature, but they are big in beauty. The Tucson Mountains are the remains of a collapsed volcano ranging 15 miles long (Tucson Mountains Tucson AZ, n.d.). Towering stratovolcanoes erupted here ejecting hot volcanic debris about 70 million years ago (Tucson Mountains Tucson AZ, n.d.). The Tucson Mountains were pulled westward for miles across the detachment fault to where they are today (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 77). As I stated before, the Tucson mountains were once a volcano located on the western side of the Santa Catalina Mountain (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 77). For 20 miles, the top of the volcano slid to the west and formed a valley between the Tucson and Santa Catalina Mountains (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 77). The occurrence of detachment faulting was discovered by scientists from the University of Arizona in the Santa Catalinas (Phillips et al, 2015, p. 77). The Tucson Mountains are composed of an extrusive ingenious rock created by the eruption of the volcano called rhyolite. Santa Catalina Mountains. About 70 million years ago, a massive volcano formed where the Santa Catalina Mountains are today (Geocoaching, 2013). The volcano then created a circular basin called a caldera after it collapsed on itself (Geocoaching, 2013). Then 40 million years later, detachment faults caused the upper part of the caldera to slide 20 miles off the lower region due to detachment faults (Geocoaching, 2013). The creation of the faults produced mountain ranges and valleys. This caused Tucson to drop 3,300 meters down, creating the valley that has since been filled with 1,650 meters of sediment (Geocoaching, 2013). The upper caldera became the Tucson Mountains, while the lower caldera and underlying granite that was left higher on the north side of the valley became the Rincon Mountains and Santa Catalina Mountains (Geocoaching, 2013). The Santa Catalina Mountain lies north and northeast of Tucson, Arizona. It is often referred to as Catalina Mountain or Catalinas (Santa Catalina Mountains, 2020). The highest point in Catalina Mountain is Mount Lemmon with an elevation of over 9,157 feet above the sea level (Santa Catalina Mountains, n.d.). Annually, this region receives about 180 inches of snow (Santa Catalina Mountains, 2020). The Catalina is the most prominent of the other five regions(Santa Catalina Mountains, n.d.). One of the most popular activities on this mountain is hiking. The Santa Catalina Mountain is composed of an intrusive ingenious rock formed from the solidified magma below the volcano called granite (Santa Catalina Mountains, 2020). Rincon Mountains. The Rincon Mountains is one of the five mountains surrounding the Tucson valley located on the east of Tucson, Arizona. he Rincon Mountain is one of the many ranges that belong to the Basin and Range Province. The basins in the Basin and Range Province are from the result of block faulting that occurred 10-25 years ago (Geology of the Rincon Mountains, n.d.). They are separated by the basin filled with thousands of feet of alluvial sediment that are derived from erosion of the mountains (Geology of the Rincon Mountains, n.d.). The Rincon Mountain is highly eroded with metaphoric core complex--a mass of bedrock (Geology of the Rincon Mountains, n.d.). The mountain is steep and rugged with many rocky ridges and deep canyons to explore. It is composed of a highly eroded mass of bedrock known as a metaphoric core complex (Geology of the Rincon Mountain, n.d.). The Rincon Mountains' highest peaks include the Mica Mountain with an elevation of 8,664 feet and Rincon Peak at 8,482 feet (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.). The Mica Mountain's high elevation supports the spruce vegetation and Ponderosa Pine, while lower elevations have oak-pine forests (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.). Some special places to explore in this mountain include Rincon Mountains Wilderness and the Saguaro National Park, Rincon Mountain District (U.S. Forest Service, n.d.). Rincon Mountains also provides many hiking trails to explore including Douglas Spring Trail, Rincon Peak, Cactus Forest Trail, etc. Santa Rita Mountains. The Santa Rita Mountains lie south of the Tucson Basin. It has the highest point in the Tucson area with the highest peak at Mount Wrightson with an elevation of 9,453 feet (Santa Rita Mountains, 2020). Within the range is Madera Canyon that is used as a resting area for migrating birds and is a premier bird-watching area. Santa Rita Mountains is also home to "El Jefe," an adult male jaguar that was first identified in 2011 (Santa Rita Mountain, 2020). Santa Rita Mountain also contains trails like the Bog Springs Trail, Cave Creek, and Old Baldy Trail. Tortolita Mountains. The Tortolita Mountains are located northwest of Tucson, Arizona. Its highest peak elevation is 4,696 feet (Tortolita Mountains, 2020). Established in 1986 by Pima County, the Tortolita Mountain Park protects most of the mountain range (Tortolita Mountains, 2020). Riparian Zones. Riparian zones encompass the vegetation and wildlife around a body of water such as rivers, creeks, washes, etc. Riparian zones are a crucial part in maintaining various ecosystems and preserving wildlife native to the Sonoran Desert. Many species that call Arizona’s Sonoran Desert their home rely on a riparian area at some point in their lives; it is said that 60-70% do. Compared to other riparian areas in the United States, the difference between upland and a riparian terrestrial system in the southwest United States is not as defined. Other parts have a more gradual change in zones due to the amount of precipitation in the area, meanwhile, in the southwest, less rainfall occurs. Not only are riparian zones home to many species there are also many benefits that come from a healthy and prosperous riparian area. In riparian areas air temperature can be reduced, the riverbanks have greater protection from erosion, and water and soil qualities are improved. Some examples of a riparian community in the Arizona Uplands include Cienega Creek, San Pedro Riparian, Gila Box Riparian, Salt River Canyon Riparian, and Sonoita Creek. Cienega Creek. Cienega Creek is located within Las Cienegas National Conservation Area in a zone between the Sonoran Desert and the Chihuahua Desert. Las Cienegas National Conservation Area contains rare vegetation which contributes to some of its rare habitats. Some of these habitats include Cienega, cottonwood-willow riparian forests, mesquite bosques, semidesert grasslands, and sacaton grasslands. These habitats are home to many species of animals and plants that depend on this riparian for survival. San Pedro Riparian. The San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area lies on 57,000 acres of public land. The San Pedro Riparian consists of 40 miles of upper San Pedro River. This riparian area is abundantly populated with vegetation and animals containing many native species including more than 80 mammal species, 40 amphibian and reptile species and many bird species both breeding and migrant. Gila Box Riparian. The Gila Box Riparian National Conservation is an area, approximately 23,000 acres, filled with many different species of creatures and vegetation. Large cottonwoods, sycamores, and willows are some of the various plant life that can be found within the area that makes up the riparian forest. The Gila Box Riparian National Conservation has four perennial waterways that all join together to create the Gila Box Riparian. These include Bonita creek, Eagle creek, the Gila River, and the San Francisco River. Considering that four waterways make up this area, there are countless numbers of plant and animal species that make the riparian unique. Salt River Canyon Riparian. The Salt River Canyon is filled with breathtaking geological formations. These formations include salt banks, granite, sandstone, quartzite along with cliffs and creeks. Within the canyon are canyon creek faults and cherry creek faults. Like many riparian zones, the Salt River Canyon Riparian has a diverse array of wildlife and vegetation. With approximately 32 miles of the river there is lots of room for a large riparian corridor. Sonoita Creek. Sonoita Creek lies within the Sonoita Creek State Natural Area or also known as Patagonia-Sonoita Creek Reserve. Sonoita creek spans about 2.8 miles and is filled with a variety of vegetation within its riparian forest and animal species that inhabit it. There are many uncommon plants found within the area including mixed deciduous broadleaf riparian forest. Animals that are found include 36 species of amphibians and reptiles, 49 damsel and dragonfly species, 130 butterfly species, 5 bats and a high diversity of 106 bird species making this location an excellent birdwatching haven. Sonoita Creek flowing from the Santa Cruz River is also home to a rare native fish called the Gila Topminnow. Hadley Cells. The Hadley Cell is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the Equator, flowing poleward at a height of 10 to 15 kilometers above the earth's surface, descending in the subtropics, and then returning equatorward near the surface. This whole process starts out because the equator region receives a higher amount of sun radiation so there is warmer air and lots of evaporation there. The whole region is usually very humid because warm air is capable of holding more moisture than cool air. Warmer air tends to rise and it will do so until it gets to about 10 to 15 kilometers high. As air rises temperature decreases and there is a lot of precipitation event as the air massed rise and start to head towards the North and South. Air masses will continue flowing southward and northward but as they do they will get drier and drier because of the rain events and also colder and colder since they are leaving the equator and going towards the poles at around 30° South and 30° North. Air masses tend to descend towards the planet's surface resulting in these regions being dominated by dry air without much precipitation. This creates the perfect environment for deserts to form. Life Zone. According to C. Hart Merriam, life zone was developed to describe areas with similar plants and animals communities. This changes are observed when there is an increase in latitude but a constant elevation and also an increase in elevation at a constant latitude.<br> Upper Sonoran Life Zone:. Upper Sonoran is described as desert steppe or chaparral and transition which are like open woodland. it contains grasslands and woodlands. Some common mammals include the Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), sometimes wrongly called antelope, the Cliff Chipmunk (Tamias dorsalis), and Black-tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Some of the plants found in the upper Sonoran is sagebrush, scrub oak, Colorado pinyon, <br> Mineral Resources. Rosemont Mine. One of the greatest natural resources used in today's society is copper. Copper is used as a conductor, construction, and industrial machinery. The Rosemont Mine is a large open copper mine located in Arizona within the Coronado National Forest and Santa Rita Mountains which are valuable habitats for native animals and plants (Rosemont Copper, 2019). This mine is not open yet due to legal allegations made for the protection of the environment. The arguments against the mine consist of destroying the Cienega Creek watershed, contaminated mine runoff worsening water quality, destroying natural habitats, endangering wildlife, and causing regional air pollution (Rosemont Copper, 2019). Proponents suggest the mine will create jobs, generating more revenue, and decrease the dependency on other countries for copper (Rosemont Copper, 2019). The geological area contains around 550 million tons of 0.45% copper with molybdenum, and silver credits (Helvetia, Arizona, 2020). This area is dominated by Precambrian granite, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic sediments (Meagher, 2017). The Paleozoic sedimentary carbonate units are host rocks for copper mineralization. The units include conglomerates, sandstones, and siltstones. The existence of porphyry copper deposits in this area suggests there were granitic intrusions and felsic volcanic eruptions during the Laramide orogeny (period of mountain building) (Laramide orogeny, 2019). During this period both low-angle thrust and high-angle slips extended tectonic activity causing volcanic eruptions which led to copper deposits as well as the creation of basin and range in the southwestern region (Meagher, 2017). Tucson Mountains. The Tucson Mountains range form part of the Arizona Uplands, they are now widely protected since they are within the limits of national parks. These mountains were once mined for various metallic elements. Totaling up to over 120 mines throughout these mountains. The ores and minerals in this location derived from volcanic eruptions. Minerals found in this region: Ironwood Forest National Monument. The Ironwood Forest National Monument is located in Pima county near Tucson, Arizona. This forest is 188,819 acres which contain many important cultural features: 200+ Hohokam sites, cattle grazing, and mining (Ironwood Forest National Monument, 2020). Threatened species like Ferruginous pygmy owl, desert bighorn sheep, lesser long-nosed bat, Turk's head cactus also reside in this area. This location is constructed of Basin & Range Province, Roskruge Mountains, Samaniego Hills, Sawtooth Mountains, Silver Bell Mountains, Sonoran Desert, and Western Silver Bell Mountains (Biological Survey of Ironwood Forest National Monument, n.d.). Silver Bell Mine. The Silver Bell Mine is located in Silver Bell Mountain portions of the Ironwood Forest. This mine has been operational for over the past 130 years and it is still one of the mines used for copper (Briggs, 2017). The mine has major porphyry copper deposits which most of the mining revolves around the copper. Other deposits that have been found in this area and are now minor productions are silver, molybdenum, zinc, lead, and gold. Over the past several years the Silver Mine has produced: 2.27 billion pounds of copper, 6.6 million pounds of molybdenum, 3.7 million pounds of lead, 40.8 million pounds of zinc, 2,100 ounces of gold, and 5.95 million ounces of silver (Briggs, 2017). Sonoran Plains. Mexico has an abundance of natural resources. Some of these resources are found in the Sonoran Plains region. This region was a site for various minerals. The most abundant have been copper, silver, and lead. In the area near Hermosillo, Sonora there have been seventeen mines and seventeen occurrence locations. These regions have had copper, gold, iron, lead, molybdenum, quartz, silica, silver, and tungsten. (Mining in Sonora, n.d.) La Colorada Mine. La Colorada Mine is a gold mine located in the state of Sonora near Hermosillo. This mine is an open-pit mine that is still functional. The primary commodities found are gold and silver, as well as secondary commodities: copper, lead, and zinc (La Colorada Gold Mine in Sonora, n.d.). This mine has been divided into different districts based on its' deposits. There is the Creston deposit, Gran Central deposit, La Colorada Deposit, and Veta Madre zone (Major Mines & Projects: La Colorada Mine, n.d.). Land and Water Use. Arizona Uplands Land Use. Saguaro National Park. Tucson, Arizona is home to the largest cacti in the nation. The Saguaro Cactus is the universal symbol of the American West that provides nesting areas, shelter, and food for many animals (VandenBerg, 2018). The Saguaro National Park, located in Southern Arizona, protects the native species and wildlife of the Sonoran Desert. It has two locations on both sides of the city of Tucson located East and West with a total of 91,327 acres (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). The eastern section of the Saguaro National Park is larger, contains many mountains, rises over 8,000 feet, and has 128 miles of hiking trails (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). The western portion has a denser saguaro forest and is lower in elevation (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). The Saguaro National Monument was created in 1933 (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). Then in 1975, 71,400 acres of the Saguaro Wilderness area was added (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). The Saguaro National Park was not established until October 14, 1994 (Saguaro National Park, n.d.). It has provided many activities to thousands of visitors which include watching the breathtaking Arizona sunsets, hiking, picnics, and embracing the cactus diversity. However, there are any threats that affect this park, this includes invasive plants, fires, theft, and vandalism. The Saguaro Cactus is protected under the Native Plant Protection Act (VandenBerg, 2018). If an individual is caught cutting down a saguaro, they may be charged with felony criminal damage that can result in 25 years in prison (VandenBerg, 2018). Other actions of vandalism that include transplanting the cactus and theft will result in high fees and jail time (VandenBerg, 2018). Las Ciénegas National Conservation Area. Las Ciénegas National Conservation Area in Southeastern Arizona protects more than 45,000 acres of rolling grasslands and woodlands (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). The oak-studded hills in the region connect several lush riparian corridors and "sky island" mountain ranges (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). Within the Las Ciéngas National Conservation Area flows the Ciénega Creek that supports the diverse plant and animal community and is rich in cultural and historic resources (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). The Empire and Ciénega ranches are now managed by the Bureau of Land Management under the principals of ecosystem-management and multiple uses for future generations to enjoy (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). The Bureau of Land Management has formed a partnership with Empire Ranch Formation, a non-profit organization, which is dedicated to preserving the landscapes and historic buildings (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). There are many activities for visitors to do, which include birdwatching, wildlife viewing, picnicking, hunting, horseback riding, hiking, mountain biking, primitive camping, visiting historic sites, photography, and scenic drives (Las Ciénegas NCA, 2014). Los Morteros Conservation Area. Los Morteros is located south of the Town of Marana's El Rio Open Space Preserve. It's 120 acres of land embodies major traditions of the region that include Mexican, Spanish, Native American, and the American Territorial (Los Morteros, 2020). It is a site that was once inhabited by a large NativeAmerican village between about A.D. 850 and 1300 (Los Morteros, 2020). It was once a large village that stretched North and South along the Santa Cruz River and Past Silver Road (Los Morteros, 2020). The site was named "Los Morteros" by archaeologists because they discovered many many bedrock mortars on the site (Los Morteros, 2020). Los Morteros is a site where many important events took place in Southern Arizona. The undisturbed buried remains make Los Morteros an important cultural resource because they provide a lot of information about the history of the Tucson Basin (Los Morteros, 2020). In fact, Tohono O'odham Nation considers this place as an ancestral site (Los Morteros, 2020). The Pima County Conservation Area protects the archaeological and historic resources to preserve them for the future of Pima County (Los Morteros, 2020). Agriculture. There are many agricultural areas in Tucson in which they cultivate the soil, grow crops, and raise livestock. The plant and animal products are prepared for people to use and distribute into markets. The crops grown in Tucson include corn, cotton, wheat, pecans, vegetables, alfalfa, barley, citrus, and hay (Water and Irrigated Agriculture in Arizona, 2018). Civilization. Tucson is a large city that lies in Arizona Uplands of the Sonoran Desert. It is home to a large population of 545,975 (Tucson, Arizona, 2020). Land use in this area is used for recreational, transport, agricultural, residential, and commercial purposes. The land in the AZ Uplands is used to make houses, malls, stores, airports, roads, etc. As the population continues to grow by the minute, more and more land will be taken from the desert. Humans are the biggest threat to the wildlife that lives in the AZ Uplands. Plains of Sonora Land Use. Residential Land Use. Hermosillo is the capital of a large city that is centrally located in the Northwestern Mexican State of Sonora (Hermosillo, 2020). It has a population of over 812,229 inhabitants (Hermosillo, 2020). It is the 16th largest state in Mexico (Hermosillo, 2020). As the population continues to increase, more land will be taken to accommodate the growing population. The majority of land around the Plains of Sonora has been taken over by humans for residential, agricultural, transport, recreational, and commercial purposes. Agricultural Land Use. Hermosillo uses some of their lands for agriculture, growing crops that include grapes, wheat, flowers, alfalfa, walnuts, and chickpeas (Hermosillo, 2020). Rico Farm in Hermosillo, Mexico at Campo San Luis grows vegetables and has row crops that include tomatoes, melons, cucumbers, eggplants, and squash that are primarily grown for transport (Hermosillo Rico Farm, 2017). This farm manages approximately 4,000 acres of land and most of the area is left in a natural state (Hermosillo Rico Farm, 2017). Livestock is also important in this Hermosillo. There are many farms that raise cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, goats, and even bees (Hermosillo, 2020). Commercial Land Use. Industry and manufacturing is the dynamic sector of the economy in Hermosillo (Hermosillo, 2020). Thirty percent of the population is employed by 26 major manufacturers in Hermosillo (Hermosillo, 2020). Products manufactured in Hermosillo include cars, computers, televisions, textiles, wood products, cellular phones, printing, food processing, chemicals, and more (Hermosillo, 2020). Commerce employs more than half of the population (Hermosillo, 2020). Therefore, the majority of the land is used for commercial purposes. Arizona Uplands Water Use. Tucson. Considering today's average Tucson family uses 107 gallons per day of water, it is necessary to consider options on how water is obtained. In the early years of Tucson, its main source of water was the Santa Cruz River. Once the river ceased to flow near the city Tucson, a new source of water had to be found thus Tucson began relying on wells for their water supply. One of the most prominent water suppliers of Tucson is Tucson Water. Their company accounts for 200 wells, 61 reservoirs, and 266 sampling stations within the Tucson area. With the introduction of the Central Arizona Project (CAP) in 1973, Tucson was able to receive 1.5 million acre-feet of Colorado River water to be pumped via a canal to Pima, Pinal, and Maricopa counties. With this water, Tucson separates it into 35% municipal and industrial, 25% agriculture, 10% Native American communities, 30% banked underground for future use. The banked water is stored in local aquifers, such as the two in Avra Valley and one near the Santa Cruz River, to be used in possible future water shortages. Since the banking began the water tables in these aquifers have increased. San Pedro River. The San Pedro River has been said to be the last undammed desert river. Like many other rivers in the desert, the San Pedro is drying up, leaving the communities that rely on it without water that is necessary for life. The cause may be that over-pumping groundwater out of reservoirs at a rapid rate leaves the reservoir unable to produce water at a quick enough pace. It is projected that in 2020 the deficit of how much water being pumped compared to the amount of water recharging the reservoir will reach 13,000 acre-feet annually. Santa Cruz River. The Santa Cruz River was once Tucson’s primary water source but when it ceased to flow past the area it left Tucson searching for other options. Droughts among other factors have played into the disappearance of this river. The river has been steadily flowing through the north of Tumacacori and south into Mexico due to the addition of the Nogales International Wastewater Treatment Plant that releasing 1.6 million gallons per day of treated water into the river, making the Santa Cruz River an effluent-driven system. Still the Santa Cruz River is home to a variety of rare vegetation. Efforts are being made in order to preserve this river and the ecosystem that relies on it. Plains of Sonora Water Use. Hermosillo. Sonora’s capital, Hermosillo, has had a fast-growing population for many years now. With the introduction of a major company facility such as Ford, the city blossomed. With its growing population, Hermosillo faces issues such as water shortages. The Sonora and San Miguel rivers are important to water supply and are used for irrigation, feeding the Abelardo L. Rodriguez Dam. The average streamflow of the Rio Sonora has been declining due to droughts seeing the average streamflow decrease from 52 million m^3 in 1981-1995 to an average of 20.9 million m^3 average streamflow in 1996-2005, leaving less water available to the city. This being said 75% of Hermosillo’s water supply comes from groundwater reserves. One of the aquifers near Hermosillo is the Costa de Hermosillo. When too much water is being extracted via wells from coastal aquifers, like the Costa de Hermosillo, seawater may seep in. Salinity intrusion of the water being extracted from the wells was being seen in the late 1950s. When salinity intrusion occurs closure of these wells may seem inevitable; as can be seen in Costa de Hermosillo wells where 105 out of the 498 had to be closed. Sonora River. The Rio Sonora is a river in Sonora that stretches from western Mexico to Kino Bay. The river feeds into the Abelardo L. Rodriguez reservoir and is used for irrigation purposes. This being said the average streamflow of the Rio Sonora has been declining from 52 million m^3 in 1981-1995 to an average of 20.9 million m^3 average streamflow in 1996-2005. In 2014 a toxic mine spill contaminated the waters spilling about 11 million gallons of copper sulfate acid solution and other metals into the river. The river water has since been declared safe. Abelardo L. Rodriguez Dam. The Abelardo L. Rodriguez Dam is located in Sonora’s capital, Hermosillo. Two rivers feed the dam, the Sonora, and the San Miguel River. Sources say that out of the nine dams in the region, the Abelardo L. Rodriguez has one of the three least storage capacities. From its construction in 1948 to 1981 the water from the dam was used for agricultural purposes, leaving the city of Hermosillo to obtain its water from wells surrounding the dam. In the years following 1981 the water from the dam began being used for domestic purposes. Opportunities and Threats. Human Impact. The population in the Arizona Uplands and Sonoran Plains continues to grow tremendously, having a severe impact on the natural land and species of these areas. Arizona Uplands and Lower Colorado portions of the Sonoran Desert had a population change of 106% from 1970 to 1990 (Nabhan, 1998). The population of the Plains of Sonora went from 253,628 to 508,914 having a 101% change in the span of 20 years (Nabhan, 1998). The population of the subregions has continued to increase. Human impact has altered natural resources and poses threats for most land, water, vegetation, and wildlife resources of this area. Population Increase. Human impact is one of the biggest threats of the environment in general. Because of that population increase is directly related to being a threat to the environment. An increase in population means an increase in resource depletion, an increase in deforestation, mining, and a decrease in biodiversity.<br> Urbanization. Urbanization is one of the biggest direct threats humans pose throughout the Sonoran Desert. It has altered and destroyed many natural habitats to provide environments for human use. In the Arizona Uplands and Sonoran Plains, many of the nature reserves have been affected by urbanization and even to the extent of disappearing certain places due to the high demand for agriculture, transportation, neighborhoods, and mining. Papago Park in Phoenix, Arizona, has been disrupted by urbanization. This area was known as Papago Cactus National Monument suffered a tremendous decrease in the territory, native animals, and native plants (Nabhan, 1998). It is surrounded by golf courses, baseball fields, irrigation canals, highways, and tract housing. The park's native species are under serious threat. The majority of native carnivores that live in Papago Park have been killed by traffic. The native species suffer from predators: jackrabbit, cottontails, gophers, and ground squirrels. Harming the Palo Verde trees and Saguaro Cacti. Land Conversion. The Sonoran Desert has immensely suffered from land conversion as a significant direct human impact. Land conversion refers to the "changing a landscape from a more or less native biotic community to one deliberately and drastically altered to provide environments for human uses" (Phillips, 2015, p.118). Urbanization, agriculture, mining, and transportation all contribute to land conversion. The changing of land diminishes the amount of natural habitat for native species to survive. The Sonoran Desert covers most of Arizona, Arizona is an agricultural state. Agriculture requires complete land conversion, this does not allow the possibility of native flora to flourish in these designated areas (Phillips, 2015, p.118). Invasive Species. According to the national wildlife federation, "An invasive species can be any kind of living organism—an amphibian (like the cane toad), plant, insect, fish, fungus, bacteria, or even an organism’s seeds or eggs—that is not native to an ecosystem and causes harm. They can harm the environment, the economy, or even human health. Species that grow and reproduce quickly, and spread aggressively, with the potential to cause harm, are given the label “invasive.”(National Wildlife Federation) <br> One of the biggest invasive species in the Arizona Uplands region is: <br> Buffelgrass. Buffelgrass is the enemy of the Sonoran Desert. This invasive grass causes significant damage to the native ecosystem. Buffelgrass is native to Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. This grass was brought to the U.S int the 1930s for cattle forage and erosion control but ended up being a big mistake. Buffelgrass ("Pennisetum ciliare"), is a fire-adapted, perennial bunchgrass introduced from the African savannah. Buffelgrass grows in dense stands, producing large quantities of seed that readily germinate and is able to invade both disturbed and undisturbed desert sites. It is spreading rapidly across Arizona's deserts, threatening the ecological integrity of the Sonoran desert ecosystems and public as well as private lands. (U.S. Department of the Interior) The African buffelgrass ("Pennisetum ciliare") has been identified as the most serious ecological threat to the paloverde-saguaro-ironwood desert scrub in the Arizona Upland (AZU) subdivision of the Sonoran Desert. This scenic vegetation is protected in Arizona in Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Saguaro National Park, Ironwood Forest National Monument, Sonoran Desert National Monument, Tucson Mountain Park (Pima County), etc., where it is in excellent condition and relatively little impacted by grazing, woodcutting, and recreational activities. However, the introduction of buffelgrass either through pasture development as in Sonora or dispersal along roads and wind-blown seed as in Arizona is a very serious threat to natural communities because it also introduces fire as a new ecological process (Figure 1). Few if any Sonoran Desert or northern Neotropical plants have any adaptations to recurrent fires. In time, buffelgrass fires could convert the Arizona Upland into a savanna-like landscape as saguaro ("Carnegiea gigantea"), foothill paloverde ("Parkinsonia microphylla"), ironwood ("Olneya tesota"), organ pipe cactus ("Stenocereus thurberi"), etc. are killed. (Devender, Dimmitt) Buffelgrass is a threat to the Arizona uplands region because it grows densely and crowds out native plants of similar size. It competes for water can weaken and kill larger desert plants. Dense roots and ground shading prevent the germination of seeds. It appears that buffelgrass can kill most native plants by these means alone. Another close similar species to the Buffelgrass is the Fountaingrass. Fountaingrass. Fountaingrass is a large grass that produces lots of seeds that can spread rapidly spreads from cultivation into nearby disturbed areas, and eventually into natural habitats. It often forms dense stands and aggressively competes with native species, especially perennial grasses, and seasonal annuals, for space, water, and nutrients. It is a perennial bunchgrass with attractive purple or green flowers. It is an ornamental plant that is still sold in nurseries. Although some nursery varieties are considered "sterile", no varieties are recommended for planting and landscaping. Choose other attractive native grass alternatives for your landscape, like sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii), or rabbit-resistant deer grass (Muhlenbergia regens). Threats from fountaingrass fires are most serious in natural riparian habitats in scenic mountain canyons. In the Tucson area, it has invaded the rocky canyons in Finger Rock, Pima, Sabino, and other Canyons in the Santa Catalina Mountains and King Canyon in the Tucson Mountains. Fountaingrass is less of a threat in desert grassland or chaparral above 3500 feet where a fire is a natural process. Fountain grass can form dense stands with several undesirable effects. It provides a large amount of fuel for hot fires that can destroy native plants and animals. It displaces native grasses, blocks the natural flow of water in washes, and alters the habitat for animals, particularly frogs and toads that are sensitive to such changes. Fountain grass occurs mainly in the washes in the Park but has also been found on steep slopes. It grows rapidly on hillsides, along roadsides, and in washes all around Tucson. Climate Change. Earth's climate is changing and becoming warmer. This change has been expected to affect various places, for instance, the Sonoran Desert. The Sonoran Desert is expected to increase temperatures, less rain, and more extreme weather conditions (Phillips, 2015, p.116). The increase in heat and extreme weather conditions are predicted to take a significant toll on native species causing damage and possible death of plants. Native plants have adapted to the weather conditions like the Creosote bush and Paloverde trees. Although in recent studies Creosote bush has been affected by the decrease in precipitation; while the Paloverde has decreased due to high-temperature conditions (Plant Responses to Climate Change in the Sonoran Desert: Recent Research and Findings, n.d.). Conclusion. Now you have been through a mere fraction of the Arizona Uplands and Plains of Sonora. We have taken you through the animal and plant life within the region, what the land and air feels and looks like, how the water and land are used, and some future goals and devastations that lie ahead for the Arizona Uplands and Plains of Sonora. We want to thank you for taking the time to go through this page and learn about this region that we have had the pleasure to research.
415482	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415482	Professionalism/Software Vulnerability Disclosure	Introduction. Software is rarely flawless. A huge cybersecurity workforce shortage and inadequate security education for programmers creates a perfect environment for development of insecure systems. Business competition shifts the focus of companies away from quality to speed, letting software flaws slip through. The flaws can resurface later while the system is being actively utilized by many users. Software vulnerability disclosure refers to the act of releasing the details of a security flaw in an application to a certain audience. In the industry, these flaws are frequently referred to as "zero-day vulnerabilities" (or "zero-day exploits" when weaponized). Depending on the communication method and the audience, this disclosure can lead to a completely different outcome. Value can be gained from the knowledge of these flaws, which turns them into "vulnerability equity." Practical Considerations. The rediscovery rate of vulnerabilities is very high. Researchers estimate that 15% to 20% of all vulnerabilities are discovered independently at least twice within a year, more than previously thought. Certain methods of disclosure or lack of it can cause the vulnerability to remain unfixed, putting every single user of that system at a big risk. In the recent past, many organizations believed that as long as no one saw what is inside the code, it was secure. This is known as "security through obscurity." If someone found a vulnerability, it was common to either ignore the researchers or threat them with legal action, leaving the vulnerability unpatched. In 2011, an Australian security expert Patrick Webster, who worked as a security analyst at a police department, found a serious security flaw in software owned by First State Super. While working with the system, he found a flaw allowing users to pull full names, addresses, age, insurance information, fund amounts, beneficiaries and employer information from all of the site's 770,000 users - including Police officers and politicians. Upon discovery, he immediately notified the company thinking that he was doing a good deed. Within days, his account was disabled, computers were confiscated, and he was claimed to be liable for any costs in fixing the flaw. Finding a flaw to some extent implies that you attacked the system. Without explicit written permission or "bug bounty" programs, these findings put researchers in a legal gray zone. Webster's mistake was that he actually downloaded the data to his computer while looking at the flaw, which was used against him by First State. This retaliation causes an adverse effect where researchers are afraid to report flaws they find. Fortunately, new laws are being passed protecting the rights of these whistleblowers. Upon disclosure, there is often a lack of action from the vendor. James Glenn, a security researcher in Bulgaria found a flaw in a Cisco video surveillance system. After presenting the findings in a detailed report to his supervisor and to Cisco's incident response team, no action was taken. After following up and meeting with Cisco representatives, he was fired within 3 days. The problem was fixed only years later, after the US government filed a lawsuit against Cisco. Disclosure Options. Upon intentional or unintentional discovery of a bug, a researcher has several options and paths of disclosure. Each of these options has a different side effect. One can fight to fix the flaw quickly, get rich, or stay put and avoid any career risks. Each of these options has it's own negative consequences, so the benefits have to be weighted. Based on his or her own agenda and understanding of ethics, each researcher has to make this choice for themselves, and almost any of the choices above can be justified. These mindsets can be categorized into 3 general motives: altruism, profit, or politics. Public Disclosure. Nowadays, a researcher may elect to publish a zero-day vulnerability online. Often, this is done for bragging rights rather than with malicious intent. This means of disclosure may also be chosen if the researcher has not received great enough concern or attention over the vulnerability. This was the case for the Michele Thompson, an Arizona mother who published a vulnerability in Apple's FaceTime app on twitter after days of attempting to contact the tech giant. Thompson's 14 year old son had discovered a method by which FaceTime could be used to receive audio from a remote source without alerting the contacted phone. When she realized her calls were falling on deaf ears, Thompson turned to Twitter to reveal the security issue, which quickly raised the issue's priority to Apple. Although it is less common than responsible disclosure, public disclosure represents a viable method for giving critical issues notoriety. This method does open the researcher up to potential legal action taken by a company claiming the researcher illegally hacked their products. Responsible Disclosure. Currently, the most common method for disclosing zero day vulnerabilities is a sort of bargaining method, wherein the researcher enters a contract with the necessary party. This contract gives the company a set amount of time (usually 90 days due to the precedent set by Google's "Project Zero") to replicate and solve the vulnerability. After the time period has elapsed, the researcher can freely publish the vulnerability for bragging rights or any other purposes. Ideally, this allows a client time to fix an issue before the vulnerability is published and can be abused. In some cases however, responsible disclosure agreements may not allot enough time for a company to fix a more complex vulnerability, or a client may simply deem a vulnerability too low priority to work through. The responsible disclosure process can also be arduous for researchers, who may suffer through days or weeks of tedious communication to see results. Some companies offer standing bounties for researchers who find vulnerabilities in their systems. Microsoft is currently offering up to $300,000 for vulnerabilities in its Azure cloud services. This can however lead to companies sorting through many complex vulnerability reports, leading to some inevitably being dropped. Responsible disclosure practices have naturally led to the formation of larger companies which create their own vulnerability pricing models and timeframes, which allows clients to avoid the difficult process of negotiating bug pricing with researchers. These programs, like Zerodium and Project Zero, have given responsive disclosure more structure. Irresponsible Disclosure. Irresponsible disclosure is any way of disclosing a vulnerability other than notifying the company or vendor that is responsible for the software. It can come in many different forms, and usually comes as a result of a researcher looking for personal gain, whether it be through payment or even bragging rights. This is where the ethical issues of software vulnerability disclosure lie, as researchers face making a decision to either act morally or instead do something unethical in pursuit of personal gain. One security researcher with the moniker "SandboxEscaper" posted a zero day vulnerability on twitter that exploited a flaw in Windows. She seemed to be frustrated with Microsoft's bug bounty program, which shows how important it is for companies to have usable bug reporting system in place. Companies have also been at fault for irresponsible disclosure. MedSec, a cybersecurity firm, found a vulnerability in medical equipment from St Jude. Rather than notify St. Jude, they partnered with an investment firm to short St. Jude stock before they disclosed this vulnerability, effectively profiting off of their discovery. Many in the security field opposed this move, as protocol would have called for MedSec to notify St. Jude first after their discovery. Failure to Disclose. In some instances, researchers or organizations find a vulnerability, and then choose to not disclose it any capacity, and make use of the vulnerability themselves. A common case in which this occurs is when a government agency or company comes across a vulnerability, and sees an opportunity in which they can use the exploit to their own advantage, typically by gathering more intelligence about competitors/nation states. One notable instance of this case came from the NSA. The NSA became aware of a very severe exploit that affected many different versions of Windows. Rather than notify Microsoft, they used the exploit in a tool called EteranlBlue, which they used for nearly five years for classified purposes. In 2017, code from this tool was leaked and then used in a ransomware attack known as WannaCry, which was one of the largest cyber attacks ever. The NSA only alerted Microsoft of this exploit after the code became leaked, and faced heavy criticism from the technology community. Vulnerability Markets. Many researchers choose to sell their vulnerability on third party markets, usually looking for a larger payout than those that choose to responsibly disclose vulnerabilities. Researchers divide these markets into three categories: white, grey, and black markets. White markets include things such as bug bounty programs or responsibly disclosing vulnerabilities to necessary parties. Researchers that choose to sell on these markets can expect a large payout, and should not expect the vulnerability to be addressed anytime soon. Grey Markets. Grey markets are mainly a medium in which government agencies, defense contractors, and other brokers can purchase software vulnerabilities. Typically, some kind of entity acts as a intermediary so that both the buyer and seller can remain anonymous. Transactions that take place in this market are technically legal, and the buyers tend to pay less than those on the black market. Black Markets. Black markets are more nefarious in nature, typically involving parties who want to use software vulnerabilities for some sort of illegal purpose. Criminal organizations are typically the buyers on this market, although some government agencies whose needs cannot be met on the grey market may use the black market. Transactions on this market are almost always illegal, and take place on the dark web: the part of the internet not indexed by typical browsers. As a result, it is easier to remain anonymous on these markets. Transactions on the black market also pay the highest on average.
415486	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415486	English-Hanzi/With increasing age and increasing workload	With increasing age and increasing workload, enough sleep has become a big problem. Although the body is very flexible and can withstand a lot of stress, the one thing that cannot be overcome is sleep. 随着年龄的增长和工作量的增加，充足的睡眠已成为一个大问题。尽管身体非常灵活并且可以承受很大的压力，但无法克服的一件事是睡眠。
415487	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415487	English-Hanzi/When the body lacks sleep, the body is full of stress hormone	When the body lacks sleep, the body is full of stress hormone, which causes fat to deposit in and around the belly. 当身体缺乏睡眠时，身体就会充满压力荷尔蒙，这会导致脂肪沉积在腹部及其周围。
415491	3181019	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415491	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Arrays	Array Declarations. Array declarations are generally done along with all other simple variables. The format for array declarations is essentially an extension of the format for declarations of simple variables. Format. [format as for simple declarations][,][name of variable]['[' or ',' or ';' or '='][if '[' size of array (constant)][']'][value of array][next declaration] Example: int a,b,arr[5],arr2[5]=(1,2,3,4,5); Algorithm. This algorithm is the continuation of the previous algorithm, with the following steps to be added to check for array variables and to deal with them properly. 1. Get name. 2. If next character be [ then until the character be ] input character and store it in the index variable . 3. If next character be , or ; then write to data? section : [Name] [index] dup ? 4. Else add one character and then get character until character be). Then write to data section: [name] [value] The dup keyword will replicate ? or 0 value for all the members without needing to individually initialize each. Special for strings. Strings are initialized differently form other array variables in that they can be declared simultaneously in one chunk separated by "and" Also strings always end with char 0 (or '\0'). The following algorithm is to be appended with the previous one. Algorithm for strings only: 1. if character after char array declaration not be'=' continue with rest of parent algorithm. 2. add one to index.(skip ") 3. while character not " get character and store in array. 4. write to .DATA section: [name] byte "[value]",0 Note that some assemblers may impose a limit on the actual size of initialized string (in MASM 6.1 it is 255 bytes or 255 individual characters). Note that the size of the initialized string is only that of the value provided, i.e. in the following example char str[50]="hello"; the size of the array str is only 5+1 or 6 characters. Array Referencing. An array has to be referred to in order for it to be useful. An array is referenced in the following format. [...expression][array name][index of variable][...expression] However assembly language does not accept this format. Moreover it takes the index as the number of bytes after the starting address, rather than the number of variable after the starting address. Format in assembly [...instruction][array name][number of bytes after starting][...instruction] Further more the index cannot be a memory variable, but has to be a register or a constant. The solution is the following set of instructions: mov ebx,[index variable(can be a constant also)] [assignment instruction to register of type of array][array name] /[ebx * type array]/ [assignment instruction to arr[ANUM] (increment ANUM) from register used above] the '/' signify differential use of '['(here the brackets after / are to be copied into code) Algorithm for referencing(upon detection of array variable or to be done as soon as instruction comes): 1. While character not '[' and not ';' and not '{' increment index. 2. If character be ';' or '{' end process. 3. While character not ']' get character and store in array. 4. Get name of array. 5. Use format as given above. 6. Replace reference by arr[ANUM-1] 7. Repeat step 1
415492	3229746	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415492	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Simple Expressions	Expressions. An expression includes all forms of commands that require usage of the ALU excepting logic functions . They also include function calls but these will be covered later. In this chapter we deal with the conversion of simple expressions or expressions excluding parenthesis and function calls or any sort of referencing. Basic Operations. We all know the four basic arithmetic operations that is +,-,,/. Together they combine to form expressions such as : ab+c<br> However assembly language does not recognize such expressions, but it only recognizes binary commands such as: add a,b<br> mul b,c Also it does not recognize precedence. It just executes commands as they are presented in a sequential order. Thus we have to order theses commands by ourselves. Also the results are always stored in a certain location known as a register. More specifically it is stored in the Eax register. Instructions. There are the following instructions for each operation on integers. For operations on char replace eax by al: Assignment Mov [operand1],[operand2] Add add [operand1],[operand2] Subtract sub [operand1],[operand2] Multiplication Mov Eax,[operand1] Imul [operand2] Division Cdq (sign extension, mandatory but only once in the program) Idiv [operand1],[operand2] Modulus Cdq Idiv [operand1],[operand2] Mov Eax,edx Increment Inc [operand] Following are the corresponding instructions for floats. Assignment Fld [operand2] Fstp [operand1] Addition Fld [operand1] Fadd [operand2] Subtraction Fld [operand1] Fsub [operand2] Multiplication Fld [operand1] Fmul [operand2] Division Fld [operand1] Fdiv [operand2] There is no modulus for float variables. Algorithm For Conversion. Part1 Multiplication,division,modulus 1. While character not ; or *,/,%. increment index 1.1 If character be ; goto part2 1.2 get operand before operator and after 1.3 depending on operator use the appropriate instructions as given above. 1.4 remove the operands and operator from the line 1.5 if next operator be add or sub replace by var[NUM] where NUM is an int and incremented. Write var[NUM] as a variable of type of expression. Assign eax to var[NUM]. 1.6 else replace by eax. 2. Repeat step 1 For char replace eax by al and for float assign st(1) to var[NUM]. Part2 Addition,subtraction 1. While character not ; or + or - increment index 1.1 If character be ; end process 1.2 get operand before and after the operator 1.3 depending on operator use the appropriate instruction as given above (Follow steps 1.4 to 1.6) 2. Repeat step 1
415498	3229746	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415498	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Pointers	Introduction to pointers. Pointers are variables that store the addresses of other variables. This variable is generally a DWORD or a 32-bit integer, however the variable the address of which the pointer is storing can be of any type. Pointers are used extensively to pass static or local variables to be edited and are the major type of arguments provided to a void function. Pointer Format. The following is the traditional C and C++ format to declare pointer variables. [type of variable of which the pointer is storing value of][(represents pointer)][variable name][initialization of pointer][,\|;] Note that pointer variables can be declared among the variable type of which it is storing the value. Example: float f1,f2,p1,p2=&f2; The & operator provides the address of the variable rather than the value stored in it. Algorithm for declaration. The algorithm for this is as follows: 1. If character be then go through following steps else skip it. 2. Get name of variable. 3. If next character not be = then write to .data section as [name of variable] ptr [type] ? 4. Else get value. Remove first character as it will be &. Write to .data? section as [name of variable] ptr [type] [value]. 5. Repeat step 1.
415500	3229746	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415500	Making a Programming Language From Scratch/Structures	Structural declarations. Structures are groups of different types of data in continuous locations. It is necessarily the grouping of different types of data together. Format of structural declarations. Defstruct [Name of structure]{ .<br> .<br> .<br> Format of assembly: [Name of structure] struct starts .<br> .<br> .<br> [Name of structure] ends Algorithm to process. 1.If keyword defstruct then 2.While char not { get char and store in array name 3.Write to output file format as given above. [note that choice of keyword is totally up to you.] Structure variable declarations. All structures are useless unless they have some representatives in the physical memory. This is called a structure variable.<br> A structure variable is defined along with other variables with the important difference that structure variables are not defined during initializing (at least in assembly). Thus we will deal with only uninitialized structure variables. Format as of assembly: [structure variable name] [parent structure name] <?> The <?> is the structure dup operator which sets value 0 or 0.0 to all sub-components Algorithm. 1.If keyword struct then 2.Scan parent structure name [Duplicate algorithm for getting simple variables] 3.Write to file in format as given above. Sample Conversion. In HLL defstruct boy{ int age,grade; float marks; char name[20]; In Assembly boy struct starts age dword ? grade dword ? marks real8 ? name byte 19 dup (?),0 boy ends
415504	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415504	Professionalism/The Death of Elaine Herzberg	On the night of March 18, 2018, in Tempe, Arizona, an autonomous vehicle (AV) collided with and killed Elaine Herzberg. The AV, a modified Volvo XC90, was part of a test program of the Uber Advanced Technologies Group (ATG). Herzberg was jaywalking across a four-lane roadway with her bicycle when struck. Toxicology screening showed methamphetamine and THC in her bloodstream. The safety driver of the AV, Rafaela Vasquez, was streaming a TV show on her phone right before the crash, a violation of Uber policy and Arizona state law. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found that Vasquez’s distractedness compromised her reaction time, preventing her from manually avoiding Herzberg when prompted by the AV. Humans, not technologies, were culpable for Herzberg's death. Uber’s software had dangerous flaws. As stated above, the proximate causes for Herzberg’s death were the impairment and jaywalking of Herzberg and the distractedness of Vasquez, however, we have to take a closer look at the mechanics of the AV to determine the higher-level causes. The AV had three mechanisms for sensing its environment - LIDAR, radar, and cameras. These three worked together to paint a 3D picture of the surroundings and allow the car’s computer vision algorithms to judge distances, predict trajectories of moving objects, and classify different objects as cars, bicycles, pedestrians, or something else. There were a few key flaws in Uber’s AV software, known as Perception. First, reclassified objects lost their movement history, and the AV could not predict a trajectory for them. In the seconds leading up to Herzberg’s death, the computer vision system reclassified Herzberg multiple times, cycling between an unknown object, a bicycle, and a vehicle. The AV could not predict Herzberg’s movement path to avoid her. Second, objects classified as unknown did not have a predicted trajectory. Third, according to the NTSB, Perception “did not include consideration for jaywalking pedestrians.” Fourth, Perception had flawed emergency braking. Uber programmed Volvo’s native emergency braking systems to deactivate when Perception was active. Post-crash, Volvo conducted simulations of the crash scenario and determined that if Volvo’s emergency braking system had been active, it would have allowed the AV to avoid Herzberg or at least slow down to reduce impact speed. Perception’s own emergency braking did not activate to reduce impact speed but rather only if the AV could avoid impact. Strikingly, there was no technical malfunction, and all sensor systems were fully active doing their job. An executive of Velodyne, the LIDAR supplier, stated that the LIDAR “doesn’t make the decision to put on the brakes or get out of her [Herzberg's] way”. The key takeaway is that the AV performed as it was programmed to under Perception, and therefore the design of Perception was flawed, not the underlying technology. Poor safety culture leads to tragedy. If the problem was Perception’s design, why did Uber fail to detect these flaws earlier, or why did they fail to design redundant safety measures into the AV to guard against undetected shortcomings? The NTSB points to Uber’s “poor commitment to safety culture”. This was Uber’s ethical pitfall. The following is a list of practices at Uber ATG that the NTSB cited as evidence of weak safety culture: Notably, Uber ATG employees knew Perception and safety standards were flawed even before Herzberg’s death. Uber AVs were frequently involved in accidents, almost “every other day” in the February before Herzberg died. Safety drivers who committed fireable offenses, such as Vasquez’s cell phone use, did not receive punishment. To Uber’s credit, the company claimed to rectify almost all of these weak areas post-crash, but nevertheless, these factors still led to Herzberg’s death. AV systems have ethical assumptions built in. There will always be ethical decisions embedded in designing a software for AVs. The concept of consequentialism explains that the right action is whatever leads to the best results in quantified terms, such as the least number of deaths. AV manufacturers apply consequentialism when they consider crash optimization - if a crash is imminent, how will an AV system minimize the amount of damage, injury, or death? To execute this, targeting algorithms are implemented, which deliberately discriminate against certain people depending on certain factors. For example, consider a thought experiment where a car would have to choose between hitting a motorcyclist wearing a helmet and a motorcyclist not wearing one. It might seem reasonable to hit the one wearing the helmet since the one not wearing a helmet would probably not survive the crash. But, this essentially would mean that motorcyclists are being penalized and discriminated against for wearing a helmet, possibly encouraging motorcyclists to not wear helmets to avoid this targeting. Consequentialism pertains to one of the most famous ethical dilemmas in history, the trolley problem, and similar to the trolley problem, there is no definitive answer as to how to perfect crash optimization. AV companies deflect blame and support continued street testing. In response to AV crashes, companies such as Uber and Tesla have refused to accept responsibility. In 2016, Joshua Brown was killed when his Tesla Model S collided with a tractor-trailer in Autopilot mode. Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, has blamed crashes such as Brown’s on driver overconfidence in the AV, stating that “the issue is more one of complacency” rather than any shortcoming of Tesla’s Autopilot system. Marketing terms such as Tesla’s “Autopilot” may imply a greater level of autonomy than the system provides, inadvertently leading to the complacency issue that Musk mentioned. Uber has stated that it is impossible for them to “anticipate and eliminate” every potential risk before street testing, and that is why testing on public roads is necessary. Uber's poor safety culture may say otherwise. Uber was well aware of flaws in their AV system and safety standards before Herzberg’s death and continued to test their vehicles on public roads despite regular crash occurrences. Waymo has echoed the need for continued street testing, but their safety record has been better with no recorded fatalities. Human behavior is poorly-equipped to use AVs. Current AVs have impractical demands for human attention. SAE International, also known as the Society of Automotive Engineers, has defined six levels of autonomy for AVs. Level 3 AVs, such as the one involved in Herzberg's death, do not suit human psychology and can give the safety driver a sense of false safety. When a human is driving (Levels 0-2), the human is engaged in the driving task and is focused on the road. In Level 3 autonomy, the AV obviates the need to focus on the road, yet the driver still must focus on the road and be ready to take over in case of emergency. This is an unreasonable task to ask humans, due to inattentional blindness, the failure to notice things (like a jaywalking pedestrian) when not attentive to them. Automation leads to driver recklessness. When engineers design a technology to be safer, the user may take more risks with the technology, thereby nullifying any safety benefit. This phenomenon is called risk compensation. A special variant of risk compensation occurs for automated technologies, called automation complacency. When a technology becomes automated, users tend to forget to perform the old manual tasks that the system now performs automatically. If the automated system fails, the user forgets to remedy the failure. When safety drivers are operating AVs, automation complacency makes them forget the old safety precautions they would take if they were driving a conventional car. For example, safety drivers become more likely to engage in distractions, such as Vasquez’s cell phone use. Therefore, the challenge for safety drivers is that they may be distracted when automation failures occur, and they may not be ready to take control in an emergency. Economic and political factors contributed to Herzberg's death. When California said no, Arizona said yes. In 2016, Uber was originally testing its AVs in its headquarters city of San Francisco, CA. However, after an Uber AV ran a red light, California officials wanted Uber to apply for permitting. Back in 2014, California created a permit system for AV testing. Uber refused to undergo the permitting process, and Arizona Governor Doug Ducey tried to attract Uber’s AV testing to his state. In a press release, Ducey said that while “California puts the brakes on innovation and change with more bureaucracy and more regulation, Arizona is paving the way for new technology and new businesses” and that “Arizona welcomes Uber self-driving cars with open arms and wide open roads”. Ducey’s intentions to foster his state’s economy may have been pure, but his hastiness to attract Uber left Arizona vulnerable to tragedy. He lured Uber to Arizona without establishing regulations to screen AV companies or their safety practices, ultimately leading to the demise of Arizona citizen Elaine Herzberg. Post-crash, Gov. Ducey placed a moratorium on Uber’s AV testing via executive order, but the NTSB has criticized Arizona’s failure to create a “safety-focused application-approval process” for AV testing. Lack of federal regulation leads to ethical quandaries for states. The NTSB also criticized the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) for “not providing definitive leadership to the states to manage the expansive growth in AV testing”. The NHTSA has yet to publish comprehensive standards for AVs, outline best practices for AV testing, or create a mandatory vetting process for AVs and AV companies' safety protocols. In 2017 and 2020, Congress tried to pass comprehensive AV legislation but failed. This has left a regulatory vacuum, forcing the states to regulate AV standards themselves. Perhaps states are not solely to blame for the ethical dilemmas brought on by AV testing, since there is no unified guidance from the federal government. Key lessons. This case shows what happens when we value progress and profit over safety. Uber had forewarning that their AV program and Perception were unsafe. They made the problem even worse by eliminating the second safety driver to cut costs. Arizona’s government could have been more careful in letting Uber test on their streets, but Gov. Ducey’s hunger for economic prosperity was ahead of the state’s AV legislation. The result was the death of an innocent pedestrian. Herzberg’s death may have hurt Uber financially, as the company experienced decelerating growth over 2018. It seems Uber has addressed some of these issues in the years after the crash, but all industries should view this case as a lesson to prioritize safety first. Future directions. Future research could examine whether individual state AV regulations are efficacious. We may also forecast how much a federal AV-regulating body would cost and the potential benefits of such an organization. There are countless ethical questions that remain in the AV field, and some such as crash optimization may never have definitive answers. One ethical issue that may have some definitive answer is an objective criteria to determine if an AV company is morally responsible for a crash. Finally, we must realize that hindsight is 20/20, and no AV company will be able to forecast every possible contingency before street testing.
415509	4415272	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415509	Transportation Planning Casebook/Liverpool Trackless Tram	The Liverpool Trackless Tram project is a part of the larger FAST (Fifteenth Avenue Smart Transit) design network. The main aim of this transit line is to provide fast and regular public transport from the Liverpool CBD to the new Western Sydney International Airport. The project is still under a planning phase with the Liverpool City Council collaborating with Curtin University to develop a driverless, rechargeable electric vehicle system which is guided by GPS. The transit system is planned to operate at a fraction of the cost of light rails and will link the Liverpool City Council to the airport in just 20 minutes. The trackless tram transit system is anticipated to open by 2026. Trackless tram has distinctive benefits when compared to its nearest competitors, light rail and bus rapid system. A report by the Sustainable Built Environment, National Research Centre outlines the following advantages of trackless trams over other systems. These advantages were observed from the trials in Zhuzhou, China. Identification of Policy Issues. Justification, need and cost of the service type. Liverpool City Council has yet to put forward a business case demonstrating feasibility and cost of the project. The costs to construct the infrastructure and operate the service are largely unknown with the only known trial service in Zhuzhou, China from 2018. This process is a determining factor to understand the true potential cost savings against conventional LRT systems that it is being compared against. In Sydney, two recent light rail projects that costs could be compared to would be: However, the above project costs reflect factors of repurposing land in built-up urban areas such as extensive utilities relocation as was seen with the Sydney Light Rail Project and enabling works to re-route traffic for the Parramatta Light Rail. The Liverpool Trackless Tram project would unlikely experience these complications and challenges being mostly a greenfield project. Therefore, any cost estimate at a per/km rate likely be much lower. Perceived benefits of ride quality. The ride quality benefits of the service aren't necessarily unique. Ride quality is impacted by factors such as: Existing systems such as bus rapid transit could achieve the same outcome with the right adoption of technologies and bus priority with the right-of-way, such as electric buses within a T-way system designed with smoother gradients and curves. Public transport network design. The vehicle type limits the service offering to origins and destinations along the specific corridor, reducing the ability for feeder services from other suburbs without the need to interchange. The policy issue that arises is whether the state transport agency would want bus-trackless tram transfers. An alternative would be one-seat services on a bus from many origins that converge on the corridor to move people to the airport. Technology. The optical guidance and vehicle systems have been developed by the China Railway Construction Company (CRCC). This technology currently remains as proprietary and there are risks that arise when locked-in to a single supplier. The technology still requires a driver with the optical guidance systems only to provide assistance to the driver in manoeuvring the vehicle in turning, acceleration and deceleration. As such, it cannot be classed as a fully autonomous service. Narrative of the Case. As part of the City Deal commitment, Liverpool City Council’s goal for development of the FAST corridor to connect the Western Sydney International airport and (at least 70% of its future airport workers) to the Liverpool LGA (Local Government Area) is still in the planning stage. Operation of the corridor before 2026 is still in line with Liverpool City Council’s goals of improved connectivity for suburbs west of Liverpool LGA. Other than the trackless tram, a light rail and autonomous bus system are still considered as possible modes for the rapid transit corridor. Opinions regarding the installation of a trackless tram for the FAST corridor are generally favourable because of the many benefits it provides. However, the stations for trackless trams will attract development (similar to LRT systems) and encourage urban regeneration. Potential for urban regeneration using trackless tram systems is being realised in Townsville, Hobart, Sydney, Geelong, Sunshine Coast, Perth, Brisbane, and Wyndham, Melbourne. The trackless tram system would also aid visitors and residents of Liverpool to navigate through the CBD. As Liverpool City Council continues its work on the FAST corridor, opportunities of how the Western Sydney Aerotropolis could be linked to the Liverpool CBD with a trackless tram system are being realised. The trackless tram would provide the Liverpool City Council to reclaim spaces for shared mobility using rapid transit. Indeed, part of the FAST corridor project is the integration of the rapid transit service with an active transport (which includes walking, cycling and micro-mobility) infrastructure. However, this integration is subject to the upgrade of Hoxton Park Road. The Hoxton Park Road is a link between the Liverpool CBD and new airport currently undergoing the design stage. The section design chosen for the road (centre-running or side-running) will affect active transport infrastructure e.g. stop locations for along the FAST corridor and the design of public domain. Additional Readings. Fifteenth Avenue Smart Transit Corridor Design Framework. SJB (2020).<br> This document outlines Liverpool City Council’s vision to deliver a place-led transit corridor between Liverpool city centre and the Western Sydney International (Nancy-Bird Walton) Airport (WSIA).<br> URL: https://www.liverpool.nsw.gov.au/trim/documents?RecordNumber=057662.2020 Delivering Integrated Transit, Land Development and Finance – a Guide and Manual: with Application to Trackless Trams. Newman P., Mouritz M., Davies-Slate S., Jones E., Hargroves K., Sharma R. & Adams D. (2018). Sustainable Built Environment National Research Centre (SBEnrc), Australia.<br> This report shows how transit-land development integration has been happening around the world using funding and finance as the glue to deliver transit, such as a Trackless Tram, with a focus on the Australian context.<br> URL: https://sbenrc.com.au/app/uploads/2018/10/TRACKLESS-TRAMS-MANUAL-GUIDE_email.pdf
415512	660399	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415512	Oberon/ETH Oberon/sound	<templatestyles src="TemplateStyles/Oberon/styles.css" /> Back to: Native Oberon Hardware Compatibility List Sound support Summary Native Oberon supports SoundBlaster and compatible cards and equivalent on-board sound controllers. A true SB card can be detected automatically. How to install a sound driver - Configure Oberon.Text You have to edit the Sound.Audio group in Oberon.Text. To determine the correct settings required: for an ISA card, consult the documentation which came with the card for a PCI card, execute PCITools.Scan The preset values are: Port = 220H IRQ = 7 see IRQ LowDMA = 1 the DMA channel for byte transfers HighDMA = 7 the DMA channel for word transfers (16-bit) compatible = -1 -1: true SB (autodetect); and for compatibles: 0: SB1.5; 1: SB2.0; 2: SBpro; 3: SB16 Other values are invalid. Sound tools (Sound.Tool) Wave.Panel GUI for playing / recording Wav files. Au.Panel GUI for playing / recording Au files. *CDAudio.Panel GUI for playing audio CD-ROMs - currently not supported. Modern sound cards include a mixer. Depending on the ancienty of the sound card, a different mixer type (DSP) or none is available for which Oberon offers a corresponding custom GUI: Release differences The 2.3.6 release had separate IDE driver modules for hard disk and audio CD (a bad design for historical reasons). For the beta and alpha releases, the IDE driver was rewritten to support more modern IDE (ATA) drives, but the audio part of the CD driver has not been done yet. So the beta and alpha releases do not support the CDAudio panel. "21 Jul 2002 - Copyright © 2002 ETH Zürich. All rights reserved." "E-Mail: oberon at lists.inf.ethz.ch" "Homepage: http://www.ethoberon.ethz.ch/"
415515	1406991	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415515	Professionalism/Ian Bogost, Nadia Eghbal, and Software Engineers	Introduction. In 2015 Ian Bogost, a video game designer and Professor of Media studies and interactive computing at Georgia Tech, wrote an article called “Programmers: stop calling yourselves engineers” in The Atlantic discussing his opinions on using the word “engineer” to describe software engineers. Bogost argued that modern software engineering principles and methodologies have diverged from those of traditional engineering fields such that the term “software engineer” should no longer be used and doing so is a disservice to the engineering industry. Nadia Eghbal wrote an article in response to Bogost’s, stating that Bogost’s ideas, while partially true, do not consider the software engineers that have allowed the field to have changed in such ways. Job Title Discrepancy. Bogost highlights discrepancies between software engineering and traditional engineering principles as the reason for his opinions on the term “software engineer”. Traditional Engineering. Bogost defines traditional engineering disciplines as mechanical, civil, chemical, electrical, and environmental engineering, emphasizing their focus on infrastructure and public welfare and safety. The design process in these engineering fields is a very careful and thorough process that depends accuracy and precision to ensure success of the product in the real world as mistakes can lead to disastrous consequences. Examples of failures include the multiple collapses of the Quebec Bridge, one being the result of load miscalculations, and NASA’s Climate Orbiter which crashed into the surface of Mars after engineers failed to correctly convert units. Bogost states that because of this, engineers have a responsibility to “get things right the first time”. The engineering code of ethics also strongly emphasizes public welfare and safety. Engineers in traditional fields now must have various requirements in order to practice including educational degrees and professional certification tests. Software Engineering. Bogost argues that software engineering does not follow the same principles as traditional engineering and should not use the term “engineer” in the job title. When software engineering was first developing in the 1960’s, it did exhibit more characteristics of traditional engineering as Bogost describes it. Physical infrastructure required for software development was put in place and software repairs were expensive, sometimes even requiring physical intervention. This meant that software engineers, like other engineers, had to carefully and methodologically write code to minimize the chance of having to fix and debug after implementation. However, as personal computers starting becoming more available, software development became more accessible to the public. Bogost believes that this made software engineering a more informal practice that had two consequences. First, it reduced the pressure to make correctly working software on the first attempt. Software engineering education now focuses on rapid iteration of writing and testing, then fixing later. Bogost compares this to civil engineering, stating the discipline would never have such a principle. Secondly, it has isolated the discipline from other fields including other engineering fields. While many computing systems still are interconnected with other fields in society, Bogost states platforms like social media only depend on software. This lack of cooperation with other fields goes against Bogost’s definition of traditional engineering. Current software engineers no longer need to worry about or even know about the digital and physical infrastructure behind software engineering and solely focus on the code. This can allow for code to be more reliable, but also creates a larger gap between the software engineers and other parts of engineering. However, Bogost also states that modern software engineering problems are becoming larger scale and more prominent in everyday life indicating its importance, high stakes, and consequent need to adhere to traditional engineering methods. Connotations. According to Bogost, the connotation of the word ‘engineer’ carries a prestige that comes from the skill of designing and maintaining complex, large scale systems. He believes that the use of the word in software engineering has “cheapened the term” and is being used to appeal to Silicon Valley investors to appear more prestigious and trustworthy. Bogost calls this concept “engineerwashing”. Certification. In engineering, it is usually a norm that workers are certified in their area to prove their expertise. Groups such as the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) and the American Society of Quality (ASQ) both provide certificates proving this. Bogost particularly focuses on what a Professional Engineer (PE) is, which is a certification given by the NSPE. He goes over topics such as why someone that is in engineering needs to have this certification. To acquire this certification, as stated by both Bogost and the NSPE, you are required to: Bogost also makes an addition by stating that not all engineers need a degree, however, to have the ability to open a consulting practice or claim that you are a formal engineer requires you to have one. This statement is also reiterated directly from the NSPE where they state that PEs are the only engineers allows to create public plans, teach engineering to students, and it has also been found that PEs also might a higher salary on average. This degree, as said by both, also holds an ethical standpoint. When a person takes on the role of a PE, this means that they are responsible for the lives they are responsible for what happens if something goes awry. So this certificate is a sign that they are responsible engineers that are here to uphold people and help support their profession of being engineers. Certification in Software. For software engineers, there exists certification but rarely are they a requirement. Groups like NCEES or the IEEE have collaborated to create a certification system for Software Engineers. In 2013, the first certification similar to a PE certification was being offered. There was a test for Software Engineers to complete and receive their certification in the field. Up until its discontinuation in 2019, it has been administered five times and has had a population of 81 candidates that have taken the exam. In January of 2018, the Committee of Examination Policy and Procedures recommended to NCEES to discontinue the exam. Next month, February 2018, NCEES accepted the EPP committee decision and decided that April 2019 would be the last exam administration. In April of 2018, only 19 people signed up to take the exam showing the lack of need for a certification of this kind in the Software Engineering field. Aside from certifications for Software engineers, there does exist other forms of certification to show mastery of programming languages or computer programming services (eg. CISCO or C++ Certifications). In particular, businesses like Amazon are offering Amazon Web Services (AWS) certification, and there are even businesses that particularly search for this particular trait. So while there is no requirement similar to Engineering in computer engineering, there exists some particular fields that people can show mastery over which may be worth applying for. Degree Requirements in Software. In terms of requirements for the vast majority of jobs, it's extremely common that a requirement for many entry level programming jobs. There are definitely holes in this statement as companies like Google and the U.S. Army offer jobs that actually do not require a CS degree. This, however, does not mean it is easy to get a job by hitting the minimum requirements. Job applicants then look for other requirements and are usually heavily focused on what they have done without formal teachings. It is definitely more difficult, but this whole idea is definitely a huge difference to the norm of engineering requirements. Digital Infrastructure. Nadia Eghbal's 2015 response to Ian Bogost, entitled "The Atlantic Was Wrong. Software Engineers Do Exist", provided a rebuttal to his points on why software developers are undeserving of the "engineer" title. Eghbal argues that true software engineers exist, but that they constitute a minority of programmers. Eghbal claims that the distinction between a true software engineer from just a "developer" or "programmer" is tied to what she calls "digital infrastructure," which she defines as "the layers upon layers of developer tools, languages, libraries and frameworks that make it so easy for “programmers” to code today." An example of digital infrastructure utilized by many modern software developers are integrated development environments (IDEs). IDEs are highly augmented source code editors that provide helpful features such as syntax highlighting, error-checking, debugging tools, and a host of other features that vary depending on their implementation. IDEs can take complicated processes such as compiling large programs into executable files ready to be ran on a typical computer, and hide that complexity behind the click of a single button. A popular IDE designed for the Python programming language called PyCharm, which is developed and maintained by the Czech company JetBrains, comes with "pre-installed intelligent Python assistance that provides a variety of functions like smart code completion, code inspections, on-the-fly error highlighting and quick-fixes, along with automated code refactorings and a plethora of navigation capabilities." Along with PyCharm, JetBrains also maintains IDEs that can be used to develop in over twelve other programming languages, extending their help to developers of diverse groups of technologies. The software employees at JetBrains are exactly the type that warrant the "engineer" title by Eghbal's definition, as the tools they have created assist millions of programmers worldwide in the software development process. While contributing to digital infrastructure may seem to place one in a class above the common programmer, those responsible for some of the most critical parts of modern day software infrastructure are not necessarily rewarded with much, other than the respect of those who recognize their contributions. A clear example of this is the development team for OpenSSL. OpenSSL is a secure network communication and cryptography library that’s used by two-thirds of web servers today. OpenSSL is used by banks, firewalls, weapons systems, smart phones, government agencies, and other organizations that deal with sensitive data. Despite its critical functionality, OpenSSL is maintained by a team of eleven volunteers, and brings in less than a million dollars in revenue a year. While the OpenSSL team might have earned the respect of their peers, and pride in their technology impacting billions of people, their situation shows that there is little incentive for new developers to take the path to earn the title of engineer. Conclusion. Despite software impacting the lives of nearly everyone in the world, software engineering is still an extremely young occupation that is constantly evolving. The immaturity of the profession in comparison to more traditional engineering disciplines has sparked debate around whether or not programmers deserve to be called engineers. However, the terminology used to refer to those who create and maintain software may be inconsequential, as it is the regulations and professional standards attached to the term "engineer" that impact public safety. The consistency of software that drives anything from long-standing institutions such as government and banking to modern phenomenon such as social media directly affects the quality of life of billions of people. Ensuring high standards for those entering or already within software-related occupations, whether that be through government regulation, educational certification, or a shift in public opinion, stands at the center of software engineering's future.
415517	49843	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=415517	Professionalism/William McNeilly and Trident	The Secret Nuclear Threat. Trident Nuclear Program. The is the United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent, covering the development and acquisition of nuclear weapons in the UK, and their methods of operation. The program was officially announced in July 1980, and patrols began in December 1994. Trident consists of four , armed with , which can deliver thermonuclear warheads from . The program is based at , with at least one submarine on patrol at any time, providing constant at-sea capability. Trident replaced , the UK's first submarine-based nuclear weapon system, and it is the UK's only nuclear weapon system since the free-fall tactical bombs were decommissioned in 1998. According to the , Trident's purpose is to "deter the most extreme threats to our national security and way of life, which cannot be done by other means." William McNeilly. William McNeilly is a former , who served as an Engineering Technician Submariner for the Trident Strategic Weapons System. He was stationed onboard the , one of the four Trident submarines, where he raised concerns about security and safety through the chain of command. After no attempts at change were made, McNeilly blew the whistle by publishing “The Secret Nuclear Threat”, an 18-page online report alleging many “serious security and safety breaches” of the Trident program and Faslane. He then went into hiding, but shortly broke cover with a long Facebook statement, through which he claimed to have been on the run for days, moving between countries and using multiple aliases. His post stated that he lacked “the resources to remain undetected”, and was prepared to turn himself in. McNeilly turned himself into the . "The Secret Nuclear Threat": McNeilly's Claims. McNeilly’s report claims numerous deficiencies and faults of the Trident submarines and Clyde Naval Base. A large focus of the report was the many security lapses of the program. McNeilly explains that security guards at checkpoints to controlled areas of the base often barely look at security passes or fail to check them at all. Equipment is rarely searched, despite hundreds of contractors accessing the boats. He describes a complete lack of concern for Top Secret information, with sensitive folders and laptops often laying around where anyone can look at them. There is no enforcement of the ban on personal electronics with cameras. Safety faults on the submarines comprise another large portion of McNeilly’s report. McNeilly explains that missile safety alarms are often muted or ignored out of negligence or apathy. Fires on the submarines are frequent, and McNeilly enumerates many of the fire hazards rampant on board. The crew often only loosely follows or ignores proper procedures for scenarios and equipment use. In addition, many of the safety bans on items such as e-cigarettes are completely unenforced. McNeilly claims that a lot of the equipment on-board the submarines is faulty or in bad condition. He details issues that have arisen with many components, including the main hydraulic plant, distillers, fore-planes, generators, and speaker systems. Final tests are done at the end of each patrol to determine whether the weapons system could have performed a successful launch during the patrol. McNeilly claims that a missile compensation test failed all three of the times for which he was present. A Battle Readiness Test had to be canceled due to the main hydraulic plant containing mostly seawater instead of hydraulic oil. McNeilly claims that there was a “massive cover-up” of an incident in which the collided with a French nuclear submarine. Those present were allegedly threatened with prison sentences if they told anybody about the collision. McNeilly also states that the Strategic Weapons System department is very short on man-power, to the extent that “people are getting pushed through at an alarming rate.” He worries that, with the number of people pushed through, “it's just a matter of time before we're infiltrated by a psychopath or a terrorist.” He recounts instances of crewmates showing worrying behavior that calls their psychological stability into question. Outcome and Participant Responses. Arrested & Taken into Custody. After posting on Facebook that he lacked the necessary resources to remain on the run and that he planned to turn himself over to authorities, McNeilly was apprehended at the on the night of June 18, 2015. Following his arrest, he was detained in a military establishment in Scotland. Confident that the released report would lead to his arrest, McNeilly states, “After working my ass off, putting my life on the line and sacrificing pretty much all I had to warn you and government. I’ll be awarded with free meals and free accommodation, in prison … There is a small chance of a pardon or a shortened sentence”. However, whether from fear of increased media coverage or public pushback, the final verdict that was settled on was dishonorable discharge later that month. With this result, McNeilly’s career in the military was ended. In response, McNeilly is confused that “All of the charges against me were dropped; there’s nothing that I can be charged with now. Most people know that I acted in the interest of national security. However, I was still given a dishonorable discharge from the Royal Navy.” Response from Government. In general, the response from the Royal Navy aimed to downplay the concerns brought to light by McNeilly’s online report while assuring the public that the Trident was completely safe. As put by one Royal Navy spokesperson in an interview, “The Royal Navy disagrees with McNeilly’s subjective and unsubstantiated personal views but we take the operation of our submarines and the safety of our personnel extremely seriously and so continue to fully investigate the circumstances of this issue.” They also tend to claim that his views were subjective and wrong, as well as emphasizing that the Navy would never operate “submarines do not go to to sea unless they are completely safe to do so.” However, other members of the government found this potential safety issue to be concerning. Brendan O’Hara, the Scottish National Party MP for Argyll and Bute, worries about the impact these security issues could have on the area he governs. In an interview, he said that his position “As an SNP MP implacably opposed to Trident but also as the local MP, I am extremely worried by these allegations, even if only half of what the report claims is true. The issue of safety is absolutely paramount, especially when the base is so close to a major centre of population.” Response from Government. A variety of different activist groups pushed back against the dishonorable discharge of William McNeilly from the Royal Navy for his whistleblower report. One such group, Wise Up Action, believes that posting the report was the only way to make sure the public was aware of the imminent nuclear risk. They believe that the Trident is not the answer, stating, “Peace can no longer be maintained by [the fear of] nuclear weapons… It’s time to end this...fear, and create a new world order through peace and unity.” In addition, certain former members of the Royal Navy spoke out in defense of McNeilly’s decision and the concerns he brought to light. Euan Bryson, former British Navy communications and information technology specialist, offered his support for McNeilly’s belief in the Navy’s relaxed security by retelling a story of his mate using a blue bank card to get into the base after losing his ID. In Bryson’s experience, security and safety were very not up to par. “I made my thoughts clear when I served, including when I handed in my resignation notice. The chain of command system has failed. If McNeilly felt ignored what other option did he have?” Beyond the Trident Program. HMNB Clyde Background. is located on the Gare Loch in Scotland. It is commonly referred to as Faslane. Clyde is the naval base headquarters home to the Royal Navy’s nuclear deterrent submarines armed with . It is one of three operating naval bases in the United Kingdom. HMNB Clyde History. Faslane was built and used as a base during . In the 1960s, the British Government acquired the from the United States and used it on four British submarines: the HMS Resolution, HMS Repulse, HMS Renown, and HMS Revenge. Faslane was chosen as a permanent base for these submarines during the due to its prime geographical location. Safety and Security Accidents at HMDB Clyde. is a test of all emergency response routines to a possible nuclear weapon accident at Faslane. In 2011 this test failed; not all responses were adequately demonstrated. In 2013, there were 99 radiation accidents with 6 nuclear weapons on site. There was said to be no harm or risk to the public, however, this was not proven true. maintained the position that the number of recent accidents was entirely misleading as they included “very minor issues such as the failure to fill out the correct form.” Trident Opposition. , , and all oppose the use of nuclear weapons. In 2014, the Scottish National Party lost a vote to become independent from the United Kingdom. The independent Scottish Nation would be a nuclear-free zone. If liberated, the citizens would have demanded the removal of the Trident nuclear missiles within the period of the next election. created a petition to pardon McNeilly when he was unjustly removed from service without honors. The result of this petition is unknown. Trident Renewal and Next Generation Submarines. have a life expectancy through the early 2020s. The Trident missiles were said to take the British Navy through the early 2040s. In December 2006, the Ministry of Defense released a white paper titled “The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent”, which outlined their support to maintain the current nuclear program with a new class of submarines. On December 4, 2006, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom decided to renew the Trident program believing that even though the Cold War had ended the United Kingdom needed to maintain its global nuclear position. On March 14, 2007, the Labour Government won the vote in the House of Commons in support of the plans for a new submarine class. In 2015, the United Kingdom released polls to acquire data on public opinion of the British Navy nuclear position and plans for a new submarine class. A majority of United Kingdom citizens believed that the submarines outfitted with Trident nuclear weapons should be upgraded and replaced, while a majority of Scottish citizens believed that they should be decommissioned. On July 18, 2016, the House of Commons voted that the United Kingdom should proceed with the construction of the next generation of submarines, the . The Message. McNeilly Calling for Change. In McNeilly’s dossier, he presented many threats he believed would put the British Navy and world at risk. Each was reported in extreme detail, presenting the event, response, and consequences. McNeilly’s aim was to paint an accurate picture of what he experienced and break down the false images of the British Navy. The carelessness of personnel in charge and nonfunctional submarine technology is setting the British Navy up for failure. McNeilly believed that nuclear weapons have served their purpose in history, they have brought order to the world, however, order is no longer what the world needs. The dossier encouraged the British Navy to recognize how their personnel and nuclear weapons are no longer serving their purpose. He urged the British navy to focus on the real threat at hand, the threat of . If procedural changes to increase safety and security are not made the British Navy will become a target for attack. Ethical Considerations. This case brings to question, when is it an individual's responsibility to take a matter such as McNeilly’s, defy their workplace chain of command, and do so for the sake of a higher purpose. McNeilly gave up his career and his freedom, he chose to risk everything to inform the Government and the people of the threat to global safety and security that he observed. Most agree that professionals, or armed forces officials, must sometimes make such judgments based on experience and expertise that equip them to do so responsibly. Fewer agree that someone in McNeilly’s position, with his lacking experience and expertise, is in a position to make such strong judgments. In this case, McNeilly’s judgments not only had the potential to impact the British Navy but the British political climate as well. Scotland used this as an opportunity to once again make its voice heard and threaten secession. The British nuclear program faltered as many questioned its role and necessity in future international policy. This case demonstrates how the actions of one whistleblower can develop beyond their control and affect international policy and relations.
303290	3066054	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303290	HKDSE Geography/M5/Farming Inputs in Southern California	Weather and Climate. Southern California has a Mediterranean climate characterised by hot and dry summers (Apr -> Oct) and warm, humid winters (Nov -> Mar). Insolation and Temperature. Insolation and temperature are high in Southern California. Southern California receives an annual temperature of 12 to 32 degrees. It is hot in summer and warm in winter. This is both because it is located in mid-latitudes with high solar radiation input, and because the lack of cloud cover allows insolation to reach the ground directly without much scattering in the atmosphere. Rainfall. Southern California receives scanty and unstable rainfall. The annual rainfall is around 200 to 500 mm. It mainly falls in winter. Annual variation of rainfall is great. Rainfall decreases from north to south, and from east to west： Land. Relief. The relief of Southern California is hilly, with the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges. However, extensive lowland can be found in the Central and Imperial Valleys, where much of the farming is concentrated. Soil. The evaporation rate is very high, so soil moisture is low. Salinisation occurs: As there is little vegetation cover in Southern California, the soil fertility is low. Drainage. It is mainly drained by the San Joaquin River in the Central Valley and the Colorado River in the Imperial Valley.
303291	153973	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303291	HKDSE Geography/E1/Geological Hazards	Geological hazards include landslides, mudflows, earthflows, avalanches. Landslides are discussed here. The two worst landslides in Hong Kong are the Sau Mau Ping landslide (71 killed) and the Po Shan landslide (67 killed). Distrubution. Landslides exhibit clear temporal and spatial distribution. Temporal. Landslides concentrate in summer. About 78% of Hong Kong's rainfall falls in summer. Wet southeasterly monsoons and typhoons bring rainstorms from the ocean. (See E2) Spatial. Landslides occur more often on granite slopes than tuff slopes. Granite slopes have lower resistance. They are more prone to weathering, so they are disintegrated into smaller fragments and particles. The internal cohesion of the slope materials is weaker. Also, more granite slopes have gone through human development than tuff slopes. For example, the two sides of Victoria Harbour, an exposed granite batholith, has gone through the most urban development. This leads to more landslides, discussed on the next page.
303295	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303295	Pinyin/Arctic Ocean	"See also" The Arctic Ocean is the ocean around the North Pole. shih weiraoh Beeijir d haaiyarng. The most northern parts of Eurasia and North America are around the Arctic Ocean. Eurasia her Beei Meeizhou zuih beeibuh weir'zhe Beeibing Yarng. Thick ice and snow cover almost all of this ocean in winter, and most of it in summer. houh d bing-xuee zaih dongtian jihu fuhgaih zheenggeh Beeibing Yarng, xiahtian yee fuhgaih dahbuhfehn. An icebreaker or a nuclear-powered submarine can use the Arctic Ocean to go between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. pohbing-chuarn huoh her-qiarntiing nerng tongguoh Beeibing Yarng lairwaang Taipirng Yarng her Dahxi Yarng.
303314	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303314	Pinyin/Pacific Ocean	"Search" Pacific "Search" ocean The Pacific Ocean borders Asia and Oceania to the west, the Americas to the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It is the largest ocean and it covers 1/3 of the surface of the Earth. xibuh yuu Yahzhou her Dahyarng Zhou, dongbuh yuu Meeizhou, narnbuh yuu Narnbing Yarng, beeibuh yuu Beeibing Yarng xiangliarn; shih zuih dah d haaiyarng, zhahn Dihqiur biaaomiahn d 1/3.
303327	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303327	Pinyin/Atlantic Ocean	"Search" Atlantic "Search" ocean The Atlantic Ocean borders the Americas and the Pacific Ocean to the west; Europe, Africa and the Indian Ocean to the east; the Arctic Ocean to the north; and the Southern Ocean to the south. xibuh yuu Meeizhou her Taihpirng Yarng; dongbuh yuu Ouzhou, Feizhou her India Yarng; Beeibuh yuu Beeibing Yarng; narnbuh yuu Narnbing Yarng xiangliarn. The Atlantic Ocean is the world's second largest ocean after the Pacific Ocean. Dahxi Yarng zaih Taihpirng Yarng houh shih shihjieh dih-2 dah haaiyarng. With an area of about 106,400,000 km2, it covers about 20% of the Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface. miahnji 1'0640'0000km2, zhahn Dihqiur biaaomiahn yue 20%, shuiimiahn yue 29%.
303328	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303328	Pinyin/Indian Ocean	"Search" Pinyin Indian "Search" Pinyin Indian Ocean "Search" Pinyin ocean The Indian Ocean is surrounded by Asia to the north, Oceania and the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and Africa and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. India Yarng beeibuh beih Yahzhou, dongbuh beih Dahyarng Zhou her Taihpirng Yarng, narnbuh beih Narnbing Yarng, xibuh beih Feizhou her Dahxi Yarng baoweir. The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean of the world, its area is 73,556,000km², covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. India Yarng shih shihjieh di-3 dah haaiyarng, miahnji 7355'6000km², zhahn Dihqiur shuiimiahn yue 20%.
303329	4032336	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303329	HKDSE Geography/E1/Causes of Landslides	Strength Factors. Rainfall. Rainfall is the immediate and direct cause of landslides. Persistent rainfall exceeding 70mm/hr has a high chance leading to landslide Water acts as a lubricant. When a large amount rainwater seeps into soil, the soil's pore water pressure increases. The friction and internal cohesion of slope materials reduce. This reduces the strength of slopes and destabilises slopes. The Landslide Potential Index measures the capability of a rainstorm to produce landslides. It is devised by the CEDD and tells the relative severity of the rainstorm in relation to the rainstorm in the past 20 years. The highest index recorded is the 2008 one, with the Cafeteria Old Beach landslide. The rainstorm causing the Kwun Lung Lau Landslide had an LPI of 10. (Source) Geology. Granite and coarse-grained volcanic rocks are vulnerable to weathering in a hot, wet climate like Hong Kong's. Feldspar is weathered chemically into clay. Quartz is resistant to chemical weathering, but is loosened. Joints, like those in granite, allow water to infiltrate and weather the rock to a great depth. Rapid chemical weathering creates a thick soil profile on slopes. (Refer to spheroidal weathering) Vegetation Cover. Vegetation cover reduces surface runoff during heavy rainstorms. Plant roots bind soil particles together. However, plants also release organic acids which worsen soil cohesion Frequent hill fires destroy the vegetation cover, leaving slopes unprotected. Construction. During development, concrete is used to cover the slope. Concrete is impermeable, so infiltration decreases in that area. The landslide risk is reduced. However, the overland flow will increase. Infiltration will increase downslope. Water acts as a lubricant. When a large amount rainwater seeps into soil, the soil's pore water pressure increases. The friction and internal cohesion of slope materials reduce. This reduces the strength of slopes and destabilises the slopes. There are around 57000 slopes of significant size in Hong Kong, of which a third of them are private property. (Source) Cultivation. Unauthorised cultivation threatens slope stability. When people cut into slopes for cultivation without applying stabilisation measures, the internal cohesion of slope materials may reduce. The cohesion is further weakened by ploughing. Moreover, the removal of vegetation induces heavy rainsplash, so soil erosion is serious. The internal cohesion of slope materials is further compromised. Poor Drainage. Both surface and subsurface drainage can drain away water during rainstorms. Poor management of the drainage system will increase the amount of infiltration. Water acts as a lubricant. When a large amount rainwater seeps into soil, the soil's pore water pressure increases. The friction and internal cohesion of slope materials reduce. This reduces the strength of slopes and destabilises the slopes. After a persistent 48-hour rain, a drainage pipe leaked. The water table rose rapidly. Water acted as a lubricant. When a large amount rainwater seeped into soil, the soil's pore water pressure increased. The friction and internal cohesion of slope materials reduced. Eventually, the weak protective masonry wall failed. The slope collapsed and killed five pedestrians. Stress Factors. Slope Gradient. Slopes with steeper gradients are more vulnerable to landslides. This is because gravity has a greater influence on the slope, increasing the sliding force. In Hong Kong, the general topography favours landslides since a lot of slopes have gradients >26°, which means they have a high risk of landslides. Cut Slopes. Cutting and filling slopes increases slope gradient, sometimes increasing it to 45°. This greatly increases stress. Loose Materials and Large Trees. Unstable materials like large boulders add to the stress of the slope. Very large trees may have the same effect. They worsen the landslide risk.
303330	49843	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303330	HKDSE Geography/E1/Solutions to Landslides	The Geotechnical Engineering Office of the Civil Engineering and Development Department is responsible for slope protection in Hong Kong. On Natural Slopes. Blocking and Diversion of Debris. These include Effectiveness: These measures may not work if the barriers are too weak to hold the debris, or if the amount of slope materials that collapsed is too much for these measures to handle. Drainage. Drainage system drains away water so as to decrease infiltration. The pore water pressure will not increase as quickly during a landslide, maintaining strength. Effectiveness: An efficient drainage system can reduce infiltration and thus the landslide risk. However, a faulty drainage system can worsen matters, such as the leaked pipe at Kwun Lung Lau. Land Use Planning. The GEO has records of all landslide sites. Land use planning is carried out. Areas with great landslide risk may apply appropriate stabilisation measures. Some slopes may be evacuated because the slope is very unstable and the cost of stabilisation is too high. For example, some isolated dwellings at the foot of Queen's Hill were evacuated. (Source) The Landslide Risk Assessment Framework evaluates the potential danger of landslides for development projects. On Man-Made Slopes. Slope Maintenance. Ensuring that the appropriate persons maintain slopes avoids unnecessary deaths. Regular Checking. On very dangerous slopes, they have instruments monitoring water pressure and ground water level. This way, in the event of high landslide risk, the area can be evacuated on time. Qualified geotechnical engineers carry out engineer inspections at least once every five years, and may issue warnings if slopes are found to be unstable. Slope Strengthening. By altering the landscape: By geotechnical means: Effectiveness note: Others. Warnings. The Landslip Warning System is jointly operated by the GEO and the HKO. They provide instant announcements of the warnings and take precautionary measures. Education. The public are educated about: It has the added benefit of creating support in the community. This is done in several ways: Exhibitions, talks in public schools, talks for the general public, incorporating slope protection into the Dynamic Earth module of the geography syllabus, preparing education toolkits, leaflets, booklets, handbooks, constructing the Hong Kong Slope Safety website, online courses Advisory. The GEO also has a 24-hour service for government departments to seek advice after landslides. There is also a free advisory service for private slope maintenance.
303332	3395618	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303332	HKDSE Geography/M3/Industrial Agglomeration, Industrial Inertia and Footloose Industries	The Least Cost Theory. The Least Cost Theory states that a firm will locate in an area where the labour and raw materials are cheapest. However, it makes many assumptions. In particular: A maximiser has perfect knowledge about costs, and will located in the least-cost area. A satisficer, by contrast, is satisfied with the profits made even if it is below the maximum. Industrial Agglomeration. Industrial agglomeration refers to the clustering of a large number of firms in a related area. Agglomeration economies. Agglomeration economies are the economic benefits brought by agglomeration: All of the above can cut production costs and increase productivity. Agglomeration diseconomies. However, there are also disadvantages: Industrial Inertia. Sometimes, even though the original locational advantage of locating a plant in an area is gone, the plant still decides to stay in that area. There are many reasons to explain this: Pull factors of the old site: Push factors of the new site: The personal preference of the owner is also significant, especially for small-scale firms employing single-point production. Sometimes, government policy also discourages moving away as this will lead to unemployment. Footloose Industries. A footloose industry is one that can be located in most places because locational factors are not very important.
303351	3169431	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303351	Haskell/Libraries/Solutions/IO	module Main where import System.IO import Control.Exception main = doLoop doLoop = do putStrLn "Do you want to [read] a file, [write] a file, or [quit]?" command <- getLine if command == "quit" then return else if command == "read" \|\| command == "write" then do putStrLn ("Enter a file name to " ++ command) filename <- getLine if command == "read" then do doRead filename doLoop else do doWrite filename doLoop else doLoop doRead filename = do bracket (openFile filename ReadMode) hClose (\h -> do contents <- hGetContents h putStrLn contents) doWriteChars handle = do char <- getChar if not (char == '.') then do hPutChar handle char doWriteChars handle else return doWrite filename = do bracket (openFile filename WriteMode) hClose (\h -> doWriteChars h)
303361	98013	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303361	World Stamp Catalogue/Sports	English. Please see some images of postage stamps dedicated to sports, in the . Russian. См. изображения некоторых почтовых марок, посвящённых спортивной тематике, в . Эта филателистическая тема более детально описана в статье Спорт в филателии.
303363	46022	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303363	World Stamp Catalogue/Soviet Union/1966	Here complete descriptions of 1966 USSR stamps are given. Здесь приведены полные описания почтовых марок СССР 1966 года. * You can also see standard images of 1966 USSR stamps on Wikimedia commons: * Типовые изображения почтовых марок СССР 1966 года можно также посмотреть на Викискладе: * <br> Attention! The stamps are sorted by CPA (Central Philatelic Agency) catalog numbers, not by dates of their issue! Внимание! Марки отсортированы по номерам каталога ЦФА, а не по дате выпуска! The names of stamps and stamp series are made according to all used 7 catalogues. Названия марок и серий марок составлены по всем используемым 7 каталогам. Names of articles of Wikipedia are whenever possible used in names of stamps and series. В названия марок и серий по возможности использованы названия статей Википедии. Full descriptions / Полные описания. Size of images / Размер картинок: size = 0-50 mm → 4·size px size = 50-100 mm → 3·size + 50 px size = 100-150 mm → 2·size + 150 px size = 150-200 mm → size + 300 px size ≥ 200 mm → 500 px 1 CPA # 3304-3305 (2) Bicentenary of Dmitrov Porcelain Factory. Full design (Полное оформление). 2 CPA # 3306-3310 (5) International Scientific Congresses to Be Held in USSR. Full design (Полное оформление). Short descriptions / Краткие описания. C - Commemorative stamp (Коммеморативная марка) Size of images / Размер картинок: size = 0-50 mm → 2·size px size = 50-150 mm → size + 50 px size ≥ 150 mm → 200 px Sources / Источники.
303365	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303365	Pinyin/Nile River	"See also" The Nile is a river in Africa. It is the longest river on Earth, about 6,650km, and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Many different kinds of animals live in or near the waters of the Nile, including crocodiles, birds, fish and many others. People use the river water for everyday use, watering crops and other jobs. Nile Her shih Feizhou herliur, shihjieh zuih charng, yue 6650km, liurruh Dihzhong Haai. heenduo butorng zhoongleih d dohngwuh shenghuor zaih Nile Her liuryuh, yoou ehyur, niaao, yur, deeng. rern'men yohng hershuii zuoh rihcharng shenghuor, guahngaih her qirta yohngtur.
303386	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303386	Pinyin/Green bean	"Search" Pinyin green bean "Search" Pinyin bean A green bean is a vegetable. Green beans are sold fresh, frozen or canned. qingdouh shih 1-zhoong shucaih, shihchaang yoou xinxian, leengdohng huoh guahnzhuang chushouh. Green beans are cooked by steaming, boiling, stir frying, deep frying, or in casseroles. In the United States, they are sometimes served in casserole with mushrooms, onions and cream. In Chinese cuisine, they are often stir-fried with garlic and douchi (fermented black soybeans). In Japanese cuisine, they are served as tempura. qingdouh d zhuufaa yoou zheng, zhuu, chaao, zhar huoh mehn. Meeiguor-caih yoou "morgu yarngcong naaiyour mehn qingdouh"; Zhongguor-caih yoou "suahntour douhchii chaao qingdouh"; Rihbeen-caih yoou qingdouh tempura. Green beans contain lectins. That makes them harmful if a person eats too many raw or improperly cooked ones. qingdouh harnyoou lectins, chi taih duo sheng d huoh bu shurtouh d qingdouh huih zhohngdur.
303387	1176064	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303387	Baseball/Pitcher	Pitchers are by far the most critical players on defense. They are so important on defense that their ability to hit a pitched ball is trivial. When a pitcher falters or tires he is often replaced with a relief pitcher. Pitchers get credit for winning or losing games. A statistic known as earned-run (ERA) average measures the effectiveness of a pitcher, a low ERA generally indicates a good pitcher and a high one indicates a poor one. The pitcher's position in scoring is designated with the number "1" Pitching. The pitcher spends most of the time when his team is on the field in nearly the center of the infield. He can throw left-handed or right-handed (but he is not allowed to go from pitching left-handed to right-handed or vice versa during the game) and he can throw overhand (the vast majority of pitchers so do), side-arm, or underhand. Getting outs. A pitcher gets most of his success by inducing outs from batters that he confronts. The outs can result from a strikeout that results from the pitcher getting the batter getting three strikes or hitting a ball so that the batted ball leads to an out (fly balls and line drives caught before landing, ground balls typically to infielders who throw the ball to another base to put out a base runner (usually the batter who must reach first base lest he make an out). If he induces three outs before any runs score, then he has done a good job in that inning. A pitcher throws a baseball toward the plate, and with that the action usually begins in baseball. The pitcher ordinarily throws the ball toward home plate, where the batter tries either to hit the ball or 'take' a pitch. The batter must swing at a pitched ball that goes through any part of the strike zone lest he get a called strike which may contribute to a strikeout, but if the batter swings and misses at a pitched ball whether it is in or out of the strike zone, then such results in a strike that can also contribute to a strikeout. The strikeout is ordinarily the least troublesome (but not always the best) result for a pitcher. The batter is out without effectively hitting the ball (except for the rare and unlikely situation in which the batter takes a called third strike or swings and misses but reaches first base when the catcher fails to catch the ball and cannot throw to first base to put out the batter at first base). Pitchers can also get outs (successes against a batter) by inducing the batter to hit a ball so that it either Failure of a pitcher to get an out typically comes from one of four causes: Pitchers choose the pitches that they use in an effort to confuse a batter typically to induce an out. Such will usually be done with some understanding of the ability of the hitter. Rules of pitching. The pitcher must not commit a balk while pitching. The pitcher must have contact with the 'rubber' on the pitcher's mound. The rules against the balk practically define how a pitcher can pitch. With any runners on base -- any base -- a pitcher commits a balk if he: Any balk with a runner on base allows each runner to advance one base, including home plate for a runner at third base as the pitcher starts to throw his pitch. Balks are comparatively rare, but they can cause a run to score even ending a game. Pitchers are never allowed to make deliberate throws at the head or neck of the batter. Umpires have discretion in determining whether a pitcher has deliberately thrown at a batter. In the most flagrant cases an umpire can eject a pitcher for throwing a pitch intended to cause injury to the batter. Accidents happen, and umpires are expected to interpret not-so-deliberate throws as non-violations. Tampering with the baseball. A pitcher is never allowed to alter a ball in any way by rubbing it against anything (including his clothing and flesh, emery boards, sharp objects) or applying any foreign substance including his own saliva or perspiration which creates a "spitball" that travels erratically. A pitcher caught tampering with the ball will be ejected from the game. At the discretion of the umpire (typically during cold conditions), umpires will allow pitchers to blow onto their hands so that they can keep their hands nimble enough to pitch effectively. Pitch types. Pitchers have a variety of pitches available, depending on how they are tossed. A variety of pitches are thrown, and few pitchers are able to use them all effectively. Pitches are known either by their movement (sliders, sinkers, and curves) or by the way they are thrown (screwballs, knuckleballs, and forkballs), or for their speed (fastballs). Pitchers usually vary pitches so that batters can be uncomfortable swinging at the ball. Any pitch can be hit hard and far, usually with a bad result. But some are extremely difficult to hit, especially knuckleballs (which few pitchers throw, but the few who throw them often have long careers) and very fast fastballs. Some pitches are easily kept in the strike zone so that they will have to be hit to not be strikes; some are more difficult to keep in the strike zone so that if the batter refuses to swing at them he gets a ball. Three strikes (the last either a called or swinging third strike or a foul bunt with two strikes) gets a strikeout, usually the favored out. Four balls, in contrast, allow a batter to reach first base. A pitcher typically tries to avoid hitting the batter with a pitch, which allows the batter to reach first base safely as a hit batsman. A spitball, an illegal pitch, is infamously difficult to hit but also difficult to get away with over a career. The easiest pitches to hit are the pitches hard to define -- the 'hanging curve' that does not dip, the slider that does not slide, the sinkerball that does not sink, or a fastball that isn't unusually fast. Pitchers try to avoid throwing such pitches which become many of the hard-hit fly balls and line drives that allow doubles, triples, and home runs. Attempting to prevent baserunner advances (stolen bases, wild pitches, passed balls). A pitcher must try to avoid making a wild pitch if runners are on base. Such a pitch goes past the catcher and gives one or more base runners a chance to advance a base. A passed ball or stolen base often results from a pitcher either throwing a pitch far out of the strike zone that the catcher cannot catch or a pitch for which the catcher cannot prepare (such as a low and inside pitch when the catcher expects one high and outside). A pitcher has some responsibility for deterring the stolen base. To thwart the stolen base a pitcher can pitch efficiently, not giving the base runner an edge in an effort to steal the next pitch. Typically he pitches so that the pitched ball gets quickly to the catcher who can then make a throw to the base that the base runner is attempting to steal. Of course the pitcher can put a greater effort into inducing an out that might make a stolen base irrelevant. He can throw to an occupied base or to one to which a runner is running. Fielding. Once the ball is hit, the pitcher is for all practical purposes another infielder. He can catch fair or foul flies (although he usually defers the catch to other infielders or the catcher), and he can retrieve ground balls that he can then throw to bases in efforts to put out base runners. He can usually reach first base before a batter running to first base. On a ball hit to the right side of the infield, a pitcher is usually expected to run to first base, especially if the batter causes the first baseman to go far from first base in an effort to retrieve a ground ball in the knowledge that he must throw to another fielder. In the event of a rundown play he can throw a ball and tag a runner. On what could otherwise be a wild pitch or passed ball he may run to home plate in an effort to retrieve a ball bouncing back or thrown by the catcher to tag a base runner attempting to score. 90% of the game? It is an old saying that pitching is 90% of the game. Such a claim is terribly imprecise. Runs scored and runs prevented are equally important; offense is just as important as defense. Pitchers are 'only' about 40% of the 25-man roster. At the low end, teams may have eight pitchers active at one time and at the high end, teams may have eleven. Pitchers are not 90% of the trade value of a team; teams have traded two starting pitchers for one regular position player. The best pitchers do not win 90% of the games that they pitch. No pitcher consistently gets 90% of all batters facing him to make outs. Most likely, pitching is 90% of the choices on defense. Teams can win or lose because the manager removes a pitcher too late, and a pitcher can win or lose a game in a critical situation through a bad selection of pitches. Teams generally don't get a chance to change a batter's swing during a game.
303393	1671951	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303393	Usability for Nerds/Self-explaining interfaces	Self-explaining user interfaces are preferred if they can be implemented without too much complication. A drop-down menu is a good example of a self-explaining interface. A bad example is a desktop shortcut in Microsoft Windows 7. This square, which just looks like an empty space, is actually a shortcut that you can click on to view the desktop. It is not obvious that this little square actually has a function - or what that function might be. A user looking for a shortcut to the desktop is very unlikely to find it. An icon or pictogram is intended to be self-explaining, and it works well if it is easy to understand or the meaning is generally known. But an icon or pictogram is useless if incomprehensible or easily misunderstood. This pictogram means "Remember", but it may be misinterpreted to mean "Emergency room". This icon, named "Control Center 3", opens the software for controlling a scanner. This is not obvious to the user. While a self-explaining button or icon can be useful, it should not be so conspicuous as to be disturbing or importunate.
303400	3169431	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303400	Python Programming/CGI interface	The (CGI) allows to execute some Python programs on an HTTP server. Installation. By default, open a .py file in HTTP returns its content. In order to make the server compile and execute the source code, it must be placed in a directory including an ".htaccess" file, with the lines: AddHandler cgi-script .py Options +ExecCGI Attention: on the Unix-like servers the files aren't executable by default, so this must be set with the command: "chmod +x *.py". Examples. The module <code>cgitb</code> is used for debugging: print "Content-type: text/html; charset=utf-8\n\n" print "<html><head><title>Local directory</title></head><body>" import cgitb cgitb.enable import os print "The CGI file is located into:" print os.path.dirname(__file__) print "</body></html>" The usage of a form needs an <code>import cgi</code>. For a MySQL database, its <code>import MySQLdb</code>. The following file is called "CGI_MySQL.py", and uses the both modules: print "Content-type: text/html; charset=utf-8\n\n" print "<html><head><title>DB CGI</title></head><body>" print "<h1>MySQL extraction</h1>" print "<ul>" import cgitb cgitb.enable import cgi, MySQLdb form = cgi.FieldStorage if form.getvalue('name') == None: print "<h2>Research a name</h2>" print <form action="CGI_MySQL.py" method="post"> <input type="text" name="name" /> <input type="submit"></form> else: print "<h2>Result</h2>" print "List for " + form.getvalue('name') + " :" connection = MySQLdb.connect(user='login1', passwd='passwd1', db='base1') cursor = connection.cursor cursor.execute("SELECT page_title FROM page WHERE name ='"+form.getvalue('name')+"'") for row in cursor.fetchall: print "<li>%s</li>" % row[0] connection.close print "</ul>" print "</body></html>"
303401	3169431	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303401	Apache/.htaccess	Principle. In order to protect a directory in particular (and its subdirectories), it suffices to place a file called <code>.htaccess</code> inside. Apache will instantly apply its rules after, only in this tree structure. The syntax is the same as the general vhost rules (eg: URL rewriting or protection), unless it will only affect the .htaccess directory (so no <code>Directory</code> clause). Attention: the Windows explorer doesn't allow to name some files beginning by a dot, but a text editor is able to save as ".htaccess". Installation. To authorize the .htaccess in the site .conf, use <code>AllowOverride</code>: AllowOverride All To forbid them: AllowOverride None
303402	3226541	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303402	Apache/CGI	CGI scripts. The CGI is a norm permitting Apache to execute some programs, which can be written in any programming language (Bash, C, Java, Perl, PHP, Python...), from the moment it's executable and it respects certain in/out constraints. Configure the CGI scripts access. To make Apache interpret the scripts, it's necessary to do a minimum of settings in the site configuration. ScriptAlias. The directive (from "httpd.conf"): ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "/scripts path/" precise the folder name where Apache is authorized to executer the CGI scripts. Unix example: ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ /var/www/cgi-bin Windows example, use the URL format (no backslash): ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "C:/wamp/bin/apache/apache2.2.27/cgi-bin/" Actually the path <code>/cgi-bin/</code> doesn't really exist, it's redirected to the scripts path, set by the directive, and it allows to write some URL like <code>http://server/cgi-bin/my_script</code>. ExecCGI. The following clause activates the option <code>ExecCGI</code> in <code>/var/www/cgi-bin</code>, which authorize Apache to execute some scripts on the server: <Directory /var/www/cgi-bin> Options ExecCGI </Directory> For example, if a script is called <code>essai.cgi</code> into <code>/home/httpd/cgi-bin</code>: <Directory /home/httpd/cgi-bin> Options ExecCGI </Directory> Then, call the URL: <code>http://serveur/cgi-bin/essai.cgi</code> AddHandler. This clause permits to choose the files extensions which will be authorized, eg: AddHandler cgi-script .cgi .exe .pl .py .vbs Recapitulation. Full example on Windows, in the Apache configuration: ScriptAlias /cgi-bin/ "E:/www/cgi-bin/" <Directory "E:/www/cgi-bin/"> Options FollowSymLinks Indexes AllowOverride All Order deny,allow Allow from all Require all granted </Directory> In <code>E:/www/cgi-bin/.htaccess</code> : AddHandler cgi-script .cgi .exe .pl .py .vbs Write a CGI program. The main constraint concerns the program outputs. If a CGI script generates some data on its standard output, he must display an HTTP header before, allowing to identify them. Bash. echo "Content-type: text/html" echo "" echo "<html><body>Hello World!</body></html>" This script generates an HTML page. Perl. use CGI; my $query = new CGI; my $Name = $query->param('Name'); print $query->header; print "Hello World!" Python. print "Content-Type: text/plain;charset=utf-8" print print "Hello World!" VBS. For Windows. '!c:/windows/system32/cscript //nologo Wscript.Echo "Content-type: text/html" & vbLF & vbLF WScript.Echo "Hello World!" Wscript.Quit 0 Known errors. or # setsebool -P httpd_enable_cgi 1 # chcon -R -t httpd_sys_script_exec_t cgi-bin/your_script.cgi Otherwise consult the Apache logs...
303404	973	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303404	VirtualBox/Setting up a Virtual Machine/Ubuntu	Once you have VirtualBox installed on your host computer -- it doesn't matter if your host OS is Linux, MacOS, or something else -- setting up an Ubuntu virtual machine is easy. (For Ubuntu 14.04.1 LTS, see https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=VirtualBox/Setting_up_a_Virtual_Machine/Ubuntu&oldid=3656915). installing inside the virtual machine. The previous steps created .vdi file that acts like a fresh, empty hard drive. Now we're going to install Ubuntu on it, exactly the same we would on a physical machine with a physical fresh, empty hard drive. then hit enter to install updates. So, are we finished installing? return to the host operating system for further installation steps. Next we install the Guest Additions. Please go to VirtualBox/Guest Additions/Ubuntu and follow the instructions there. (optional) If you have a very high-resolution monitor (high-DPI screen), the icons and default text in Ubuntu may look tiny and hard to read. One fix: In VirtualBox Manager, choose a VM, click the "Settings" gear, choose the "Display" tab from the left sidebar, and change the "Scale Factor:" to 200% (from the default of 100%). Sharing folders with host OS. To share folders between the host and the guest OS, and in the file-picker window that pops up, choose the folder you want to share. (There's options here for "Read-only" and "Make Permanent"). (If you leave the "Mount Point" blank, the folder will be mounted under "/media/" and the same folder-name as in the host OS). in the guest VM open a terminal with Ctrl+Alt+T and run A few things you can do with this virtual machine. If your purpose for setting up this machine is to practice administering RAID arrays -- setting up a new RAID array, failing, operating while degraded, adding empty hard drives to the array, rebuilding, scrubbing, etc. -- in a safe sandboxed environment, you can add and remove additional virtual hard drive images at any time in the VirtualBox Manager under Settings » Storage. You can easily move this virtual machine to some other computer -- even a computer running a completely different host operating system. (One exception: 64-bit Ubuntu will not run on 32-bit hardware. 32-bit Ubuntu, however, runs fine on both 64-bit Intel processors and 32-bit Intel processors.) An operating system inside a virtual machine may see several hard drives. Typically they are all actually ".vdi" files stored on a single host hard drive. But some people tweak the VirtualBox settings so that the operating system can directly access (perhaps in read-only mode) physical drive(s), so the hard drive that guest operating system sees is, in fact, a physical hard drive. Many people disable the "fading windows" effect and other pretty effects by installing "CompizConfig Settings Manager" and turning off "effects" and "Enhanced Zoom Desktop". Many people install and use a "fast, lightweight" window manager such as GNOME Flashback (Metacity) or XFCE, To try out Xubuntu (with XFCE), at the command line type "sudo apt-get install xubuntu-desktop gksu leafpad synaptic" (not including the quotes). Then press enter, type your password, then press enter again. It takes a few minutes for Ubuntu to download and install the Xubuntu stuff. Then log out of Ubuntu. At the login window, click the logo next to your user name, and pick "Xubuntu session". Some people install zRam for better performance with limited RAM. This is a single command in Ubuntu 12.04 and newer: open a terminal window, and run sudo apt-get install zram-config Using ssh to access an Ubuntu virtual machine. Inside the virtual machine window, you can open a terminal window and ssh to some other server -- that's all installed by default. After initial setup of a user on an Ubuntu machine, the "~/.ssh/" folder does not yet exist -- you'll likely want to open a terminal window from the left sidebar, and run ssh-keygen (also installed by default) and accept the defaults by hitting return a few times, which creates the "~/.ssh/" folder and a public key -- see Internet Technologies/SSH for more details. Often people want to access a text terminal on an Ubuntu server from a Windows box -- that takes a few more steps: OR sudo apt-get install openssh-server sudo vim /etc/ssh/sshd_config PasswordAuthentication no then save that file and exit. sudo /etc/init.d/ssh restart You should be able to log into the virtual machine now. USB. You may want to access some physical USB device from inside the virtual machine. (For example, you may want to run the Android SDK sandboxed inside a virtual machine, and then give it access to upload to a physical mobile phone). The Ubuntu OS in that virtual machine should now automatically connect to those physical USB devices. Booting the virtual machine from a physical bootable USB stick... increase virtual hard drive size. To increase the virtual hard drive size, so Ubuntu sees a (virtually) larger hard drive, [FIXME]
303410	1671951	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303410	Usability for Nerds/Software/Mouse Effects	There are many ways that a user interface can react to mouse events. The most commonly used mouse events are: Most of these effects are not visible, and only proficient users are aware of all of them. However, it is good to support these effects because users may expect them to work. Many user interfaces, such as office programs and websites, are so crowded with mouse effects that it is difficult to avoid activating them inadvertently. A user may click in a window just to move the focus to that window or place the cursor. But sometimes it can be difficult to find a place to click that doesn't do anything else than that. Double clicking is inconvenient for many users and may be replaced by a middle button click (see Mouse). Mouse-over effects can be very disturbing, especially if the user interface is so crowded that it is difficult to find a place to put the mouse that doesn't do anything. A good alternative is to make a right-click context menu with a "What's this" option. A mouse-over effect is useful when it changes the mouse cursor to indicate a link that can be clicked or a border than can be dragged. This effect should be immediate. But the mouse-over effect that pops up a message should be delayed for approximately one second in order to avoid too much flickering. The mouse-over effect may change the color of a link or underline it, but never change the font size. Any mouse-over effect that changes the size of an object can cause everything below the resized object to move, which makes the whole image flicker when the mouse is moved around. This is very disturbing. Some programs have additional mouse effects that are disturbing. Clicking on a filename in Windows will select the file. But if the file is already selected, the click will rename the file. This is unexpected and may lead to inadvertent renaming of files. Some word processors will pop up a context menu when a word is highlighted with the mouse. This is disturbing because it covers some of the text. Often a user will highlight a word just to use it as a fixation point to the eye. Any side effect of highlighting the word is unwanted in this case.
303415	1671951	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303415	Usability for Nerds/Software/Keyboard Shortcuts	Novice users tend to use the mouse for most commands, clicking on self-explaining menus and icons. Experienced users, on the other hand, often prefer to use keyboard commands for several reasons: The current trend towards ever more fanciful graphical user interfaces that rely more on mouse effects and less on the keyboard is bad for heavy users (and very bad for people with impaired vision and other handicaps). In principle, all operations should have both a mouse command and a keyboard command. The main problem with keyboard shortcuts is that they are not visible. Keyboard shortcuts should be indicated on the corresponding menus wherever this is possible. It is important that shortcut keys are standardized as much as possible. The user is more likely to remember a keyboard shortcut if it uses the same key combination in all software programs. Every program that has some kind of text editing, even if it is just a small text field in a dialog box, should use the same keyboard shortcuts for moving the cursor, highlighting text, copy and paste, etc. It would be inconvenient if every program that has a dialog box for entering a user name or a file name should have a help item telling how to copy and paste a word, and the user would be unlikely to read it. The programmer should always use standard library solutions for text editing fields, file dialogs, etc. in order to get the standard behavior and the standard shortcut keys. The keyboard shortcuts should be the same in all programs and on all platforms and operating systems as far as possible. There are various pages on the web listing common standard shortcut key combinations. See e.g. Deviations from the standard behavior are annoying. In Gnome Gedit, for example, Ctrl+RightArrow moves the cursor to the next end of a word while in most other programs it moves the cursor to the next beginning of a word. Some software programs have different shortcut keys depending on the language version. For example, Microsoft Office uses Ctrl+B for making text bold in the English language version, and different letters in other language versions depending on what boldface is called in that language. This is very unfortunate because people may switch between different language versions. In today's globalized world, people may travel and work in different countries, or they may use different language versions of the same program for a number of reasons. Sometimes, there are multiple standard keys for the same operation. For example, "Cut", "Copy" and "Paste" can be Ctrl+X, Ctrl+C and Ctrl+V, respectively, or Shift+Del, Ctrl+Ins and Shift+Ins, respectively. It is important to support both standards because different users may have different habits. The latter standard is more convenient for heavy users because it makes it possible to select and edit text without moving the hands. The Del and Ins keys are close to the arrow keys used for highlighting the text to edit. A user who often does a lot of text editing is likely to learn these keystrokes so that they can edit text with the left hand on the Ctrl and Shift keys and the right hand on the Ins, Del and arrow keys and never move their eyes from the screen.
303419	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303419	Pinyin/Mackerel	"Search" Pinyin mackerel Mackerel is a common fish. It is an oily fish with rich of omega-3. mackerel shih charngjiahn yourxihng yur, harn fengfuh omega-3. The flesh of mackerel spoils easily, especially in the tropics, and can cause food poisoning. ta de yurrouh rorngyih fuulahn yiinzhih shirwuh zhohngdur, yourqir zaih rehdaih. So, it should be eaten on the day of capture, unless properly refrigerated or cured. yin`err buuzhuo dangtian jiuh yaoh shiryohng, churfei shihdahng leengcarng huoh yanzhih.
303427	1620806	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303427	Guide to Game Development/Miscellaneous/Planning out your game	How to plan your game out. "This a rough guide for you to follow when you're planning your game out." Is this new feature worth replaying? Is this new feature fun? How easy is it for someone to pick up? How unique is this feature? Is it typical and too expected? It's good for games to be hard, it can make it challenging, but no one wants to play a frustrating game.
303458	3169431	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303458	C Sharp Programming/Kelly Criteria	C#. /// <summary> /// Determines the optimal bet size (in a series of bets) to minimise risk & maximise returns... /// Assumptions: /// Given a profitable situation to begin with...(and the probability estimate is accurate) /// No associated transaction costs or taxes /// If you lose - then you lose all of the bet (and not just a portion) /// See. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly_criterion /// </summary> /// <param name="P">Probability of winning the bet. A number between [0,1]</param> /// <param name="b">Potential earnings/profit/payout or the odds expressed as a decimal</param> /// <param name="availableBankroll">The amount of capital available for gambling. Default value is 50</param> /// <returns></returns> public static string GetKellyCriteria(double P, double b, double availableBankroll = 50) #region Sanitation if((P<0.0) \|\| (P>1.0)) throw new Exception ("Probability should be between [0,1]"); if (availableBankroll == 0) throw new Exception("Available bankroll is required"); if (b == 0) throw new Exception("Potential payout is required"); #endregion #region Kelly Criteria Calc double q = 1 - P; double kellyValue = ((P * b) - q) / b; double optimalBet = Math.Round(((kellyValue * availableBankroll)), 2); #endregion #region Interpretation if (kellyValue > 0) return string.Format("Kelly Criteria: +{0}%. Optimal bet = +{1} out of {2}. Consider betting...", Math.Round(kellyValue100.0, 2), optimalBet, availableBankroll); else if (kellyValue == 0) return string.Format("Kelly Critria: {0}%. Optimal bet = {1}. No edge. Do nothing.", Math.Round(kellyValue100.0, 2), optimalBet); else return string.Format("Kelly Criteria: {0}%. Optimal bet = -{1}. Consider laying if available.", Math.Round(kellyValue*100.0,2), optimalBet); #endregion
303459	3345990	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303459	Cryptsetup	In this book, I will explain how to encrypt your partitions using Linux Unified Key Setup-on-disk-format (LUKS) on your Linux based computer or laptop. Linux encryption methods. There are two methods to encrypt your data: Install cryptsetup utility. You need to install the following package. It contains cryptsetup, a utility for setting up encrypted filesystems using Device Mapper and the dm-crypt target. "Debian / Ubuntu Linux" user type the following "apt-get" command: Sample outputs: "RHEL / CentOS / Fedora" Linux user type the following "yum" command: Configure LUKS partition. In this example, I'll use partition called /dev/xvdc, and our first task will be to overwrite that partition 3 times with random data, that's enough to protect you against forensic investigation. It took me nearly 30 minutes for 20 GB partition to be overwritten 3 times.Next, I'm going to encrypt /dev/xvdc. Type the following command: Sample outputs: This command initializes the volume, and sets an initial key or passphrase. Please note that the passphrase is not recoverable so do not forget it.Type the following command create a mapping: Sample outputs: You can see a mapping name /dev/mapper/backup2 after successful verification of the supplied key material which was created with luksFormat command extension: Sample outputs: You can use the following command to see the status for the mapping: Sample outputs: You can dump LUKS headers using the following command: Format LUKS partition. First, you need to write zeros to /dev/mapper/backup2 encrypted device. This will allocate block data with zeros. This ensures that outside world will see this as random data i.e. it protect against disclosure of usage patterns: The dd command may take many hours to complete. I suggest that you use pv command to monitor the progress: To create a filesystem i.e. format filesystem, enter: To mount the new filesystem at /backup2, enter: How do I unmount and secure data? Type the following commands: How do I mount or remount encrypted partition? Type the following command: See shell script wrapper that opens LUKS partition and sets up a mapping for nas devices. Can I run fsck on LUKS based partition / LVM volume? Yes, you can use the fsck command on LUKS based systems: See how to run fsck On LUKS (dm-crypt) based LVM physical volume for more details. How do I change LUKS passphrase (password) for encrypted partition? Type the following command Remove or delete the old password: Please note that you need to enter the old password / passphrase.
303525	1720643	https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki?curid=303525	Pinyin/Earthquake	"Search" earthquake "Search" earth An earthquake is a violent movement of the Earth's crust. shih dihqiaoh de juhlieh yuhndohng. The time of each earthquake is very short, but may repeat over a long period of time. meei cih dihzhehn de shirjian heen duaan, dahn charng shirjian huih yoou yurzhehn. It is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust. This creates earthquake waves, waves of energy that travel through the Earth. yuarnyin shih dihqiaoh lii de nerngliahng turarn shihfahng, chaansheng zhehnbo chuarn daoh dihmiahn.

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