_id
stringlengths 2
130
| text
stringlengths 33
6.62k
|
|---|---|
Earth_rainfall_climatology
|
Earth rainfall climatology Is the study of rainfall , a sub-field of Meteorology . Formally , a wider study includes water falling as ice crystals , i.e. hail , sleet , snow ( parts of the hydrological cycle known as precipitation ) . The aim of rainfall climatology is to measure , understand and predict rain distribution across different regions of planet Earth , a factor of air pressure , humidity , topography , cloud type and raindrop size , via direct measurement and remote sensing data acquisition . Current technologies accurately predict rainfall 3 -- 4 days in advance using numerical weather prediction . Geostationary orbiting satellites gather IR and visual wavelength data to measure realtime localised rainfall by estimating cloud albedo , water content , and the corresponding probability of rain . Geographic distribution of rain is largely governed by climate type , topography and habitat humidity . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall , both in amounts and intensity , downwind of cities . Global warming may also cause changes in the precipitation pattern globally , including wetter conditions at high latitudes and in some wet tropical areas , and drier conditions in parts of the subtropics and middle latitudes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , making it the world 's driest continent . Australia 's rainfall is mainly regulated by the movement of the monsoon trough during the summer rainy season , with lesser amounts falling during the winter and spring in its southernmost sections . Almost whole North Africa is semi-arid , arid or hyper-arid , containing the Sahara Desert which is the largest hot desert in the world , while central Africa ( known as Sub-Saharan Africa ) sees an annual rainy season regulated by the movement of the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough , though the Sahel Belt located at the south of the Sahara Desert knows an extremely intense and a nearly permanent dry season and only receives minimum summer rainfall . Across Asia , a large annual rainfall minimum , composed primarily of deserts , stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through Pakistan and Iran into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia . In Asia , rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region . Similar , but weaker , monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia . In Europe , the wettest regions are in the Alps and downwind of bodies of water , particularly the Atlantic west coasts . Within North America , the drier areas of the United States are the Desert Southwest , Great Basin , valleys of northeast Arizona , eastern Utah , central Wyoming , and the Columbia Basin . Other dry regions within the continent are far northern Canada and the Sonoran Desert of northwest Mexico . The Pacific Northwest United States , the Rockies of British Columbia , and the coastal ranges of Alaska are the wettest locations in North America . The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , or monsoon trough , is the wettest portion of the world 's continents . Annually , the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August , then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March .
|
Ecological_yield
|
Ecological yield is the harvestable population growth of an ecosystem . It is most commonly measured in forestry : sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year , within a given patch of forest . However , the concept is also applicable to water , soil , and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed -- called renewable resources . The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is `` renewed '' ( refreshed or regrown or rebuilt ) is consumed . Ecosystem services analysis calculates the global yield of the Earth 's biosphere to humans as a whole . This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy . However , it is more than just yield , but also the natural processes that increase biodiversity and conserve habitat which result in the total value of these services . `` Yield '' of ecological commodities like wood or water , useful to humans , is only a part of it . Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an ecological load in another . Greenhouse gas released in one place , for instance , is fairly evenly distributed in the atmosphere , and so greenhouse gas control can be achieved by creating a carbon sink literally anywhere else . Ecocide is thought by some green economists to be accelerated by debt instruments which demand a yield greater than the ecological capacity to renew . This is a major question in monetary reform .
|
Early_Earth
|
The early Earth ( sometimes referred to as Gaia ) is loosely defined as Earth in its first one billion years , or gigayear . On the geologic time scale , this comprises all of the Hadean eon ( starting with the formation of the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago ) , as well as the Eoarchean ( starting 4 billion years ago ) and part of the Paleoarchean ( starting 3.6 billion years ago ) eras of the Archean eon . This period of Earth 's history involved the planet 's formation from the solar nebula via a process known as accretion . This time period included intense meteorite bombardment as well as giant impacts , including the Moon-forming impact , which resulted in a series of magma oceans and episodes of core formation . After formation of the core , delivery of meteoritic or cometary material in a `` late veneer '' may have delivered water and other volatile compounds to the Earth . Although little crustal material from this period survives , the oldest dated specimen is a zircon mineral of 4.404 ± 0.008 Ga enclosed in a metamorphosed sandstone conglomerate in the Jack Hills of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane of Western Australia . The earliest supracrustals ( such as the Isua greenstone belt ) date from the latter half of this period , about 3.8 gya , around the same time as peak Late Heavy Bombardment . According to evidence from radiometric dating and other sources , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Within its first billion years , life appeared in its oceans and began to affect its atmosphere and surface , promoting the proliferation of aerobic as well as anaerobic organisms . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , its physical properties and its geological history have allowed life to emerge , develop photosynthesis , and , later , evolve further and thrive . The earliest life on Earth arose at least 3.5 billion years ago . Earlier possible evidence of life includes graphite , which may have a biogenic origin , in 3.7-billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland , as well as 4.1-billion-year-old zircon grains in Western Australia .
|
Ecocentrism
|
Ecocentrism ( -LSB- ˌɛkoʊˈsɛntrɪzəm -RSB- from Greek : οἶκος oikos , `` house '' and κέντρον kentron , `` center '' ) is a term used in ecological political philosophy to denote a nature-centered , as opposed to human-centered ( i.e. anthropocentric ) , system of values . The justification for ecocentrism usually consists in an ontological belief and subsequent ethical claim . The ontological belief denies that there are any existential divisions between human and non-human nature sufficient to claim that humans are either ( a ) the sole bearers of intrinsic value or ( b ) possess greater intrinsic value than non-human nature . Thus the subsequent ethical claim is for an equality of intrinsic value across human and non-human nature , or ` biospherical egalitarianism ' . According to Stan Rowe : and :
|
Duty_of_candour
|
In UK public law , the duty of candour is the duty imposed on a public authority ` not to seek to win -LSB- a -RSB- litigation at all costs but to assist the court in reaching the correct result and thereby to improve standards in public administration ' . Lord Donaldson MR in R v Lancashire County Council ex p. Huddleston stated that public servants should be willing ` to explain fully what has occurred and why ' . There is also a contractual duty of candour imposed on all NHS and non-NHS providers of services to NHS patients in the UK to ` provide to the service user and any other relevant person all necessary support and all relevant information ' in the event that a ` reportable patient safety incident ' occurs . A ` reportable patient safety incident ' is one which could have or did result in moderate or severe harm or death . Campaigner Will Powell led a campaign for NHS managers and doctors to have a formal ` duty of candour ' when dealing with complaints about negligent or poor standards of care in NHS hospitals . In January 2014 David Behan , chief executive of the Care Quality Commission , threw his weight behind a wide definition for the statutory duty of candour which was recommended by the Francis Report . The Government originally intended the duty to be limited to cases of `` severe harm '' -- when a patient had been killed or left permanently disabled , as a wider reporting requirement could inundate organisations with unnecessary bureaucracy . The CQC estimates there are about 11,000 incidents of severe harm per year , and up to 100,000 incidents of serious harm , although there may be significant under reporting of both . The charity Action Against Medical Accidents has been campaigning for a wide definition and Behan made it clear that he was supporting them .
|
Doomer
|
A doomer is a researcher of current and near future trends who believes that global problems of ecological exhaustion -- such as overpopulation , climate change , pollution , and especially peak oil -- will cause the collapse of industrial civilization , and a significant human population die-off . Many doomers are also survivalists or ` preppers ' , that is , they are actively preparing themselves for the doom they anticipate . Peak oil doomers are alarmed that humanity 's over-reliance on petroleum for agricultural and industrial productivity will cause severe problems on the downward slope of the peak . By contrast , a `` peakist '' would be one who takes a brighter view on the implications of peak oil , although this label has been dismissed from within the doomer 's movement as vacuous . The opposite of a doomer is represented by the cornucopian , who takes the optimistic position that Earth -- and outer space as well -- will provide an abundance of resources for mankind to thrive on forever . The middle ground between the doomer and the cornucopian is occupied by the environmental skeptic , who believes that claims made by environmentalists in general -- and by doomers in particular -- may be exaggerated or false .
|
East_Timor
|
East Timor ( -LSB- iːst_ˈtiːmɔr -RSB- ) or Timor-Leste ( -LSB- tiˈmɔr_ˈlɛʃteɪ -RSB- Tetum : Timór Lorosa'e ) , officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste ( República Democrática de Timor-Leste , Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste ) , is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia . It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor , the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco , and Oecusse , an exclave on the northwestern side of the island surrounded by Indonesian West Timor . The country 's size is about 15,410 km ( 5,400 sq mi ) . East Timor was colonised by Portugal in the 16th century , and was known as Portuguese Timor until 28 November 1975 , when the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor ( FRETILIN ) declared the territory 's independence . Nine days later , it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesia 's 27th province the following year . The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups ( especially FRETILIN ) and the Indonesian military . In 1999 , following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination , Indonesia relinquished control of the territory . East Timor became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries . In 2011 , East Timor announced its intention to gain membership status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) by applying to become its eleventh member . It is one of only two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia , the other being the Philippines .
|
ECHAM
|
ECHAM is a general circulation model ( GCM ) developed by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology , one of the research organisations of the Max Planck Society . It was created by modifying global forecast models developed by ECMWF to be used for climate research . The model was given its name as a combination of its origin ( the ` EC ' being short for ` ECMWF ' ) and the place of development of its parameterisation package , Hamburg . The default configuration of the model resolves the atmosphere up to 10 hPa ( primarily used to study the lower atmosphere ) , but it can be reconfigured to 0.01 hPa for use in studying the stratosphere and lower mesosphere . Different versions of ECHAM , primarily different configurations of ECHAM5 , have been the basis of many publications , listed on the ECHAM5 website .
|
EdGCM
|
The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .
|
East_Asian_Monsoon
|
The East Asian monsoon is a monsoonal flow that carries moist air from the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean to East Asia . It affects approximately one-third of the global population , influencing the climate of Japan ( including Okinawa ) , the Koreas , Taiwan , Hong Kong , Macau , the Philippines , Indochina , and much of mainland China . It is driven by temperature differences between the Asian continent and the Pacific Ocean . The East Asian monsoon is divided into a warm and wet summer monsoon and a cold and dry winter monsoon . This cold and dry winter monsoon is responsible for the aeolian dust deposition and pedogenesis that resulted in the creation of the Loess Plateau . The monsoon influences weather patterns as far north as Siberia , causing wet summers that contrasts the cold and dry winters caused by the Siberian High , which counter-balances the monsoon 's effect on northerly latitudes . In most years , the monsoonal flow shifts in a very predictable pattern , with winds being southeasterly in late June , bringing significant rainfall to the Korean Peninsula and Japan ( in Taiwan and Okinawa this flow starts in May ) . This leads to a reliable precipitation spike in July and August . However , this pattern occasionally fails , leading to drought and crop failure . In the winter , the winds are northeasterly and the monsoonal precipitation bands move back to the south , and intense precipitation occurs over southern China and Taiwan . The East Asian monsoon is known as jangma in Korea . In Japan the monsoon boundary is referred to as the as it advances northward during the spring , while it is referred to as the shurin when the boundary retreats back southward during the autumn months . Over Japan and Korea , the monsoon boundary typically takes the form of a quasi-stationary front separating the cooler air mass associated with the Okhotsk High to the north from the hot , humid air mass associated with the subtropical ridge to the south . After the monsoon boundary passes north of a given location , it is not uncommon for daytime temperatures to exceed 32 C with dewpoints of 24 C or higher .
|
Disinformation
|
Disinformation is intentionally false or misleading information that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences . The English word , which did not appear in dictionaries until the late-1980s , is a translation of the Russian дезинформация , transliterated as dezinformatsiya . Disinformation is different from misinformation , which is information that is unintentionally false . Misinformation can be used to define disinformation -- where disinformation is misinformation that is purposefully and intentionally disseminated in order to deceive . Historically the word `` disinformation '' has been reserved for a body of false information propagated at the state and state secret services level but in recent times it has a looser meaning in English relating to propaganda , fake news or a body of lies by any organisation and possibly any individual .
|
Economic_rent
|
In economics , economic rent is any payment to a factor of production in excess of the cost needed to bring that factor into production . In classical economics , economic rent is any payment made ( including imputed value ) or benefit received for non-produced inputs such as location ( land ) and for assets formed by creating official privilege over natural opportunities ( e.g. , patents ) . In neoclassical economics , economic rent also includes income gained by beneficiaries of other contrived exclusivity , such as labor guilds and unofficial corruption . Economic rent should not be confused with producer surplus , or normal profit , both of which involve productive human action . Economic rent is also independent of opportunity cost , unlike economic profit , where opportunity cost is an essential component . Economic rent should be viewed as unearned revenue , whereas economic profit is a narrower term describing surplus income greater than the next best risk-adjusted alternative . Unlike economic profit , economic rent can not be eliminated by competition , since all value from natural resources and locations yields economic rent . In regard to labor , economic rent can be created by the existence of guilds or labor unions ( e.g. , higher pay for workers , where political action creates a scarcity of such workers ) . For a produced commodity , economic rent may also be due to the legal ownership of a patent ( a politically enforced right to the use of a process or ingredient ) . For occupational licensing , it is the cost of permits and licenses that are politically controlled as to their number , regardless of the competence and willingness of those who wish to compete in the area being licensed . For most other production , including agriculture and extraction , economic rent is due to a scarcity of natural resources ( e.g. , land , oil , or minerals ) . When economic rent is privatized , the recipient of economic rent is referred to as a rentier . By contrast , in production theory , if there is no exclusivity and there is perfect competition , there are no economic rents , as competition drives prices down to their floor . Economic rent is different from other unearned and passive income , including contract rent . This distinction has important implications for public revenue and tax policy . As long as there is sufficient accounting profit , governments can collect a portion of economic rent for the purpose of public finance . For example , economic rent can be collected by a government as royalties or extraction fees in the case of resources such as minerals and oil and gas . Historically , theories of rent have typically applied to rent received by different factor owners within a single economy . Hossein Mahdavy was the first to introduce the concept of `` external rent '' , whereby one economy received rent from other economies .
|
Effervescence
|
Effervescence is the escape of gas from an aqueous solution and the bubbling , foaming , or fizzing that results from that release . The word effervescence is derived from the Latin verb fervere ( to boil ) , preceded by the adverb ex . It has the same linguistic root as the word fermentation . Effervescence can be observed in the bubbles or foam produced by the combination of hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate ( e.g. limestone , marble , antacid tablets , etc. ) as well as in the escaping bubbles of freshly opened carbonated beverages ( such as soft drinks , beer , and champagne ) . The visible bubbles released at decompression are usually dissolved gaseous carbon dioxide escaping from a pressurized dilute solution of carbonic acid in water . The gas is not visible while dissolved in the liquid . Examples : CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 H2CO3 → H2O + CO2 Fun Facts : Although CO2 is most common for beverages , nitrogen gas is sometimes deliberately added to certain draught beers . The smaller bubble size creates a smoother beer head . Due to the poor solubility of nitrogen in beer , kegs or widgets are used for this . The tingling sensation on the back of your throat while enjoying a carbonated beverage is actually caused by the carbonic acid and not the bubbles themselves . Effervescent tablet manufacturer Alka-Seltzer popularized the chemical reaction with their hit advertising jingle `` Plop , plop , fizz , fizz , oh what a relief it is ! ''
|
Environmental_economics
|
Environmental economics is a sub-field of economics that is concerned with environmental issues . Quoting from the National Bureau of Economic Research Environmental Economics program : -LSB- ... -RSB- Environmental Economics -LSB- ... -RSB- undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world -LSB- ... -RSB- . Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution , water quality , toxic substances , solid waste , and global warming . Environmental economics is distinguished from ecological economics in that ecological economics emphasizes the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem with its focus upon preserving natural capital . One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought , with ecological economists emphasizing `` strong '' sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted by human-made capital .
|
Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel
|
The environmental impact of biodiesel is diverse .
|
Entrepreneurial_economics
|
Entrepreneurial economics is the study of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship within the economy . The accumulation of factors of production per se does not explain economic development . They are necessary inputs in production , but they are not sufficient for economic growth . Human creativity and productive entrepreneurship are needed to combine these inputs in profitable ways , and an institutional environment that encourages free entrepreneurship becomes the ultimate determinant of economic growth . Thus , the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship should take center stage in any effort to explain long-term economic development . Early economic theory , however did not lay proper attention to the entrepreneur . `` The theoretical firm is entrepreneurless -- the Prince of Denmark has been expunged from the discussion of Hamlet '' . This oft-quoted observation was made by William J. Baumol in the American Economic Review . The article was a prod to the economics profession to attend to this neglected factor . If entrepreneurship remains as important to the economy as ever , then the continuing failure of mainstream economics to adequately account for entrepreneurship indicates that fundamental principles require re-evaluation . The characteristics of an entrepreneurial economy are high levels of innovation combined with high level of entrepreneurship , which result in the creation of new ventures as well as new sectors and industries . Entrepreneurship is difficult to analyse using the traditional tools of economics e.g. calculus and general equilibrium models . Current textbooks have only a passing reference to the concept of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneur . Equilibrium models are central to mainstream economics , and exclude entrepreneurship . . Coase believed that economics has become a `` theory-driven '' subject that has moved into a paradigm in which conclusions take precedence over problems . `` If you look at a page of a scientific journal like Nature , '' he said , `` every few weeks you have statements such as , ` We 'll have to think it out again . These results are n't going the way we thought they would . ' Well , in economics , the results always go the way we thought they would because we approach the problems in the same way , only asking certain questions . Entrepreneurial Economics challenges fundamental principles , using insights from models and theories in the natural sciences . '' Studies about entrepreneurs in Economics , Psychology and Sociology largely relate to four major currents of thought . Early thinkers such as Max Weber emphasized its occurrence in the context of a religious belief system , thereby suggesting that some belief systems do not encourage entrepreneurship . This contention has , however , been challenged by many sociologists . Some thinkers such as K Samuelson believe that there is no relationship between religion , economic development and entrepreneurship . Karl Marx considered the economic system and mode of production as its sole determinants . Weber suggested a direct relation between the ethics and economic system as both interacted intensively . Another current of thought underscores the motivational aspects of personal achievement . This overemphasized the individual and his values , attitudes and personality . This thought , however , has been severely criticized by many scholars such as Kilby ( 1971 ) and Kunkel ( 1971 ) .
|
Environmental_Performance_Index
|
The Environmental Performance Index ( EPI ) is a method of quantifying and numerically marking the environmental performance of a state 's policies . This index was developed from the Pilot Environmental Performance Index , first published in 2002 , and designed to supplement the environmental targets set forth in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals . The EPI was preceded by the Environmental Sustainability Index ( ESI ) , published between 1999 and 2005 . Both indexes were developed by Yale University ( Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy ) and Columbia University ( Center for International Earth Science Information Network ) in collaboration with the World Economic Forum and the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission . The ESI was developed to evaluate environmental sustainability relative to the paths of other countries . Due to a shift in focus by the teams developing the ESI , the EPI uses outcome-oriented indicators , then working as a benchmark index that can be more easily used by policy makers , environmental scientists , advocates and the general public . Other leading indices like the Global Green Economy Index ( GGEI ) provide an integrated measure of the environmental , social and economic dynamics of national economies . The GGEI utilizes EPI data for the environmental dimension of the index while also providing a performance assessment of efficiency sectors ( e.g. transport , buildings , energy ) , investment , green innovation and national leadership around climate change . As of January 2012 four EPI reports have been released - the Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index , and the 2008 , 2010 , and 2012 Environmental Performance Index . For the 2012 report , a new `` Pilot Trend EPI '' was developed to rank countries based on the environmental performance changes occurred during the last decade , allowing to establish which countries are improving and which are declining . In the 2014 EPI ranking , the top five countries were Switzerland , Luxembourg , Australia , Singapore , and the Czech Republic . The bottom five countries in 2014 were Somalia , Mali , Haiti , Lesotho , and Afghanistan . The United Kingdom was ranked in 12th place , Japan 26th place , the United States 33rd , Brazil 77th , China 118th , and India came in 155th . The top five countries based on their 2012 Pilot Trend EPI were Estonia , Kuwait , El Salvador , Namibia and Congo .
|
Environmental_Defense_Fund
|
Environmental Defense Fund or EDF ( formerly known as Environmental Defense ) is a United States -- based nonprofit environmental advocacy group . The group is known for its work on issues including global warming , ecosystem restoration , oceans , and human health , and advocates using sound science , economics and law to find environmental solutions that work . It is nonpartisan , and its work often advocates market-based solutions to environmental problems . The group 's headquarters are in New York City , with offices nationwide , and scientists and policy specialists working worldwide . Regional offices more focused on local issues and policies include Austin , TX ; Boulder , CO ; San Francisco , CA ; Los Angeles , CA ; Sacramento , CA ; Washington , D.C. ; Raleigh , North Carolina ; Boston , MA . Fred Krupp has served as its president since 1984 . In 2011 , Krupp was named by U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu to a group of experts who will make recommendations to improve the safety and environmental performance of natural gas hydraulic fracturing from shale formations . In 1991 , The Economist called EDF `` America 's most economically literate green campaigners . '' The organization was ranked first among environmental groups in a 2007 Financial Times global study of 850 business-nonprofit partnerships , and received a four star-rating from Charity Navigator , the independent charity evaluator .
|
Environmental_impact_assessment
|
Environmental assessment ( EA ) is the assessment of the environmental consequences ( positive and negative ) of a plan , policy , program , or actual projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action . In this context , the term `` environmental impact assessment '' ( EIA ) is usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term `` strategic environmental assessment '' ( SEA ) applies to policies , plans and programmes most often proposed by organs of state . Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making , and may be subject to judicial review . The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project . The International Association for Impact Assessment ( IAIA ) defines an environmental impact assessment as `` the process of identifying , predicting , evaluating and mitigating the biophysical , social , and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made '' . EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome , but rather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts .
|
Electric_utility
|
An electric utility is a company in the electric power industry ( often a public utility ) that engages in electricity generation and distribution of electricity for sale generally in a regulated market . The electrical utility industry is a major provider of energy in most countries . Electric utilities include investor owned , publicly owned , cooperatives , and nationalized entities . They may be engaged in all or only some aspects of the industry . Electricity markets are also considered electric utilities -- these entities buy and sell electricity , acting as brokers , but usually do not own or operate generation , transmission , or distribution facilities . Utilities are regulated by local and national authorities . Electric utilities are facing increasing demands including aging infrastructure , reliability , and regulation .
|
Electricity_sector_in_the_United_Kingdom
|
The electricity sector in the United Kingdom relies mainly on fossil fuelled power and 15-20 % in nuclear power and similar amounts of renewable power . Fossil fuel generator use in general and coal use in particularly is shrinking , with coal generators now only mainly being run in Winter due to pollution and costs . In 2008 nuclear electricity production was 860 kWh pro person . In 2014 , 28.1 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , which contributed 9.3 % of the UK 's electricity requirement . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . The United Kingdom voluntarily ended the use of incandescent lightbulbs in 2011 . Between 2007 and 2012 , the UK 's peak electrical demand has fallen from 61.5 GW to 57.5 GW The use of electricity declined 11 % in 2009 compared to 2004 and respectively . The UK is planning to reform its Electricity Market . It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation .
|
Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs
|
Human impact on coral reefs is significant . Coral reefs are dying around the world . In particular , coral mining , pollution ( organic and non-organic ) , overfishing , blast fishing and the digging of canals and access into islands and bays are serious threats to these ecosystems . Coral reefs also face high dangers such as diseases , destructive fishing practices and warming oceans . In order to find answers for these problems , researchers study the various factors that impact reefs . The list of factors is long , including the ocean 's role as a carbon dioxide sink , atmospheric changes , ultraviolet light , ocean acidification , viruses , impacts of dust storms carrying agents to far-flung reefs , pollutants , algal blooms and others . Reefs are threatened well beyond coastal areas . In 2008 estimates assembled from coral reef specialists from around the world indicated that 19 % of the existing area of coral reefs has already been lost , and that a further 17 % is likely to be lost over the subsequent 10 -- 20 years . Only 46 % of the world 's reefs could be currently regarded as in good health . About 60 % of the world 's reefs may be at risk due to destructive , human-related activities . The threat to the health of reefs is particularly strong in Southeast Asia , where 80 % of reefs are endangered . By the 2030s , 90 % of reefs are expected to be at risk from both human activities and climate change ; by 2050 , all coral reefs will be in danger . Coral Reef loss has been cause for concern for a long time , but is now starting to gain traction as one of the worlds greatest environmental threats . The current greatest threat to the reefs are coral bleaching , which is the loss of the endosymbiotic algae from the coral ( the thing that gives coral it 's vibrant color ) due to rising ocean water temperatures . Some other threats that are not as prominent but still play a factor to the loss of the world 's reefs are poisonous fishing practices , explosive fishing practices , careless tourism , and pollution . The loss of the coral reefs will come with consequences such as human vulnerability , environmental chaos , and a massive , relatively unseen , economic cost .
|
Ellesmere_Ice_Shelf
|
The former Ellesmere Ice Shelf was the largest ice shelf in the Arctic , encompassing about 3500 sqmi of the north coast of Ellesmere Island , Nunavut , Canada . The ice shelf was first documented by the British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 , in which Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich 's party went from Cape Sheridan ( 82.47 ° N , 61.50 ° W ) west to Cape Alert ( 82.27 ° N , 85.55 ° W ) . The continuous mass of the Ellesmere Ice Shelf had been in place for at least 3,000 years . During the twentieth century the Ellesmere Ice Shelf broke up into six separate shelves , the largest being the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf . During the 1980s reassuring official science reported that the remnants were stable . In April 2000 , satellite images revealed that a large crack in the Ward Hunt shelf had begun to form , and in 2003 it was announced that the ice sheet had split completely in two in 2002 , releasing a huge pool of fresh water from the largest epishelf lake in the Northern Hemisphere , located in Disraeli Fjord . In April 2008 , it was discovered that the shelf was fractured into dozens of deep , multi-faceted cracks . On August 13 , 2005 , The Ayles Ice Shelf , which was located at , approximately 800 km south of the North Pole , broke away from the coast forming the giant Ayles Ice Island 37 m thick and measuring around 14 km by 5 km in size with an area of approximately 66 km ² ( 25.5 sq mi ) or 2.6 km3 in volume . The Milne Ice Shelf is the second large segment of the former Ellesmere Ice Shelf .
|
Electrical_grid
|
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers to consumers . It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power , high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers , and distribution lines that connect individual customers . Power stations may be located near a fuel source , at a dam site , or to take advantage of renewable energy sources , and are often located away from heavily populated areas . They are usually quite large to take advantage of the economies of scale . The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network . The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances , sometimes across international boundaries , until it reaches its wholesale customer ( usually the company that owns the local electric power distribution network ) . On arrival at a substation , the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage . As it exits the substation , it enters the distribution wiring . Finally , upon arrival at the service location , the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage ( s ) . Electrical grids vary in size from covering a single building through national grids which cover whole countries , to transnational grids which can cross continents .
|
Energy_crisis
|
An energy crisis is any significant bottleneck in the supply of energy resources to an economy . In popular literature , it often refers to one of the energy sources used at a certain time and place , in particular those that supply national electricity grids or those used as fuel in vehicles . Industrial development and population growth have led to a surge in the global demand for energy in recent years . In the 2000s , this new demand -- together with Middle East tension , the falling value of the U.S. dollar , dwindling oil reserves , concerns over peak oil , and oil price speculation -- triggered the 2000s energy crisis , which saw the price of oil reach an all-time high of $ 147.30 a barrel in 2008 .
|
Emission_intensity
|
An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .
|
Environment_(biophysical)
|
The biophysical environment is the biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population , and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their survival , development and evolution . The biophysical environment can vary in scale from microscopic to global in extent . It can also be subdivided according to its attributes . Examples include the marine environment , the atmospheric environment and the terrestrial environment . The number of biophysical environments is countless , given that each living organism has its own environment . The term environment is often used as a short form for the biophysical environment , e.g. the UK 's Environment Agency . The expression `` the environment '' often refers to a singular global environment in relation to humanity .
|
Ehrlichia_Wisconsin_HM543746
|
Ehrlichia Wisconsin HM543746 is an unnamed tick bacterium that spread through Minnesota and Wisconsin in 2009 and is similar to Ehrlichia muris . Researchers took more than 4000 blood samples from people who appeared to have ehrlichiosis or anaplasmosis , and used 697 ticks from both states as test subjects . The researchers , working at the Mayo Clinic , used molecular methods , culturing , and serological testing . The research was conducted after technologist Carol Werner noticed an unnatural Ehrlichia polymerase chain reaction . The investigation arrived at the discovery of the new bacterium because the research showed that four of the patients were infected by a new bacterium ; their symptoms in 2009 including fevers , headaches , fatigue , nausea , and vomiting . All four of the patients survived by being treated with doxycycline . The results were published in The New England Journal of Medicine and brought up in a Health Alert Network public health announcement . The lead researcher , Bobbi Pritt , said , `` Before this report , human ehrlichiosis was thought to be very rare or absent in Minnesota and Wisconsin , therefore , physicians might not know to look for Ehrlichia infections at all . '' Entomologist Susan Paskewitz said that owing to the increase of deer ticks in Wisconsin , there may be further incidents of this bacterium infecting people . Before the discovery , the tick bacteria Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii were believed to be the only causes of ehrlichiosis in the United States .
|
Error_catastrophe
|
Error catastrophe is the extinction of an organism ( often in the context of microorganisms such as viruses ) as a result of excessive mutations . Error catastrophe is something predicted in mathematical models and has also been observed empirically . Like every organism , viruses ` make mistakes ' ( or mutate ) during replication . The resulting mutations increase biodiversity among the population and help subvert the ability of a host 's immune system to recognise it in a subsequent infection . The more mutations the virus makes during replication , the more likely it is to avoid recognition by the immune system and the more diverse its population will be ( see the article on biodiversity for an explanation of the selective advantages of this ) . However , if it makes too many mutations , it may lose some of its biological features which have evolved to its advantage , including its ability to reproduce at all . The question arises : how many mutations can be made during each replication before the population of viruses begins to lose self-identity ?
|
Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals
|
Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .
|
Energy_development
|
Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural resources . These activities include production of conventional , alternative and renewable sources of energy , and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted . Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development , and can have benefits to society with improvements to environmental issues . Societies use energy for transportation , manufacturing , illumination , heating and air conditioning , and communication , for industrial , commercial , and domestic purposes . Energy resources may be classified as primary resources , where the resource can be used in substantially its original form , or as secondary resources , where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form . Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use , whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation . Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry . The conventional industry comprises the petroleum industry , the natural gas industry , the electrical power industry , and the nuclear industry . New energy industries include the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture , distribution , and sale of alternative fuels .
|
Endocrine_disruptor
|
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that can interfere with endocrine ( or hormone ) systems at certain doses . These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors , birth defects , and other developmental disorders . Any system in the body controlled by hormones can be derailed by hormone disruptors . Specifically , endocrine disruptors may be associated with the development of learning disabilities , severe attention deficit disorder , cognitive and brain development problems ; deformations of the body ( including limbs ) ; breast cancer , prostate cancer , thyroid and other cancers ; sexual development problems such as feminizing of males or masculinizing effects on females , etc. . Recently The Endocrine Society released a statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals ( EDCs ) specifically listing obesity , diabetes , female reproduction , male reproduction , hormone-sensitive cancers in females , prostate cancer in males , thyroid , and neurodevelopment and neuroendocrine systems as being affected biological aspects of being exposed to EDCs . The critical period of development for most organisms is between the transition from a fertilized egg into a fully formed infant . As the cells begin to grow and differentiate , there are critical balances of hormones and protein changes that must occur . Therefore , a dose of disrupting chemicals may do substantial damage to a developing fetus . The same dose may not significantly affect adult mothers . There has been controversy over endocrine disruptors , with some groups calling for swift action by regulators to remove them from the market , and regulators and other scientists calling for further study . Some endocrine disruptors have been identified and removed from the market ( for example , a drug called diethylstilbestrol ) , but it is uncertain whether some endocrine disruptors on the market actually harm humans and wildlife at the doses to which wildlife and humans are exposed . Additionally , a key scientific paper , published in the journal Science , which helped launch the movement of those opposed to endocrine disruptors , was retracted and its author found to have committed scientific misconduct . Found in many household and industrial products , endocrine disruptors are substances that `` interfere with the synthesis , secretion , transport , binding , action , or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for development , behavior , fertility , and maintenance of homeostasis ( normal cell metabolism ) . '' They are sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents , endocrine disrupting chemicals , or endocrine disrupting compounds . Studies in cells and laboratory animals have shown that EDCs can cause adverse biological effects in animals , and low-level exposures may also cause similar effects in human beings . The term endocrine disruptor is often used as synonym for xenohormone although the latter can mean any naturally occurring or artificially produced compound showing hormone-like properties ( usually binding to certain hormonal receptors ) . EDCs in the environment may also be related to reproductive and infertility problems in wildlife and bans and restrictions on their use has been associated with a reduction in health problems and the recovery of some wildlife populations .
|
Ellesmere_Island
|
Ellesmere Island ( Inuit : Umingmak Nuna , meaning `` land of muskoxen '' ) is part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region of the Canadian territory of Nunavut . Lying within the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , it is considered part of the Queen Elizabeth Islands , with Cape Columbia being the most northerly point of land in Canada . It comprises an area of 196235 km2 and the total length of the island is 830 km , making it the world 's tenth largest island and Canada 's third largest island . The Arctic Cordillera mountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island , making it the most mountainous in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . The Arctic willow is the only woody species to grow on Ellesmere Island .
|
Environmental_pricing_reform
|
Environmental pricing reform ( EPR ) is the process of adjusting market prices to include environmental costs and benefits . An externality ( a type of market failure ) exists where a market price omits environmental costs and/or benefits . In such a situation , rational ( self-interested ) economic decisions can lead to environmental harm , as well as to economic distortions and inefficiencies . Environmental pricing reform can be economy-wide , or more focused ( e.g. specific to a sector ( such as electric power generation or mining ) or a particular environmental issue ( such as climate change ) . A `` market based instruments '' or `` economic instrument for environmental protection '' is an individual instance of Environmental Pricing Reform . Examples include green tax-shifting ( ecotaxation ) , tradeable pollution permits , or the creation of markets for ecological services . A similar term , `` ecological fiscal reform '' differs in more narrowly dealing with fiscal ( i.e. tax ) policies as opposed to using non-fiscal regulations to achieve the government 's environmental goals .
|
Environmental_issue
|
Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .
|
Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate
|
The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )
|
Emissions_trading
|
Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .
|
Electrofuel
|
Electrofuels are an emerging class of carbon-neutral drop-in replacement fuels that are made by storing electrical energy from renewable sources in the chemical bonds of liquid or gas fuels . The primary targets are butanol , biodiesel , and hydrogen , but include other alcohols and carbon-containing gasses such as methane and butane . A primary source of funding for research on liquid electrofuels for transportation is the Electrofuels Program of the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy ( ARPA-E ) , headed by Eric Toone . ARPA-E , created in 2009 under President Obama 's Secretary of Energy Steven Chu , is the Department of Energy 's ( DOE ) attempt to duplicate the effectiveness of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency , DARPA . Examples of projects funded under this program include OPX Biotechnologies ' biodiesel effort led by Michael Lynch and Derek Lovley 's work on microbial electrosynthesis at the University of Massachusetts Amherst , which reportedly produced the first liquid electrofuel using CO2 as the feedstock . Descriptions of all ARPA-E Electrofuels Program research projects can be found at the ARPA-E Electrofuels Program website . The first Electrofuels Conference , sponsored by the American Institute of Chemical Engineers was held in Providence , RI in November 2011 . At that conference , Director Eric Toone stated that `` Eighteen months into the program , we know it works . We need to know if we can make it matter . '' Several groups are beyond proof-of-principle , and are working to scale up cost-effectively . Electrofuels have the potential to be disruptive if carbon-neutral electrofuels can be cheaper than petroleum fuels , and chemical feedstocks produced by electrosynthesis cheaper than those refined from crude oil . Electrofuels also have a great potential to alter the renewable energy landscape , as electrofuels allow renewables from all sources to be stored conveniently as a liquid fuel . , prompted by the fracking boom , ARPA-E 's focus has moved from electrical feedstocks to natural-gas based feedstocks , and thus away from electrofuels .
|
Energy_in_the_United_States
|
The United States was the 2nd largest energy consumer in 2010 ( after China ) considering total use . The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of small nations . Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels : in 2010 , data showed 25 % of the nation 's energy came from petroleum , 22 % from coal , and 22 % from natural gas . Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 % , which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power , geothermal and solar energy . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. ( when they were roughly equal ) . This difference is now largely met through imports . According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics , the per-capita energy consumption in the US has been somewhat consistent from the 1970s to today . The average has been 334 million British thermal units ( BTUs ) per person from 1980 to 2010 . One explanation suggested for this is that the energy required to produce the increase in US consumption of manufactured equipment , cars , and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution . In comparison , the world average has increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTU 's per person in 2008 . On the other hand , US `` off-shoring '' of manufacturing is sometimes exaggerated : US domestic manufacturing has grown by 50 % since 1980 .
|
Efficiency
|
Efficiency is the ( often measurable ) ability to avoid wasting materials , energy , efforts , money , and time in doing something or in producing a desired result . In a more general sense , it is the ability to do things well , successfully , and without waste . In more mathematical or scientific terms , it is a measure of the extent to which input is well used for an intended task or function ( output ) . It often specifically comprises the capability of a specific application of effort to produce a specific outcome with a minimum amount or quantity of waste , expense , or unnecessary effort . Efficiency , of course , refers to very different inputs and outputs in different fields and industries . Efficiency is very often confused with effectiveness . In general , efficiency is a measurable concept , quantitatively determined by the ratio of useful output to total input . Effectiveness is the simpler concept of being able to achieve a desired result , which can be expressed quantitatively but does n't usually require more complicated mathematics than addition . Efficiency can often be expressed as a percentage of the result that could ideally be expected , for example if no energy were lost due to friction or other causes , in which case 100 % of fuel or other input would be used to produce the desired result . This does not always apply , not even in all cases in which efficiency can be assigned a numerical value , e.g. not for specific impulse . A common but confusing way of distinguishing between efficiency and effectiveness is the saying `` Efficiency is doing things right , while effectiveness is doing the right things . '' This saying indirectly emphasizes that the selection of objectives of a production process is just as important as the quality of that process . This saying popular in business however obscures the more common sense of `` effectiveness '' , which would/should produce the following mnemonic : `` Efficiency is doing things right ; effectiveness is getting things done . '' This makes it clear that effectiveness , for example large production numbers , can also be achieved through inefficient processes if , for example , workers are willing or used to working longer hours or with greater physical effort than in other companies or countries or if they can be forced to do so . Similarly , a company can achieve effectiveness , for example large production numbers , through inefficient processes if it can afford to use more energy per product , for example if energy prices or labor costs or both are lower than for its competitors . For example , one may measure how directly two objects are communicating : downloading music directly from a computer to a mobile device is more efficient than using a mobile device 's microphone to record music sounds that come from a computer 's speakers . Efficiency is often measured as the ratio of useful output to total input , which can be expressed with the mathematical formula r =P / C , where P is the amount of useful output ( `` product '' ) produced per the amount C ( `` cost '' ) of resources consumed . This may correspond to a percentage if products and consumables are quantified in compatible units , and if consumables are transformed into products via a conservative process . For example , in the analysis of the energy conversion efficiency of heat engines in thermodynamics , the product P may be the amount of useful work output , while the consumable C is the amount of high-temperature heat input . Due to the conservation of energy , P can never be greater than C , and so the efficiency r is never greater than 100 % ( and in fact must be even less at finite temperatures ) .
|
Enos_(chimpanzee)
|
Enos ( d. November 4 , 1962 ) was the second chimpanzee launched into space by NASA . He was the first chimpanzee , and third hominid after cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov , to achieve Earth orbit . Enos ' flight occurred on November 29 , 1961 . Enos was brought from the Miami Rare Bird Farm on April 3 , 1960 . He completed more than 1,250 training hours at the University of Kentucky and Holloman Air Force Base . Training was more intense for him than for his predecessor Ham , because Enos was exposed to weightlessness and higher gs for longer periods of time . His training included psychomotor instruction and aircraft flights . Enos was selected for flight only three days before launch . Two months prior , NASA launched Mercury Atlas 4 on September 13 , 1961 , to conduct an identical mission with a `` crewman simulator '' on board . Enos flew into space aboard Mercury Atlas 5 on November 29 , 1961 . He completed his first orbit in 1 hour and 28.5 minutes . Enos was scheduled to complete three orbits , but the mission was aborted after two due to two issues : capsule overheating and a malfunctioning `` avoidance conditioning '' test subjecting the primate to 76 electrical shocks . The capsule was brought aboard the USS Stormes ( DD-780 ) in the late afternoon and Enos was immediately taken below deck by his Air Force handlers . The Stormes arrived in Bermuda the next day . Enos 's flight was a full dress rehearsal for the next Mercury launch on February 20 , 1962 , which would make Lt. Colonel John Glenn the first American to orbit Earth , after astronauts Alan Shepard , Jr. and Gus Grissom 's successful suborbital space flights . On November 4 , 1962 , Enos died of shigellosis-related dysentery , which was resistant to then-known antibiotics . He was constantly observed for two months before his death . Pathologists reported no symptoms that could be attributed or related to his previous space flight . Many believe Enos 's remains were dissected like Ham , who was extensively studied postmortem at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology . Some of Ham 's remains , minus the skeleton ( which remained with AIP ) , were buried at the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico . Recent attempts by space scholars to locate Enos 's remains were unsuccessful . Some confirmed post-mortem study was undertaken , but no evidence of final disposition has been found . Enos 's body may have been discarded when examinations completed . .
|
Environmental_governance
|
Environmental governance is a concept in political ecology and environmental policy that advocates sustainability ( sustainable development ) as the supreme consideration for managing all human activities -- political , social and economic . Governance includes government , business and civil society , and emphasizes whole system management . To capture this diverse range of elements , environmental governance often employs alternative systems of governance , for example watershed-based management . It views natural resources and the environment as global public goods , belonging to the category of goods that are not diminished when they are shared . This means that everyone benefits from for example , a breathable atmosphere , stable climate and stable biodiversity . Public goods are non-rivalrous -- a natural resource enjoyed by one person can still be enjoyed by others -- and non-excludable -- it is impossible to prevent someone consuming the good ( breathing ) . Nevertheless , public goods are recognized as beneficial and therefore have value . The notion of a global public good thus emerges , with a slight distinction : it covers necessities that must not be destroyed by one person or state . The non-rivalrous character of such goods calls for a management approach that restricts public and private actors from damaging them . One approach is to attribute an economic value to the resource . Water is possibly the best example of this type of good . As of 2013 environmental governance is far from meeting these imperatives . `` Despite a great awareness of environmental questions from developed and developing countries , there is environmental degradation and the appearance of new environmental problems . This situation is caused by the parlous state of global environmental governance , wherein current global environmental governance is unable to address environmental issues due to many factors . These include fragmented governance within the United Nations , lack of involvement from financial institutions , proliferation of environmental agreements often in conflict with trade measures ; all these various problems disturb the proper functioning of global environmental governance . Moreover , divisions among northern countries and the persistent gap between developed and developing countries also have to be taken into account to comprehend the institutional failures of the current global environmental governance . ''
|
Eocene
|
The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain . The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch .
|
Energy_in_Europe
|
Energy in Europe includes energy and electricity production , consumption and import in Europe .
|
Environmental_archaeology
|
Environmental archaeology is a sub-field of archaeology and is the science of reconstructing the relationships between past societies and the environments they lived in . The field represents an archaeological-palaeoecological approach to studying the palaeoenvironment through the methods of human palaeoecology . Reconstructing past environments and past peoples ' relationships and interactions with the landscapes they inhabited provides archaeologists with insights into the origin and evolution of anthropogenic environments , and prehistoric adaptations and economic practices . Environmental archaeology is commonly divided into three sub-fields : archaeobotany ( the study of plant remains ) zooarchaeology ( the study of faunal remains ) geoarchaeology ( the study of geological processes and their relationship to the archaeological record ) Other related fields include : landscape archaeology bioarchaeology and human ecology climatology palaeoecology archival research Environmental archaeology often involves studying plant and animal remains in order to investigate which plant and animal species were present at the time of prehistoric habitations , and how past societies managed them . It may also involve studying the physical environment and how similar or different it was in the past compared to the present-day . An important component of such analyses represents the study of site formation processes . This field is particularly useful when artifacts may be absent from an excavated or surveyed site , or in cases of earth movement , such as erosion , which may have buried artifacts and archaeological features . While specialist sub-fields , for example bioarchaeology or geomorphology , are defined by the materials they study , the term `` environmental '' is used as a general template in order to denote a general field of scientific inquiry that is applicable across time periods and geographical regions studied by archaeology as a whole . Environmental archaeology has emerged as a distinct discipline in the course of the last 50 years . In recent years it has grown rapidly in significance and is now an established component of most excavation projects . The field is multidisciplinary , and environmental archaeologists as well as palaeoecologists work side by side with archaeologists and anthropologists specialising in material culture studies in order to achieve a more holistic understanding of past human lifeways and people-environment interactions . A notable pioneer of environmental archaeology has been Karl Butzer .
|
Environmental_politics
|
Environmental politics is an academic field of study focused on three core components : The study of political theories and ideas related to the environment ; The examination of the environmental stances of both mainstream political parties and environmental social movements ; and The analysis of public policymaking and implementation affecting the environment , at multiple geo-political levels . Neil Carter , in his foundational text Politics of the Environment ( 2009 ) , suggests that environmental politics is distinct in at least two ways : first , `` it has a primary concern with the relationship between human society and the natural world '' ( p. 3 ) ; and second , `` unlike most other single issues , it comes replete with its own ideology and political movement '' ( p. 5 , drawing on Michael Jacobs , ed. , Greening the Millenium ? , 1997 ) . Further , he distinguishes between modern and earlier forms of environmental politics , in particular conservationism and preservationism . Contemporary environmental politics `` was driven by the idea of a global ecological crisis that threatened the very existence of humanity . '' And `` modern environmentalism was a political and activist mass movement which demanded a radical transformation in the values and structures of society . '' Environmental concerns were rooted in the vast social changes that took place in the United States after World War II . Although environmentalism can be identified in earlier years , only after the war did it become widely shared social priority . This began with outdoor recreation in the 1950s , extended into the wider field of the protection of natural environments , and then became infused with attempts to cope with air and water pollution and still later with toxic chemical pollutants . After World War II , environmental politics became a major public concern . The development of environmentalism in the United Kingdom emerged in this period following the great London smog of 1952 and the Torrey Canyon oil spill of 1967 . This is reflected by the emergence of Green politics in the Western world beginning in the 1970s .
|
Environmental_movement
|
The environmental movement ( sometimes referred to as the ecology movement ) , also including conservation and green politics , is a diverse scientific , social , and political movement for addressing environmental issues . Environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior . In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ( not enemy of ) ecosystems , the movement is centered on ecology , health , and human rights . The environmental movement is an international movement , represented by a range of organizations , from the large to grassroots and varies from country to country . Due to its large membership , varying and strong beliefs , and occasionally speculative nature , the environmental movement is not always united in its goals . The movement also encompasses some other movements with a more specific focus , such as the climate movement . At its broadest , the movement includes private citizens , professionals , religious devotees , politicians , scientists , nonprofit organizations and individual advocates .
|
Energy_and_Climate_Partnership_of_the_Americas
|
The Energy and Climate Partnership of the Americas ( ECPA ) was announced by U.S. President Barack Obama at the Summit of the Americas in April 2009 . The ECPA is conceived as a flexible mechanism to accelerate sustainable energy in the Americas . ECPA is built upon seven pillars , including renewable energy , energy efficiency , energy poverty , cleaner and more efficient use of fossil fuels , infrastructure , sustainable land use and forestry , and adaptation . A number of collaborative initiatives form the core foundation of the ECPA . These include the following : Envoys Program : aims at enabling the sharing of best practices and expertise in research , development , design and implementation of clean energy programs . Other activities include : Lighting the Americas : Seeks to provide electricity to the 34 million people in Latin America who currently are without access . U.S. Trade and Development Agency 's ( USTDA ) Clean Energy Exchange Program of the Americas : Brings nearly 50 Latin American and Caribbean energy officials and project sponsors to the United States on a series of reverse trade missions . Low Carbon Communities of the Americas projects : Caribbean Renewable Energy Strategy : Aims to enable countries to implement actions and strategies geared towards increasing the sustainability of their energy supplies while reducing carbon emissions from the energy sector through the development and use of renewable energy and energy efficiency systems . Dominica Wind Project : Seeks to prove the viability of small , distributed wind generation as an alternative to traditional , megawatt-class utility-scale turbines . Costa Rican Energy Efficiency Training Center : '' The center will train and certify professionals in energy efficient technology and auditing procedures , and also help expand the technical knowledge and capabilities of the Central American region on efficiency services and programs Colombia Biomass Initiative : The objective is to develop a technological plan for use of agro-industrial residue biomass to produce energy . Energy Innovation Center : Promotes and advances clean energy projects through mobilization of funding , knowledge dissemination and technical expertise . Chile Renewable Energy Center : The long-term goal for the center is to serve as a tool and resource for the region .
|
Environmental_issues_in_Puget_Sound
|
Puget Sound is a deep inlet of the Pacific Ocean in Washington , extending south from the Strait of Juan de Fuca through Admiralty Inlet . It was explored and named by Captain George Vancouver for his aide , Peter Puget , in 1792 . The ninth Puget Sound Update , from the Puget Sound Action Team reports that : `` the Puget Sound has biological resources which include all of the living organisms which inhabit the marine waters and shorelines . These biological resources are plankton , invertebrates , fish , birds , mammals , and aquatic vegetation , including species that are either residential or migratory . '' The abundance of creatures and foliage allowed for the native peoples of the area to thrive and prosper by harvesting it . Many of the problems of the Puget Sound originated from explorers and trappers hunting and killing the indigenous species off of which the natives thrived and prospered . However , in the past 30 years there has been a large recession in the populations of the species which inhabit the Puget Sound . The decrease has been seen in the populations of : forage fish , salmonids , bottom fish , marine birds , harbor porpoise and orcas . This decline is attributed to environmental issues in Puget Sound . Because of this population decline , there have been changes to the fishery practices , and an increase in petitioning to add species to the Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) . There has also been an increase in recovery and management plans for many different area species . The cause of these environmental issues are , toxic contamination , eutrophication ( low oxygen due to excess nutrients ) , and near shore habitat changes . '' The Puget Sound has been affected by urbanization and the toxic pollutants they produce . As a government document regarding this issue says , `` A major contributor of these toxic pollutants entering the Sound is the stormwater that runs off our highways , roads , driveways , roofs , parking lots , disturbed soils , and other developed surfaces . '' They also talk about the loss of habitat . In the last 125 years , the Puget Sound has lost or damaged 70 percent of their habitats including the salt marshes , eelgrass beds and the estuaries .
|
Effects_of_Hurricane_Katrina_in_Mississippi
|
Hurricane Katrina 's winds and storm surge reached the Mississippi coastline on the morning of August 29 , 2005 . beginning a two-day path of destruction through central Mississippi ; by 10 a.m. CDT on August 29 , 2005 , the eye of Katrina began traveling up the entire state , only slowing from hurricane-force winds at Meridian near 7 p.m. and entering Tennessee as a tropical storm . Many coastal towns of Mississippi ( and Louisiana ) had already been obliterated , in a single night . Hurricane-force winds reached coastal Mississippi by 2 a.m. and lasted over 17 hours , spawning 11 tornadoes ( 51 in other states ) and a 28-foot ( 9 m ) storm surge flooding 6 -- 12 miles ( 10 -- 19 km ) inland . Many , unable to evacuate , survived by climbing to attics or rooftops , or swimming to higher buildings and trees . The worst property damage from Katrina occurred in coastal Mississippi , where all towns flooded over 90 % in hours , and waves destroyed many historic buildings , with others gutted to the 3rd story . Afterward , 238 people died in Mississippi , and all counties in Mississippi were declared disaster areas , 49 for full federal assistance . Regulations were changed later for emergency centers and casinos . The emergency command centers were moved higher because all 3 coastal centers flooded at 30 ft ( 9 m ) above sea level . Casinos were allowed on land rather than limited to floating casino barges as in 2005 . More than one million people in Mississippi were affected , and almost 6 months later , the extent of the devastation in Mississippi was still described as `` staggering '' in USA Today on February 16 , 2006 : `` The Mississippi Gulf Coast has been devastated . The extent of the devastation in Mississippi is also staggering . Since Katrina hit , more than half a million people in Mississippi have applied for assistance from FEMA . In a state of just 2.9 million residents , that means more than one in six Mississippians have sought help .
|
Energy_in_Denmark
|
Denmark has considerable sources of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranked as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil in 2008 . Denmark expects to be self-sufficient with oil until 2050 . However , gas resources are expected to decline , and production may decline below consumption in 2020 , making imports necessary . A large but decreasing proportion of electricity is produced from coal , and hydropower and 3-4 % nuclear power is imported while wind turbines supply the equivalent of about 42 % of electricity demand by 2015 ( see Wind power in Denmark ) . In February 2011 the Danish government announced the `` Energy Strategy 2050 '' with the aim to be fully independent of fossil fuels by 2050 , and a new government repeated the goal in 2015 despite public scepticism . The European Renewables Directive set a mandatory target at 20 % share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 ( EU combined ) . In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50 % by 2020 , and to 84 % in 2035 . Denmark 's electrical grid is connected by transmission lines to other European countries , and had ( according to the World Economic Forum ) the best energy security in the EU in 2013 although this had fallen to third in the EU by 2014 . Denmark imports around 12 % of its energy .
|
Environmental_degradation
|
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air , water and soil ; the destruction of ecosystems ; habitat destruction ; the extinction of wildlife ; and pollution . It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable . As indicated by the I = PAT equation , environmental impact ( I ) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human population ( P ) , continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence ( A ) , and the application of resource depleting and polluting technology ( T ) . Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats , Challenges and Change of the United Nations . The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as `` The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives , and needs '' . Environmental degradation is of many types . When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted , the environment is degraded . Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management .
|
Environmental_policy
|
Environmental policy refers to the commitment of an organization to the laws , regulations , and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues . These issues generally include air and water pollution , waste management , ecosystem management , maintenance of biodiversity , the protection of natural resources , wildlife and endangered species . Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy . This policy can be deliberately taken to direct and oversee human activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources , as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have harmful effects on humans .
|
Ediacaran_biota
|
The Ediacaran ( -LSB- ˌiːdiˈækərən -RSB- formerly Vendian ) biota consisted of enigmatic tubular and frond-shaped , mostly sessile organisms that lived during the Ediacaran Period ( ca. 635 -- 542 Mya ) . Trace fossils of these organisms have been found worldwide , and represent the earliest known complex multicellular organisms.Simple multicellular organisms such as red algae evolved at least . The Ediacaran biota radiated in an event called the Avalon explosion , , after the Earth had thawed from the Cryogenian period 's extensive glaciation . The biota largely disappeared with the rapid increase in biodiversity known as the Cambrian explosion . Most of the currently existing body plans of animals first appeared in the fossil record of the Cambrian rather than the Ediacaran . For macroorganisms , the Cambrian biota appears to have completely replaced the organisms that dominated the Ediacaran fossil record , although relationships are still a matter of debate . The organisms of the Ediacaran Period first appeared around and flourished until the cusp of the Cambrian , when the characteristic communities of fossils vanished . The earliest reasonably diverse Ediacaran community was discovered in 1995 in Sonora , Mexico , and is approximately 600 million years in age , pre-dating the Gaskiers glaciation of about 580 million years ago . While rare fossils that may represent survivors have been found as late as the Middle Cambrian ( 510 to 500 million years ago ) , the earlier fossil communities disappear from the record at the end of the Ediacaran leaving only curious fragments of once-thriving ecosystems . Multiple hypotheses exist to explain the disappearance of this biota , including preservation bias , a changing environment , the advent of predators and competition from other life-forms . Determining where Ediacaran organisms fit in the tree of life has proven challenging ; it is not even established that they were animals , with suggestions that they were lichens ( fungus-alga symbionts ) , algae , protists known as foraminifera , fungi or microbial colonies , or hypothetical intermediates between plants and animals . The morphology and habit of some taxa ( e.g. Funisia dorothea ) suggest relationships to Porifera or Cnidaria . Kimberella may show a similarity to molluscs , and other organisms have been thought to possess bilateral symmetry , although this is controversial . Most macroscopic fossils are morphologically distinct from later life-forms : they resemble discs , tubes , mud-filled bags or quilted mattresses . Due to the difficulty of deducing evolutionary relationships among these organisms , some palaeontologists have suggested that these represent completely extinct lineages that do not resemble any living organism . One palaeontologist proposed a separate kingdom level category Vendozoa ( now renamed Vendobionta ) in the Linnaean hierarchy for the Ediacaran biota . If these enigmatic organisms left no descendants , their strange forms might be seen as a `` failed experiment '' in multicellular life , with later multicellular life evolving independently from unrelated single-celled organisms . The concept of `` Ediacaran Biota '' is , of course , somewhat artificial as it can not be defined geographically , stratigraphically , taphonomically , or biologically .
|
Employer_of_last_resort
|
Employers of last resort are employers in an economy to whom workers go for jobs when no other jobs are available ; the term is by analogy with `` lender of last resort '' . The phrase is used in two senses : undesirable jobs , often private sector , which are only taken as a last resort ; a formal government job guarantee program , where the government promises to act as employer of last resort , employing all comers . The sense of a job guarantee program is used and advocated by some schools of Post-Keynesian economists , notably by authors of Modern Monetary Theory at the University of Missouri-Kansas City , the Levy Economics Institute ( both United States ) and in the Centre of Full Employment and Equity ( Australia ) , who advocate it as a solution for unemployment .
|
Environmental_data
|
Environmental data is that which is based on the measurement of environmental pressures , the state of the environment and the impacts on ecosystems . This is usually the `` P '' , `` S '' and `` I '' of the DPSIR model where D = Drivers , P = Pressures , S = State , I = Impact , R = Response . Environmental data is typically generated by institutions executing environmental law or doing environmental research . Environment statistics are usually generated by statistical offices and are considered as environmental data , too . Socio-economic data and other statistical data ( often the `` D '' and the `` R '' of the DPSIR model ) are not considered as environmental data . However , they are to be integrated into comprehensive environmental assessments . Usually this kind of data is held by other institutions than the environmental administration ( e.g. National Statistical Offices ) . The same is true for geo-basisdata , which are not considered as environmental data , but have to be available for environmental policies and environmental information . In recent years , environmental data has become increasingly important to investors , prompting Bloomberg L.P. to begin providing Environmental , Social and Governance ( ESG ) data through their terminals . All data generated by the execution of environmental law are to be considered as environmental data . In order to comply with the above requirements and obligations , certain conditions within them must be met . Typically these will include : - Managing monitoring programmes or schedules , ensuring that the monitoring required in the permit has been done , at the correct locations , for the correct parameters , and at the correct frequency - Pre-processing , performing calculations and validating the data for compliance with any alert or reporting levels - Generating routine compliance reports for authorities . The management of the above can be complex and time-consuming , leading to an increasing uptake of software systems designed to manage environmental compliance . These are often referred to as ` Environmental Data Management Systems ' ( EDMS ) , the selection of which is subject to a number of key criteria .
|
Elevation
|
The elevation of a geographic location is its height above or below a fixed reference point , most commonly a reference geoid , a mathematical model of the Earth 's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface ( see Geodetic system , vertical datum ) . Elevation , or geometric height , is mainly used when referring to points on the Earth 's surface , while altitude or geopotential height is used for points above the surface , such as an aircraft in flight or a spacecraft in orbit , and depth is used for points below the surface . Elevation is not to be confused with the distance from the center of the Earth ; due to equatorial bulge , the summits of Mt. Everest and Chimborazo have , respectively , the largest elevation and the largest geocentric distance .
|
Environmental_journalism
|
Environmental journalism is the collection , verification , production , distribution and exhibition of information regarding current events , trends , issues and people that are associated with the non-human world with which humans necessarily interact . To be an environmental journalist , one must have an understanding of scientific language and practice , knowledge of historical environmental events , the ability to keep abreast of environmental policy decisions and the work of environmental organizations , a general understanding of current environmental concerns , and the ability to communicate all of that information to the public in such a way that it can be easily understood , despite its complexity . Environmental journalism falls within the scope of environmental communication , and its roots can be traced to nature writing . One key controversy in environmental journalism is a continuing disagreement over how to distinguish it from its allied genres and disciplines .
|
Energy_accidents
|
Energy resources bring with them great social and economic promise , providing financial growth for communities and energy services for local economies . However , the infrastructure which delivers energy services can breakdown in an energy accident , sometimes causing much damage , and energy fatalities can occur , and with many systems often deaths will happen even when the systems are working as intended . Historically , coal mining has been the most dangerous energy activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut mining hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the US alone , more than 100,000 coal miners have been killed in accidents over the past century , with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone . According to Benjamin K. Sovacool , 279 major energy accidents occurred from 1907 to 2007 and they caused 182,156 deaths with $ 41 billion in property damages , with these figures not including deaths from smaller accidents . However , by far the greatest energy fatalities that result from energy generation by humanity , is the creation of air pollution . The most lethal of which , particulate matter , which is primarily generated from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is ( counting outdoor air pollution effects only ) estimated to cause 2.1 million deaths annually .
|
Encyclopædia_Britannica
|
The Encyclopædia Britannica ( Latin for `` British Encyclopaedia '' ) , published by Encyclopædia Britannica , Inc. , is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia . It is written by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors , who have included 110 Nobel Prize winners and five American presidents . The 2010 version of the 15th edition , which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages , was the last printed edition ; digital content and distribution has continued since then . The Britannica is the oldest English-language encyclopaedia still in production . It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh , as three volumes . The encyclopaedia grew in size : the second edition was 10 volumes , and by its fourth edition ( 1801 -- 1810 ) it had expanded to 20 volumes . Its rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors , and the 9th ( 1875 -- 1889 ) and 11th editions ( 1911 ) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style . Beginning with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm , the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market . In 1933 , the Britannica became the first encyclopaedia to adopt `` continuous revision '' , in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted , with every article updated on a schedule . In March 2012 , Encyclopædia Britannica , Inc. announced it would no longer publish printed editions , and would focus instead on Encyclopædia Britannica Online . The 15th edition has a three-part structure : a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles ( generally fewer than 750 words ) , a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles ( two to 310 pages ) , and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge . The Micropædia is meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia ; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject 's context and to find more detailed articles . Over 70 years , the size of the Britannica has remained steady , with about 40 million words on half a million topics . Though published in the United States since 1901 , the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling .
|
Environmental_Defense_v._Duke_Energy_Corp.
|
Environmental Defense v. Duke Energy Corporation , 549 U.S. 561 ( 2007 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that while a term may be used more than once in a statute , an agency has the discretion to interpret each use of the term in a different way based on the context . In a unanimous decision , the Court held in favor of the plaintiff 's ( Environmental Defense ) argument . This case addressed the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) and two of its programs , Prevention of Significant Deterioration ( PSD ) and New Source Performance Standard ( NSPS ) . PSD applies to regulating annual emissions ; NSPS pertains to regulating hourly emissions . Each section of the Clean Air Act , that outlines the provisions of the PSD and the NSPS , defines `` modification '' differently . As a result , the inconsistency of the term `` modification '' in the CAA becomes the main debate of the case and the main argument for both the plaintiffs and defendants .
|
Einstein–de_Sitter_universe
|
The Einstein -- de Sitter universe is a model of the universe proposed by Albert Einstein and Willem de Sitter in 1932 . On first learning of Edwin Hubble 's discovery of a linear relation between the redshift of the galaxies and their distance , Einstein set the cosmological constant to zero in the Friedmann equations , resulting in a model of the expanding universe known as The Friedmann-Einstein universe . In 1932 , Einstein and de Sitter proposed an even simpler cosmic model by assuming a vanishing spatial curvature as well as a vanishing cosmological constant . In modern parlance , the Einstein -- de Sitter universe can be described as a cosmological model for a flat matter-only Friedmann -- Lemaître -- Robertson -- Walker metric ( FLRW ) universe . In the model , Einstein and de Sitter derived a simple relation between the average density of matter in the universe and its expansion according to H02 = кρ / 3 where H0 is the Hubble constant , ρ is the average density of matter and к is the Einstein constant . The Einstein -- de Sitter universe became a standard model of the universe for many years because of its simplicity and because of a lack of empirical evidence for either spatial curvature or a cosmological constant . It also represented an important theoretical case of a universe of critical matter density poised between contraction or expansion at an ever-increasing rate . However , Einstein 's later reviews of cosmology make it clear that he saw the model as only one of several possibilities for the expanding universe .
|
Emergency_Relief_Appropriation_Act_of_1935
|
The Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 was passed on April 8 , 1935 , as a part of Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's New Deal . It was a large public works program that included the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) , Public Works Administration ( PWA ) , the National Youth Administration , the Resettlement Administration , the Rural Electrification Administration , and other assistance programs . These programs were called the `` second New Deal '' . The programs gave Americans work , for which the government would pay them . The goal was to help unemployment , pull the country out of the Great Depression , and prevent another depression in the future . This was the first and largest system of public-assistance relief programs in American history , and it led to the largest accumulation of national debt .
|
Environmental_hazard
|
An environmental hazard is a substance , state or event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural environment and / or adversely affect people 's health . This term incorporates topics like pollution and natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes . Human-made hazards while not immediately health-threatening may turn out detrimental to man 's well-being eventually , because deterioration in the environment can produce secondary , unwanted negative effects on the human ecosphere . The effects of water pollution may not be immediately visible because of a sewage system that helps drain off toxic substances . If those substances turn out to be persistent ( e.g. persistent organic pollutant ) , however , they will literally be fed back to their producers via the food chain : plankton - > edible fish - > humans . In that respect , a considerable number of environmental hazards listed below are man-made ( anthropogenic ) hazards . Hazards can be categorized in four types : Chemical Physical ( mechanical , etc. . ) Biological Psychosocial .
|
Eskimology
|
Eskimology -LSB- ɛskəˈmɑːlədʒiː -RSB- or Inuitology is a complex of humanities sciences studying languages , history , literature , folklore , culture , and ethnology of people speaking Eskimo -- Aleut languages and Eskimo ( Inuit -- Yupik ) -- Aleut peoples in chronological and comparative context . This includes ethnic groups from the Chukchi Peninsula on the eastern tip of Siberia of Russian Federation to Alaska of the United States , Northern Canada ( incl . Nunavik and Nunatsiavut ) , and Greenland of Denmark . Originally , a Eskimologist or Inuitologist was primarily a linguist or philologist who researches Eskimology scholar . Eskimology traces its beginning to the pioneering work of Hans Egede ( 1745 ) and David Crantz ( 1767 ) in Greenland . Eskimology has traditionally had a particular focus on Greenland studies owing to the long-standing relationship between Denmark and Greenland established in the early 18th century , and the academic discipline of Eskimology is today centered at the University of Copenhagen . The term `` Eskimology '' was not common until 1967 , when a genuine department was established and officially named the Department of Eskimology . From the late 1960s , Eskimology changed its focus toward increasingly contemporary and global political issues .
|
Energy_storage
|
Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time . A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator . Energy comes in multiple forms including radiation , chemical , gravitational potential , electrical potential , electricity , elevated temperature , latent heat and kinetic . Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently or economically storable forms . Bulk energy storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams , both conventional as well as pumped . Some technologies provide short-term energy storage , while others can endure for much longer . A wind-up clock stores potential energy ( in this case mechanical , in the spring tension ) , a rechargeable battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone , and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy . Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died , became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels . Food ( which is made by the same process as fossil fuels ) is a form of energy stored in chemical form . Ice storage tanks store ice frozen by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling . The energy is n't stored directly , but the work-product of consuming energy ( pumping away heat ) is stored , having the equivalent effect on daytime consumption .
|
Environmentalist
|
An environmentalist is a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement , `` a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities '' . An environmentalist is engaged in or believes in the philosophy of environmentalism . Environmentalists are sometimes referred to using informal or derogatory terms such as `` greenie '' and `` tree-hugger '' .
|
Environmental_mitigation
|
Environmental mitigation , compensatory mitigation , or mitigation banking , are terms used primarily by the United States government and the related environmental industry to describe projects or programs intended to offset known impacts to an existing historic or natural resource such as a stream , wetland , endangered species , archeological site or historic structure . To `` mitigate '' means to make less harsh or hostile . Environmental mitigation is typically a part of an environmental crediting system established by governing bodies which involves allocating debits and credits . Debits occur in situations where a natural resource has been destroyed or severely impaired and credits are given in situations where a natural resource has been deemed to be improved or preserved . Therefore , when an entity such as a business or individual has a `` debit '' they are required to purchase a `` credit '' . In some cases credits are bought from `` mitigation banks '' which are large mitigation projects established to provide credit to multiple parties in advance of development when such compensation can not be achieved at the development site or is not seen as beneficial to the environment . Crediting systems can allow credit to be generated in different ways . For example , in the United States , projects are valued based on what the intentions of the project are which may be to preserve , enhance , restore or create ( PERC ) a natural resource .
|
Environment_of_West_Virginia
|
The Environment of West Virginia encompasses terrain and ecosystems ranging from arid plateaus to mountains . Most of West Virginia lies within the Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests ecoregion , while the higher elevations along the eastern border and in the panhandle lie within the Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests . West Virginia is situated in the Appalachian Mountains of the Upper South region of the 48 contiguous states . Usually considered part of the South Eastern United States , West Virginia is bounded on the northeast by Pennsylvania and Maryland , on the southeast by Virginia , on the northwest by Ohio , and on the southwest by Kentucky . A portion of the Appalachian Mountains stretches into eastern West Virginia , and in the state 's northeastern corner , Spruce Knob is officially regarded as the tallest mountain in the Allegheny Mountains , a vast section of the Appalachians . West Virginia covers an area of 24,229.76 sqmi , with 24,077.73 sqmi of land and 152.03 sqmi of water , making it the 41st-largest state in the United States . Generally , it is divided into four geographical regions : Ohio River Valley , Allegheny Plateau , Allegheny Highlands , and Potomac Section .
|
Era_(geology)
|
A geologic era is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time . The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames : the Paleozoic , Mesozoic , and Cenozoic represent the major stages in the macroscopic fossil record . These eras are separated by catastrophic extinction boundaries , the P-T boundary between the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic and the K-Pg boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic . There is evidence that catastrophic meteorite impacts played a role in demarcating the differences between the eras . The Hadean , Archean and Proterozoic eons were as a whole formerly called the Precambrian . This covered the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals . More recently , however , those eons have been subdivided into eras of their own .
|
Environmental_determinism
|
Environmental determinism ( also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism ) is the study of how the physical environment predisposes societies and states towards particular development trajectories . Nineteenth century approaches held that climate and terrain largely determined human activity and psychology , and it was associated with institutionalized racism and eugenics . Many scholars underscore that this approach supported colonialism and eurocentrism , and devalued human agency in non-Western societies . Jared Diamond , Jeffrey Herbst , and other social scientists sparked a revival of the theory during the late twentieth century . This `` neo-environmental determinism '' school of thought examines how geographic and ecological forces influence state-building , economic development , and institutions .
|
Environmental_governance_in_Brazil
|
Environmental governance is a concept in environmental policy that steers markets , technology and society towards achieving the goal of sustainability . It considers social , economic and environmental aspects in the decision making of its policies . Brazil is currently developing at an incredibly fast rate , only out-performed by countries such as China and India , both in terms of economic growth and recovery rate after the global financial crisis in the late 2000s . The saying that `` Brazil is the country of the future ... and it always will be '' has haunted Brazil for decades . But recent economic policy changes , made since the founding of the New Republic , have allowed Brazil to start gaining international confidence . This was epitomised when American President Barack Obama stated that `` The people of Brazil should know that the future has arrived '' during a visit to Rio de Janeiro in March 2011 . Brazil is also no longer referred to as a developing country , but as an emerging country , a newly industrialised country ( NIC ) and as a member of the BRIC economies . But with this fast economic growth rate comes huge responsibility in terms of sustainability . Brazil 's economic growth is supported by the huge demand of natural resources from China , resources that Brazil has in abundance . Brazil is currently successfully matching the needs of China 's manufacturing industry and with huge investments currently being made to sustain this demand from China , Brazil is building new ports and airports and increasing the capacity of its current ones . However , this vast extraction of natural resources is coming at a price for the natural environment . Former Environment Minister Marina Silva resigned in 2008 as she felt the Brazilian government was prioritizing the interests of big businesses and the economy , and felt she was fighting a losing battle to protect many of Brazil 's natural environments , including the Amazon Rainforest . Despite these claims , Brazil has been praised for its environmental sustainability efforts and attempts to reduce its carbon emissions . The Brazilian government created the Ministry of the Environment ( MMA ) in 1985 and following this , organisations have been created , such as IBAMA in 1989 , with the aim to protect the natural environment . Brazil has also taken a front seat with regards to global environmental governance by jointly creating and presiding the Megadiverse Like-Minded Countries Group , which includes 70 % of the world 's living biodiversity and 45 % of the world 's population .
|
Environmental_toxicology
|
Environmental toxicology , also known as entox , is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of various chemical , biological and physical agents on living organisms . Ecotoxicology is a subdiscipline of environmental toxicology concerned with studying the harmful effects of toxicants at the population and ecosystem levels . Rachel Carson is considered the mother of environmental toxicology , as she made it a distinct field within toxicology in 1962 with the publication of her book Silent Spring , which covered the effects of uncontrolled pesticide use . Carson 's book was based extensively on a series of reports by Lucille Farrier Stickel on the ecological effects of the pesticide DDT . An organism can be exposed to toxicants at various stages of its life cycle . The toxicity can vary with the organism 's placement within its food web . Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism stores toxicants in fatty tissues , which may eventually establish a trophic cascade and the biomagnification of specific toxicants . Biodegradation releases carbon dioxide and water as by-products into the environment . This process is typically limited in areas affected by environmental toxicants . Harmful effects of such chemical and biological agents as toxicants from pollutants , insecticides , pesticides , and fertilizers can affect an organism and its community by reducing its species diversity and abundance . Such changes in population dynamics affect the ecosystem by reducing its productivity and stability . Although legislation implemented since the early 1970s had intended to minimize harmful effects of environmental toxicants upon all species , McCarty ( 2013 ) has warned that `` longstanding limitations in the implementation of the simple conceptual model that is the basis of current aquatic toxicity testing protocols '' may lead to an impending environmental toxicology `` dark age '' .
|
Environmental_policy_of_the_United_States
|
The environmental policy of the United States is federal governmental action to regulate activities that have an environmental impact in the United States . The goal of environmental policy is to protect the environment for future generations while interfering as little as possible with the efficiency of commerce or the liberty of the people and to limit inequity in who is burdened with environmental costs . This policy grew mainly out of the environmental movement in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s during which several environmental laws were passed , regulating air and water pollution and forming the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Partially due to the high costs associated with these regulations , there has been a backlash from business and politically conservative interests , limiting increases to environmental regulatory budgets and slowing efforts to protect the environment . Since the 1970s , despite frequent legislative gridlock , there have been significant achievements in environmental regulation , including increases in air and water quality and , to a lesser degree , control of hazardous waste . Due to increasing scientific consensus on global warming and political pressure from environmental groups , modifications to the United States energy policy and limits on greenhouse gas have been suggested .
|
Environmental_science
|
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical , biological and information sciences ( including ecology , biology , physics , chemistry , zoology , mineralogy , oceanology , limnology , soil science , geology , atmospheric science , and geodesy ) to the study of the environment , and the solution of environmental problems . Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment . Today it provides an integrated , quantitative , and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems . Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering . Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships , perceptions and policies towards the environment . Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect . Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes , evaluating alternative energy systems , pollution control and mitigation , natural resource management , and the effects of global climate change . Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical , chemical , and biological processes . Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems . Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space , and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis . Environmental science came alive as a substantive , active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by ( a ) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems , ( b ) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation and ( c ) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems . Events that spurred this development included the publication of Rachel Carson 's landmark environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues becoming very public , such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill , and the Cuyahoga River of Cleveland , Ohio , `` catching fire '' ( also in 1969 ) , and helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of study .
|
El_Niño
|
El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .
|
Energy_industry
|
The energy industry is the totality of all of the industries involved in the production and sale of energy , including fuel extraction , manufacturing , refining and distribution . Modern society consumes large amounts of fuel , and the energy industry is a crucial part of the infrastructure and maintenance of society in almost all countries . In particular , the energy industry comprises : the petroleum industry , including oil companies , petroleum refiners , fuel transport and end-user sales at gas stations the gas industry , including natural gas extraction , and coal gas manufacture , as well as distribution and sales the electrical power industry , including electricity generation , electric power distribution and sales the coal industry the nuclear power industry the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative energy and sustainable energy companies , including those involved in hydroelectric power , wind power , and solar power generation , and the manufacture , distribution and sale of alternative fuels traditional energy industry based on the collection and distribution of firewood , the use of which , for cooking and heating , is particularly common in poorer countries
|
Endotherm
|
An endotherm ( from Greek ἔνδον endon `` within '' and θέρμη thermē `` heat '' ) is an organism that maintains its body at a metabolically favorable temperature , largely by the use of heat set free by its internal bodily functions instead of relying almost purely on ambient heat . Such internally generated heat is mainly an incidental product of the animal 's routine metabolism , but under conditions of excessive cold or low activity an endotherm might apply special mechanisms adapted specifically to heat production . Examples include special-function muscular exertion such as shivering , and uncoupled oxidative metabolism such as within brown adipose tissue . Only birds and mammals are extant universally endothermic groups of animals . Certain lamnid sharks , tuna and billfishes are also endothermic . In common parlance , endotherms are characterized as `` warm-blooded '' . The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy , although there is no absolute or clear separation between the nature of endotherms and ectotherms in general .
|
Estado_Novo_(Portugal)
|
The Estado Novo ( -LSB- ʃˈtadu , - ðu ˈnovu -RSB- , `` New State '' ) , or the Second Republic , was the corporatist authoritarian regime installed in Portugal in 1933 . It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional formed after the coup d'état of 28 May 1926 against the democratic and unstable First Republic . Together , the Ditadura Nacional and Estado Novo are recognised as the Second Portuguese Republic . The Estado Novo , greatly inspired by conservative and authoritarian ideologies , was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar , prime minister of Portugal from 1928 to 1968 , when he fell ill and was replaced by Marcelo Caetano . Opposed to communism , socialism , anarchism , liberalism and anti-colonialism , the regime was corporatist , conservative , and nationalist in nature , defending Portugal as Catholic . Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental nation under the doctrine of lusotropicalism , with Angola , Mozambique , and other Portuguese territories as extensions of Portugal itself , and it being a supposed source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions . Under Estado Novo , Portugal tried to perpetuate a vast , centuries-old empire with a total area of 2168071 km2 , while other former colonial powers had largely already acceded to global calls for self-determination and independence . Portugal joined the United Nations ( UN ) in 1955 , and was a founding member of NATO ( 1949 ) , OECD ( 1961 ) , and EFTA ( 1960 ) . In 1968 Marcelo Caetano was appointed the new head of government . On 25 April 1974 , the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon , a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers -- the Armed Forces Movement ( MFA ) -- overthrew the Estado Novo regime . Fiercely criticized by most of the international community after World War II and decolonization , it was one of the longest-surviving right-wing regimes in Europe .
|
Environmental_impact_of_aviation
|
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .
|
Erie_Canal
|
The Erie Canal is a canal in New York that is part of the east -- west , cross-state route of the New York State Canal System ( formerly known as the New York State Barge Canal ) . Originally , it ran about 363 mi from Albany , on the Hudson River , to Buffalo , at Lake Erie . It was built to create a navigable water route from New York City and the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes . First proposed in the 1780s , then re-proposed in 1807 , a survey was authorized , funded , and executed in 1808 . Proponents of the project gradually wore down opponents ; its construction began in 1817 . The canal has 35 numbered locks , plus the Federal Black Rock Lock , and an elevation differential of about 565 ft. It opened on October 26 , 1825 . In a time when bulk goods were limited to pack animals ( an eighth-ton -LSB- 250 lb -RSB- maximum ) , and there were no railways , water was the most cost-effective way to ship bulk goods . The canal , denigrated by its political opponents as `` Clinton 's Folly '' or `` Clinton 's Big Ditch '' , < ref name = TDIHhistChan > Erie Canal Opens , This Day in History : October 26 , American HistoryChannel.com </ref> was the first transportation system between the eastern seaboard ( New York City ) and the western interior ( Great Lakes ) of the United States that did not require portage . It was faster than carts pulled by draft animals , and cut transport costs by about 95 % . The canal fostered a population surge in western New York and opened regions farther west to settlement . It was enlarged between 1834 and 1862 . The canal 's peak year was 1855 , when 33,000 commercial shipments took place . In 1918 , the western part of the canal was enlarged to become part of the New York State Barge Canal , which ran parallel to the eastern half of the Erie Canal , and extended to the Hudson River . In 2000 , the United States Congress designated the Erie Canalway National Heritage Corridor to recognize the national significance of the canal system as the most successful and influential human-built waterway and one of the most important works of civil engineering and construction in North America . Mainly used by recreational watercraft since the retirement of the last large commercial ship , the Day Peckinpaugh in 1994 , the canal saw a recovery in commercial traffic in 2008 .
|
Endospore
|
An endospore is a dormant , tough , and non-reproductive structure produced by certain bacteria from the Firmicute phylum . The name `` endospore '' is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form ( endo means within ) , but it is not a true spore ( i.e. , not an offspring ) . It is a stripped-down , dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself . Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients , and usually occurs in gram-positive bacteria . In endospore formation , the bacterium divides within its cell wall . One side then engulfs the other . Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods , even centuries . Revival of spores millions of years old has been claimed . When the environment becomes more favorable , the endospore can reactivate itself to the vegetative state . Most types of bacteria can not change to the endospore form . Examples of bacteria that can form endospores include Bacillus and Clostridium . The endospore consists of the bacterium 's DNA , ribosomes and large amounts of dipicolinic acid . Dipicolinic acid is a spore-specific chemical that appears to help in the ability for endospores to maintain dormancy . This chemical comprises up to 10 % of the spore 's dry weight . Endospores can survive without nutrients . They are resistant to ultraviolet radiation , desiccation , high temperature , extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants . Thermo-resistant endospores were first hypothesized by Ferdinand Cohn after studying Bacillus subtilis ( pictured to the right ) growth on cheese after boiling the cheese . His notion of spores being the reproductive mechanism for the growth was a large blow to the previous suggestions of spontaneous generation . Astrophysicist Steinn Sigurdsson said `` There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth -- and we know they 're very hardened to radiation . '' Common anti-bacterial agents that work by destroying vegetative cell walls do not affect endospores . Endospores are commonly found in soil and water , where they may survive for long periods of time . A variety of different microorganisms form `` spores '' or `` cysts , '' but the endospores of low G+C gram-positive bacteria are by far the most resistant to harsh conditions . Some classes of bacteria can turn into exospores , also known as microbial cysts , instead of endospores . Exospores and endospores are two kinds of `` hibernating '' or dormant stages seen in some classes of microorganisms .
|
Environmental_indicator
|
Environmental indicators are simple measures that tell us what is happening in the environment . Since the environment is very complex , indicators provide a more practical and economical way to track the state of the environment than if we attempted to record every possible variable in the environment . For example , concentrations of ozone depleting substances ( ODS ) in the atmosphere , tracked over time , is a good indicator with respect to the environmental issue of stratospheric ozone depletion . . Environmental indicators have been defined in different ways but common themes exist . `` An environmental indicator is a numerical value that helps provide insight into the state of the environment or human health . Indicators are developed based on quantitative measurements or statistics of environmental condition that are tracked over time . Environmental indicators can be developed and used at a wide variety of geographic scales , from local to regional to national levels . '' `` A parameter or a value derived from parameters that describe the state of the environment and its impact on human beings , ecosystems and materials , the pressures on the environment , the driving forces and the responses steering that system . An indicator has gone through a selection and/or aggregation process to enable it to steer action . ''
|
Energy_policy_of_the_United_States
|
The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal , state , and local entities in the United States , which address issues of energy production , distribution , and consumption , such as building codes and gas mileage standards . Energy policy may include legislation , international treaties , subsidies and incentives to investment , guidelines for energy conservation , taxation and other public policy techniques . Several mandates have been proposed over the years , such as gasoline will never exceed $ 1.00 / gallon ( Nixon ) , and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 ( Carter ) , but no comprehensive long-term energy policy has been proposed , although there has been concern over this failure . Three Energy Policy Acts have been passed , in 1992 , 2005 , and 2007 , which include many provisions for conservation , such as the Energy Star program , and energy development , with grants and tax incentives for both renewable energy and non-renewable energy . There is also criticism that federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been dominated by crisis-mentality thinking , promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities . Instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for American entrepreneurship and innovation , congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient , but whose prospects are doubtful , without adequate consideration of the dollar costs , environmental costs , or national security costs of their actions . State-specific energy-efficiency incentive programs also play a significant role in the overall energy policy of the United States . The United States refused to endorse the Kyoto Protocol , preferring to let the market drive CO2 reductions to mitigate global warming , which will require CO2 emission taxation . The administration of Barack Obama has proposed an aggressive energy policy reform , including the need for a reduction of CO2 emissions , with a cap and trade program , which could help encourage more clean renewable , sustainable energy development . Thanks to new technologies such as fracking , the United States has in 2014 resumed its former role as the top oil producer in the world .
|
Epistemics
|
Epistemics is a term coined in 1969 by Edinburgh University with the foundation of its School of Epistemics . Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge , whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge . Epistemics is also compared to Cognitive Science . Christopher Longuet-Higgins has defined it as `` the construction of formal models of the processes - perceptual , intellectual , and linguistic - by which knowledge and understanding are achieved and communicated . In his 1978 essay `` Epistemics : The Regulative Theory of Cognition , '' Alvin J. Goldman claims to have coined the term `` epistemics '' to describe a reorientation of epistemology . Goldman maintains that his epistemics is continuous with traditional epistemology and the new term is only to avoid opposition . Epistemics , in Goldman 's version , differs only slightly from traditional epistemology in its alliance with the psychology of cognition ; epistemics stresses the detailed study of mental processes and information-processing mechanisms that lead to knowledge or beliefs . In the mid-1980s , the School of Epistemics was renamed as The Centre for Cognitive Science ( CCS ) . In 1998 , CCS was incorporated into the University of Edinburgh 's School of Informatics .
|
Energiewende_in_Germany
|
The Energiewende ( German for energy transition ) is the transition by Germany to a low carbon , environmentally sound , reliable , and affordable energy supply . The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy ( particularly wind , photovoltaics , and hydroelectricity ) , energy efficiency , and energy demand management . Most if not all existing coal-fired generation will need to be retired . The phase-out of Germany 's fleet of nuclear reactors , to be complete by 2022 , is a key part of the program . Legislative support for the Energiewende was passed in late 2010 and includes greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reductions of 80 -- 95 % by 2050 ( relative to 1990 ) and a renewable energy target of 60 % by 2050 . These targets are ambitious . The Berlin-based policy institute Agora Energiewende noted that `` while the German approach is not unique worldwide , the speed and scope of the Energiewende are exceptional '' . The Energiewende also seeks a greater transparency in relation to national energy policy formation . Germany has made significant progress on its GHG emissions reduction target , achieving a 27 % decrease between 1990 and 2014 . However Germany will need to maintain an average GHG emissions abatement rate of 3.5 % per annum to reach its Energiewende goal , equal to the maximum historical value thus far . Germany spends $ 1.5 billion per annum on energy research ( 2013 figure ) in an effort to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition . This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the feasibility and a similar cost ( relative to business-as-usual and given that carbon is adequately priced ) of the Energiewende . The term Energiewende is regularly used in English language publications without being translated ( a loanword ) .
|
Energy_system
|
An energy system is a system primarily designed to supply energy-services to end-users . Taking a structural viewpoint , the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report defines an energy system as `` all components related to the production , conversion , delivery , and use of energy '' . The field of energy economics includes energy markets and treats an energy system as the technical and economic systems that satisfy consumer demand for energy in the forms of heat , fuels , and electricity . The first two definitions allow for demand-side measures , including daylighting , retrofitted building insulation , and passive solar building design , as well as socio-economic factors , such as aspects of energy demand management and even telecommuting , while the third does not . Neither does the third account for the informal economy in traditional biomass that is significant in many developing countries . The analysis of energy systems thus spans the disciplines of engineering and economics . Merging ideas from both areas to form a coherent description , particularly where macroeconomic dynamics are involved , is challenging . The concept of an energy system is evolving as new regulations , technologies , and practices enter into service -- for example , emissions trading , the development of smart grids , and the greater use of energy demand management , respectively .
|
Energy_value_of_coal
|
The energy value of coal , or the fuel content , is the amount of potential energy in coal that can be converted into actual heating ability . The value can be calculated and compared with different grades of coal or even other materials . Materials of different grades will produce differing amounts of heat for a given mass . While chemistry provides methods of calculating the heating value of a certain amount of a substance , there is a difference between this theoretical value and its application to real coal . The grade of a sample of coal does not precisely define its chemical composition , so calculating the actual usefulness of coal as a fuel requires determining its proximate and ultimate analysis ( see `` Chemical Composition '' below ) .
|
Environmental_impact_of_transport
|
The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .
|
El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation
|
El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .
|
Escalation_of_commitment
|
Escalation of commitment refers to a human behavior pattern in which an individual or group -- when faced with increasingly negative outcomes from some decision , action , or investment -- continues the same behavior rather than alter course . They maintain actions that are irrational , but align with previous decisions and actions . Economists and behavioral scientists use a related term , sunk cost fallacy , to describe the justification of increased investment of money , time , lives , etc. in a decision , based on the cumulative prior investment ( `` sunk costs '' ) ; despite new evidence suggesting that the cost , beginning immediately , of continuing the decision outweighs the expected benefit . In the context of military conflicts , sunk costs in terms of money spent and lives lost are often used to justify continued involvement . In sociology , irrational escalation of commitment or commitment bias describe similar behaviours ; and the phenomenon and the sentiment underlying it are reflected in such proverbial images as `` Throwing good money after bad '' or `` In for a penny , in for a pound '' .
|
Environmental_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration
|
The environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration represents a shift from the policy priorities and goals of his predecessor , Barack Obama . During the campaign Trump often described environmental regulations as an impediment to business . He promised to roll back many regulations and end a moratorium on the leasing of federal coal reserves . Immediately upon his inauguration , the White House released an `` America First Energy Plan '' , which focused on fossil fuels and did not mention renewable energy . The plan would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Waters of the U.S. rule , and limit the Environmental Protection Agency 's mission to protecting air and water quality . Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan . He also invited American manufacturers to suggest what regulations should be eliminated ; industry leaders submitted 168 comments , of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules . In March 2017 he released a proposed 2018 budget which would cut funding for the EPA by 31 % . In May 2017 Congress approved a budget for the balance of the 2017-18 year which cuts the EPA 's funding by 1 % and eliminates no jobs . Trump 's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation , particularly of the fossil fuel industry . Several of his cabinet picks , such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , were of people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head .
|
Environmental_protection
|
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organisation controlled or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Due to the pressures of over consumption , population and technology , the biophysical environment is being degraded , sometimes permanently . This has been recognized , and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that cause environmental degradation . Since the 1960s , activity of environmental movements has created awareness of the various environmental issues . There is no agreement on the extent of the environmental impact of human activity and even scientific dishonesty occurs , so protection measures are occasionally debated .
|
Electricity_sector_in_China
|
China 's electric power industry is the world 's largest electricity consumer , passing the United States in 2011 after rapid growth since the early 1990s . Most of the electricity comes from coal which accounted for an estimated 73 % of domestic electricity production in 2014 . Coal-fired electricity production has declined since 2013 coinciding with a major boom in renewable energy . China currently lacks a single national grid . There are currently 6 wide area synchronous grids . The lack of a single grid frequently creates power shortages . China has abundant energy with the world 's third-largest coal reserves and massive hydroelectric resources . There is however a geographical mismatch between the location of the coal fields in the north-east ( Heilongjiang , Jilin , and Liaoning ) and north ( Shanxi , Shaanxi , and Henan ) , hydropower in the south-west ( Sichuan , Yunnan , and Tibet ) , and the fast-growing industrial load centers of the east ( Shanghai-Zhejiang ) and south ( Guangdong , Fujian ) .
|
Environmental_impact_of_meat_production
|
The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world . All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment . Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution through fossil fuel usage , animal methane , effluent waste , and water and land consumption . Meat is obtained through a variety of methods , including organic farming , free range farming , intensive livestock production , subsistence agriculture , hunting , and fishing . The 2006 report Livestock 's Long Shadow , released by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) of the United Nations , states that `` the livestock sector is a major stressor on many ecosystems and on the planet as a whole . Globally it is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases and one of the leading causal factors in the loss of biodiversity , while in developed and emerging countries it is perhaps the leading source of water pollution . '' ( In this and much other FAO usage , but not always elsewhere , poultry are included as `` livestock '' . ) Some fraction of these effects is assignable to non-meat components of the livestock sector such as the wool , egg and dairy industries , and to the livestock used for tillage . Livestock have been estimated to provide power for tillage of as much as half of the world 's cropland . According to production data compiled by the FAO , 74 percent of global livestock product tonnage in 2011 was accounted for by non-meat products such as wool , eggs and milk . Meat is also considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current sixth mass extinction .
|
Environmental_impact_of_agriculture
|
The environmental impact of agriculture '' ' is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them , and how those effects can be traced back to those practices . The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world . Ultimately , the environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers . The connection between emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect , as it also depends on other climate variables such as rainfall and temperature . There are two types of indicators of environmental impact : `` means-based '' , which is based on the farmer 's production methods , and `` effect-based '' , which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment . An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater , that is effected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil . An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based . The means-based evaluation looks at farmers ' practices of agriculture , and the effect-based evaluation considers the actual effects of the agricultural system . For example , means-based analysis might look at pesticides and fertilization methods that farmers are using , and effect-based analysis would consider how much CO2 is being emitted or what the Nitrogen content of the soil is . The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil , to water , the air , animal and soil variety , people , plants , and the food itself . Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change , deforestation , genetic engineering , irrigation problems , pollutants , soil degradation , and waste .
|
Environmental_skepticism
|
Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial . Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties . The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''
|
Environmental_Action
|
Environmental Action is a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) non-profit environmental advocacy organization in the United States , with over 800,000 members . Founded in 1970 by environmental activists at the first Earth Day , they are a part of a larger family of non-profit organizations called the Public Interest Network : including the Public Interest Research Group , Environment America , Green Corps and others . Environmental Action developed the original `` Dirty Dozen '' list of members of Congress with poor records on environmental issues in 1970 , and it has been run annually ever since in partnership with the League of Conservation Voters. , They helped convince Richard Nixon to support the Clean Air Act of 1970 , the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act . The organization was rebooted in 2012 , and Drew Hudson serves as the Executive Director .
|
Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef
|
The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .
|
Effluent
|
Effluent is an outflowing of water or gas from a natural body of water , or from a manmade structure . Effluent , in engineering , is the stream exiting a chemical reactor . Effluent is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as `` wastewater - treated or untreated - that flows out of a treatment plant , sewer , or industrial outfall . Generally refers to wastes discharged into surface waters '' . The Compact Oxford English Dictionary defines effluent as `` liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea '' . Effluent in the artificial sense is in general considered to be water pollution , such as the outflow from a sewage treatment facility or the wastewater discharge from industrial facilities . An effluent sump pump , for instance , pumps waste from toilets installed below a main sewage line . Similar to wastewater produced in different establishments , industries , and facilities . These wastewater released can also accumulate and pollute the nearby communities and bodies of water In the context of waste water treatment plants , effluent that has been treated is sometimes called secondary effluent , or treated effluent . This cleaner effluent is then used to feed the bacteria in biofilters . In the context of a thermal power station , the output of the cooling system may be referred to as the effluent cooling water , which is noticeably warmer than the environment . Effluent only refers to liquid discharge . In sugar beet processing , effluent is often settled in water tanks that allow the mud-contaminated water to settle . The mud sinks to the bottom , leaving the top section of water clear , free to be pumped back into the river or be reused in the process again . The Mississippi River 's effluent of fresh water is so massive ( 7,000 to 20,000 m3/s , or 200,000 to 700,000 ft3/s ) that a plume of fresh water is detectable by the naked eye from space , even as it rounds Florida and up to the coast of Georgia .
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.