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Ectotherm
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An ectotherm ( from the Greek ἐκτός ( ektós ) `` outside '' and θερμός ( thermós ) `` hot '' ) , is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature . Such organisms ( for example frogs ) rely on environmental heat sources , which permit them to operate at very economical metabolic rates . Colloquially , some refer to these organisms as `` cold blooded '' though such a term is not technically correct , as the blood temperature of the organism varies with ambient environmental temperature . Some of these animals live in environments where temperatures are practically constant , as is typical of regions of the abyssal ocean . In contrast , in places where temperature varies so widely as to limit the physiological activities of other kinds of ectotherms , many species habitually seek out external sources of heat or shelter from heat ; for example , many reptiles regulate their body temperature by bask in the sun , or seeking shade when necessary in addition to a whole host of other behavioral thermoregulation mechanisms . In contrast to ectotherms , endotherms rely largely , even predominantly , on heat from internal metabolic processes . In ectotherms , fluctuating ambient temperatures may affect the body temperature . Such variation in body temperature is called poikilothermy , though the concept is not widely satisfactory and the use of the term is declining . In small aquatic creatures such as Rotifera , the poikilothermy is practically absolute , but other creatures ( like crabs ) have wider physiological options at their disposal , and they can move to preferred temperatures , avoid ambient temperature changes , or moderate their effects . Ectotherms can also display the features of homeothermy , especially within aquatic organisms . Normally their range of ambient environmental temperatures are relatively constant , and there are few in number that attempt to maintain a higher internal temperature due to the high associated costs .
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Earth's_rotation
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Earth 's rotation is the rotation of the planet Earth around its own axis . The Earth rotates from the west towards east . As viewed from North Star or polestar Polaris , the Earth turns counter-clockwise . The North Pole , also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole , is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface . This point is distinct from the Earth 's North Magnetic Pole . The South Pole is the other point where the Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface , in Antarctica . The Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the sun and once every 23 hours , 56 minutes and 4 seconds with respect to the stars ( see below ) . Earth 's rotation is slowing slightly with time ; thus , a day was shorter in the past . This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth 's rotation . Atomic clocks show that a modern-day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago , slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds . Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE .
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Economy_of_North_America
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The economy of North America comprises more than 565 million people ( 8 % of the world population ) in its 23 sovereign states and 15 dependent territories . It is marked by a sharp division between the predominantly English speaking countries of Canada and the United States , which are among the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world , and countries of Central America and the Caribbean in the former Latin America that are less developed . Mexico and Caribbean nations of the Commonwealth of Nations are somehow between the economic extremes of the development of North America . Mexico lies in between these two extremes as a newly industrialized country ( NIC ) , and is a part of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) and a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , being one of the only two Latin American members of this organisation ( together with Chile ) . The United States is by far the largest economy in North America and the largest national economy in the world . The US , Canada and Mexico have significant and multifaceted economic systems . In 2011 , the US has an estimated per capita gross domestic product ( PPP ) of $ 47,200 , and is the most technologically developed economy in North America . The United States ' services sector comprises 76.7 % of the country 's GDP ( estimated in 2010 ) , industry comprises 22.2 % and agriculture comprises 1.2 % . Canada 's economic trends are similar to that of the United States , with significant growth in the sectors of services , mining and manufacturing . Canada 's GDP ( PPP ) was estimated at $ 39,400 in 2010 . Canada 's services sector comprises 78 % of the country 's GDP ( estimated in 2010 ) , industry comprises 20 % and agriculture comprises 2 % . Mexico has a GDP ( PPP ) of $ 15,312 , and per capita income is estimated at approximately one-third of the United States ' . The country has both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations , and is modernizing in sectors such as energy production , telecommunications and airports .
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Economics_of_global_warming
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The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .
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Ecological_efficiency
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Ecological efficiency describes the efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next . It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem . Primary production occurs in autotrophic organisms of an ecosystem . Photoautotrophs such as vascular plants and algae convert energy from the sun into energy stored as carbon compounds . Photosynthesis is carried out in the chlorophyll of green plants . The energy converted through photosynthesis is carried through the trophic levels of an ecosystem as organisms consume members of lower trophic levels . Dmitri thought that the primary production can be broken down into gross and net primary production . Gross primary production is a measure of the energy that a photoautotroph harvests from the sun . Take , for example , a blade of grass that takes in x Joules of energy from the sun . The fraction of that energy that is converted into glucose reflects the gross productivity of the blade of grass . The energy remaining after respiration is considered the net primary production . In general , gross production refers to the energy contained within an organism before respiration and net production the energy after respiration . The terms can be used to describe energy transfer in both autotrophs and heterotrophs . Energy transfer between trophic levels is generally inefficient , such that net production at one trophic level is generally only 10 % of the net production at the preceding trophic level ( the Ten percent law , first formulated by Raymond Lindeman ) . Due to non-predatory death , egestion , and respiration , a significant amount of energy is lost to the environment instead of being absorbed for production by consumers . The figure approximates the fraction of energy available after each stage of energy loss in a typical ecosystem , although these fractions vary greatly from ecosystem to ecosystem and from trophic level to trophic level . The loss of energy by a factor of one half from each of the steps of non-predatory death , defecation , and respiration is typical of many living systems . Thus , the net production at one trophic level is approximately ten percent that of the trophic level before it . Example : Assume 500 units of energy are produced by trophic level 1 . One half of that is lost to non-predatory death , while the other half ( 250 units ) is ingested by trophic level 2 . One half of the amount ingested is expelled through defecation , leaving the other half ( 125 units ) to be assimilated by the organism . Finally one half of the remaining energy is lost through respiration while the rest ( 63 units ) is used for growth and reproduction . This energy expended for growth and reproduction constitutes to the net production of trophic level 1 .
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Economic_statistics
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Economic statistics is a topic in applied statistics that concerns the collection , processing , compilation , dissemination , and analysis of economic data . It is also common to call the data themselves ` economic statistics ' , but for this usage see economic data . The data of concern to economic statistics may include those of an economy of region , country , or group of countries . Economic statistics may also refer to a subtopic of official statistics for data produced by official organizations ( e.g. national statistical services , intergovernmental organizations such as United Nations , European Union or OECD , central banks , ministries , etc. ) . Analyses within economic statistics both make use of and provide the empirical data needed in economic research , whether descriptive or econometric . They are a key input for decision making as to economic policy . The subject includes statistical analysis of topics and problems in microeconomics , macroeconomics , business , finance , forecasting , data quality , and policy evaluation . It also includes such considerations as what data to collect in order to quantify some particular aspect of an economy and of how best to collect in any given instance .
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Economy_of_the_United_States
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The United States is the world 's largest national economy in nominal terms and second largest according to purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , representing 22 % of nominal global GDP and 17 % of gross world product ( GWP ) . The United States ' GDP was estimated to be $ 18.56 trillion in 2016 . The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world 's foremost reserve currency , backed by its science and technology , its military , the full faith of the US government to reimburse its debts , its central role in a range of international institutions since World War II and the petrodollar system . Several countries use it as their official currency , and in many others it is the de facto currency . The United States has a mixed economy and has maintained a stable overall GDP growth rate , a moderate unemployment rate , and high levels of research and capital investment . Its seven largest trading partners are Canada , China , Mexico , Japan , Germany , South Korea , and the United Kingdom . The US has abundant natural resources , a well-developed infrastructure , and high productivity . It has the world 's ninth-highest per capita GDP ( nominal ) and tenth-highest per capita GDP ( PPP ) as of 2013 . Americans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations , and in 2010 had the fourth highest median household income , down from second highest in 2007 . It has been the world 's largest national economy ( not including colonial empires ) since at least the 1890s . The U.S. is the world 's third largest producer of oil and natural gas . It is one of the largest trading nations in the world as well as the world 's second largest manufacturer , representing a fifth of the global manufacturing output . The US not only has the largest internal market for goods , but also dominates the trade in services . US total trade amounted to $ 4.93 T in 2012 . Of the world 's 500 largest companies , 128 are headquartered in the US . The United States has one of the world 's largest and most influential financial markets . The New York Stock Exchange is by far the world 's largest stock exchange by market capitalization . Foreign investments made in the US total almost $ 2.4 trillion , while American investments in foreign countries total over $ 3.3 trillion . The economy of the U.S. leads in international ranking on venture capital and Global Research and Development funding . Consumer spending comprises 71 % of the US economy in 2013 . The United States has the largest consumer market in the world , with a household final consumption expenditure five times larger than Japan 's . The labor market has attracted immigrants from all over the world and its net migration rate is among the highest in the world . The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the Ease of Doing Business Index , the Global Competitiveness Report , and others . The US economy went through an economic downturn following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , with output as late as 2013 still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office . The economy , however , began to recover in the second half of 2009 , and as of 2016 , unemployment had declined from a high of 10 % to 4.7 % . In December 2014 , public debt was slightly more than 100 % of GDP . Domestic financial assets totaled $ 131 trillion and domestic financial liabilities totaled $ 106 trillion .
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Ecosystem_health
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Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem . Ecosystem condition can vary as a result of fire , flooding , drought , extinctions , invasive species , climate change , mining , overexploitation in fishing , farming or logging , chemical spills , and a host of other reasons . There is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem , rather the apparent health status of an ecosystem can vary depending upon which health metrics are employed in judging it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment . Advocates of the health metaphor argue for its simplicity as a communication tool . `` Policy-makers and the public need simple , understandable concepts like health . '' Critics worry that ecosystem health , a `` value-laden construct , '' is often `` passed off as science to unsuspecting policy makers and the public . ''
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Ecotax
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An Ecotax ( short for ecological taxation ) is a tax levied on activities which are considered to be harmful to the environment and is intended to promote environmentally friendly activities via economic incentives . Such a policy can complement or avert the need for regulatory ( command and control ) approaches . Often , an ecotax policy proposal may attempt to maintain overall tax revenue by proportionately reducing other taxes ( e.g. taxes on human labor and renewable resources ) ; such proposals are known as a green tax shift towards ecological taxation . Ecotaxes address the failure of free markets to consider environmental impacts . Ecotaxes are examples of Pigouvian taxes , which are taxes that attempt to make the private parties involved feel the social burden of their actions . An example might be philosopher Thomas Pogge 's proposed Global Resources Dividend .
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Ecological_resilience
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In ecology , resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a perturbation or disturbance by resisting damage and recovering quickly . Such perturbations and disturbances can include stochastic events such as fires , flooding , windstorms , insect population explosions , and human activities such as deforestation , fracking of the ground for oil extraction , pesticide sprayed in soil , and the introduction of exotic plant or animal species . Disturbances of sufficient magnitude or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach a threshold beyond which a different regime of processes and structures predominates . Human activities that adversely affect ecosystem resilience such as reduction of biodiversity , exploitation of natural resources , pollution , land-use , and anthropogenic climate change are increasingly causing regime shifts in ecosystems , often to less desirable and degraded conditions . Interdisciplinary discourse on resilience now includes consideration of the interactions of humans and ecosystems via socio-ecological systems , and the need for shift from the maximum sustainable yield paradigm to environmental resource management which aims to build ecological resilience through `` resilience analysis , adaptive resource management , and adaptive governance '' .
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Ecology
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Ecology ( from οἶκος , `` house '' , or `` environment '' ; - λογία , `` study of '' ) is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment . It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology , geography , and Earth science . Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with each other , other organisms , and with abiotic components of their environment . Topics of interest to ecologists include the diversity , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , and number ( population ) of particular organisms , as well as cooperation and competition between organisms , both within and among ecosystems . Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms , the communities they make up , and the non-living components of their environment . Ecosystem processes , such as primary production , pedogenesis , nutrient cycling , and various niche construction activities , regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment . These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits , and the variety of organisms is called biodiversity . Biodiversity , which refers to the varieties of species , genes , and ecosystems , enhances certain ecosystem services . Ecology is not synonymous with environment , environmentalism , natural history , or environmental science . It is closely related to evolutionary biology , genetics , and ethology . An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function . Ecologists seek to explain : Life processes , interactions , and adaptations The movement of materials and energy through living communities The successional development of ecosystems The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment . There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology , wetland management , natural resource management ( agroecology , agriculture , forestry , agroforestry , fisheries ) , city planning ( urban ecology ) , community health , economics , basic and applied science , and human social interaction ( human ecology ) . For example , the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment ` out there ' . It is not treated as separate from humans . Organisms ( including humans ) and resources compose ecosystems which , in turn , maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living ( biotic ) and non-living ( abiotic ) components of the planet . Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production ( food , fuel , fiber , and medicine ) , the regulation of climate , global biogeochemical cycles , water filtration , soil formation , erosion control , flood protection , and many other natural features of scientific , historical , economic , or intrinsic value . The word `` ecology '' ( '' Ökologie '' ) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel ( 1834 -- 1919 ) . Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy , particularly from ethics and politics . Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history . Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th century . Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory .
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Eastern_world
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The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various cultures or social structures and philosophical systems , depending on the context , most often including at least part of Asia or geographically the countries and cultures east of Europe , north of Oceania . The term is usually not used by people in this region itself , since this Eastern world is a varied , complex and dynamic region , hard to generalize , and although these countries and regions have many common threads running through them , historically they never needed to define themselves collectively against another entity , real or superficial . The term originally had a literal geographic meaning . It contrasted Asia with the cultures and civilizations of Western Europe . Traditionally , This includes Central Asia ( comprising Afghanistan , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , and Uzbekistan ) , the Far East ( comprising mainland China , Hong Kong , Japan , Macau , Mongolia , North Korea , South Korea , and Taiwan in East Asia ; Russian Far East in North Asia ; plus Brunei , Cambodia , East Timor , Indonesia , Laos , Malaysia , Myanmar , the Philippines , Singapore , Thailand , and Vietnam in Southeast Asia ) , the Middle East ( a.k.a. the Near East ) or Western Asia ( comprising Armenia , Azerbaijan , Bahrain , Cyprus , Egypt , Georgia , Iran , Iraq , Jordan , Kuwait , Lebanon , Oman , State of Israel , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Turkey , the United Arab Emirates , and Yemen ) , Siberia ( a.k.a. North Asia ) , and the Indian subcontinent ( comprising Bangladesh , Bhutan , India , Nepal , Pakistan , Maldives , and Sri Lanka plus the British Indian Ocean Territory and the island countries in the Indian Ocean ) . In the contemporary cultural meaning , the phrase `` Eastern world '' geographically refers to the countries and cultures east of Europe and north of Oceania as well as the African part of the Greater Middle East . There are however notable exceptions such as Israel which is geographically located in the Eastern world but is considered at least partially westernized due to the cultural influence of the westernized Jewish diaspora .
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Disco
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Disco is a genre of dance music containing elements of funk , soul , pop and salsa . It achieved popularity during the mid-1970s to the early 1980s . Its initial audiences in the U.S. were club-goers from the gay , African American , Italian American , Latino , and psychedelic communities in Philadelphia and New York City during the late 1960s and early 1970s . Disco can be seen as a reaction against both the domination of rock music and the stigmatization of dance music by the counterculture during this period . Disco was popular with both men and women from many different backgrounds , with dances including The Bump ( 1974 ) , The Hustle ( 1975 ) and Y.M.C.A. ( 1978 ) . The disco sound often has several components , a `` four-on-the-floor '' beat , an eighth note ( quaver ) or 16th note ( semi-quaver ) hi-hat pattern with an open hi-hat on the off-beat , and a prominent , syncopated electric bass line . In most disco tracks , string sections , horns , electric piano , and electric rhythm guitars create a lush background sound . Orchestral instruments such as the flute are often used for solo melodies , and lead guitar is less frequently used in disco than in rock . Many disco songs use electronic synthesizers , particularly in the late 1970s . Well-known 1970s disco performers included : Vicki Sue Robinson , Yvonne Elliman , Grace Jones , Thelma Houston , Diana Ross , Donna Summer , the Bee Gees , Boney M. , KC and the Sunshine Band , the Trammps , Sylvester , Village People , Gloria Gaynor , Debby Harry , and Chic . While performers and singers garnered much public attention , record producers working behind the scenes played an important role in developing the `` disco sound '' . Many non-disco artists recorded disco songs at the height of disco 's popularity , and films such as Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) and Thank God It 's Friday ( 1978 ) contributed to disco 's rise in mainstream popularity . Disco was the last mass popular music movement that was driven by the baby boom generation . Disco was a worldwide phenomenon , but its popularity drastically declined in the United States in 1980 , and by 1982 it had lost most of its mainstream popularity in the states . Disco Demolition Night , an anti-disco protest held in Chicago on 12 July 1979 , is commonly thought of as a factor in disco 's fast and drastic decline . By the late 1970 's , most major U.S. cities had thriving disco club scenes , where DJs would mix a seamless sequence of dance records . Studio 54 , a venue popular among celebrities , is a well-known example of a disco club . Popular dances included the Hustle , a sexually suggestive dance . Discotheque-goers often wore expensive , extravagant and sexy fashions . There was also a thriving drug subculture in the disco scene , particularly for drugs that would enhance the experience of dancing to the loud music and the flashing lights , such as cocaine and Quaaludes , a drug that was so common in disco subculture that it was nicknamed `` disco biscuits '' . Disco clubs were also sometimes associated with promiscuity . Disco was a key influence on the 1980 's electronic dance music style called house . Disco has had several revivals , including in 2005 with Madonna 's highly successful album Confessions on a Dance Floor , and again in 2013 and 2014 , as disco-styled songs by artists like Daft Punk ( with Pharrell Williams and Nile Rodgers ) , Justin Timberlake , Breakbot , and Bruno Mars -- notably Mars ' `` Uptown Funk '' -- filled the pop charts in the UK and the US .
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Earth's_orbit
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Earth 's orbit is the path through which the Earth travels around the Sun . The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million kilometers ( 92.96 million miles ) , and a complete orbit occurs every days ( 1 sidereal year ) , during which time Earth travels 940 million kilometers ( 584 million miles ) . Earth 's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167 . Earth 's orbital motion gives an apparent movement of the Sun with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1 ° per day ( or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours ) eastward as seen from Earth.Our planet takes about 365 days to orbit the Sun . A full orbit has 360 degrees . That fact demonstrates that each day , the Earth travels roughly 1 degree in its orbit . Thus , the Sun will appear to move across the sky from east to west relative to the stars by that same amount . Earth 's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s ( 108,000 km/h ; 67,000 mph ) , which is fast enough to cover the planet 's diameter in seven minutes and the distance to the Moon in four hours . Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth , the Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun . From the same vantage point , both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes .
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ECMWF_re-analysis
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The ECMWF re-analysis project is a meteorological reanalysis project . The first reanalysis product , ERA-15 , generated re-analyses for approximately 15 years , from December 1978 to February 1994 . The second product , ERA-40 ( originally intended as a 40-year reanalysis ) begins in 1957 ( the International Geophysical Year ) and covers 45 years to 2002 . As a precursor to a revised extended reanalysis product to replace ERA-40 , ECMWF has recently released ERA-Interim , which covers the period from 1979 to present . In addition to re-analysing all the old data using a consistent system , the reanalyses also make use of much archived data that was not available to the original analyses . This allows for the correction of many historical hand-drawn maps where the estimation of features was common in areas of data sparsity . The ability is also present to create new maps of atmosphere levels that were not commonly used until more recent times .
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East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet
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The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .
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Dust_Bowl
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The Dust Bowl , also known as the Dirty Thirties , was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s ; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion ( the Aeolian processes ) caused the phenomenon . The drought came in three waves , 1934 , 1936 , and 1939 -- 1940 , but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years . With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains , farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade ; this had displaced the native , deep-rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds . The rapid mechanization of farm equipment , especially small gasoline tractors , and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers ' decisions to convert arid grassland ( much of which received no more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation per year ) to cultivated cropland . During the drought of the 1930s , the unanchored soil turned to dust , which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky . These choking billows of dust -- named `` black blizzards '' or `` black rollers '' -- traveled cross country , reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington , D.C. On the Plains , they often reduced visibility to 1 metre ( 3.3 ft ) or less . Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City , Oklahoma , to witness the `` Black Sunday '' black blizzards of April 14 , 1935 ; Edward Stanley , Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term `` Dust Bowl '' while rewriting Geiger 's news story . While the term `` the Dust Bowl '' was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust , today it is usually used to refer to the event , as in `` It was during the Dust Bowl '' . The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres ( 400,000 km2 ) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico , Colorado , and Kansas . The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of families to abandon their farms . Many of these families , who were often known as `` Okies '' because so many of them came from Oklahoma , migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left . The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works , notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath ( 1939 ) by John Steinbeck , the folk music of Woody Guthrie , and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange .
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Drowning
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Drowning is defined as respiratory impairment from being in or under a liquid . It is further classified by outcome into : death , ongoing health problems , and no ongoing health problems . Drowning itself is quick and silent , although it may be preceded by distress which is more visible . Generally , in the early stages of drowning , very little water enters the lungs : a small amount of water entering the trachea causes a muscular spasm that seals the airway and prevents the passage of both air and water until unconsciousness occurs . This means a person drowning is unable to shout or call for help , or seek attention , as they can not obtain enough air . The instinctive drowning response is the final set of autonomic reactions in the 20 -- 60 seconds before sinking underwater , and to the untrained eye can look similar to calm safe behavior . Lifeguards and other persons trained in rescue learn to recognize drowning people by watching for these movements . If the process is not interrupted , loss of consciousness due to hypoxia is followed rapidly by cardiac arrest . At this stage , the process is still usually reversible by prompt and effective rescue and first aid . Survival rates depend strongly on the duration of immersion . In 2013 , there were about 1.7 million cases of drowning . Unintentional drowning is the third leading cause of unintentional injury resulting in death worldwide . In 2013 , it was estimated to have resulted in 368,000 deaths , down from 545,000 deaths in 1990 . Of these deaths , 82,000 occurred in children less than five years old . It accounts for 7 % of all injury related deaths ( excluding those due to natural disasters ) , with 91 % of these deaths occurring in low-income and middle-income countries . Drowning occurs more frequently in males and the young . The rate of drowning in populations around the world varies widely according to their access to water , the climate and the national swimming culture . Most drownings are preventable .
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Economy_of_Spain
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Spain has the fourteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP in the world , and it is also among the largest in the world by purchasing power parity . The country is a member of the European Union , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , and the World Trade Organization . The Spanish economy is the fifth-largest in Europe behind Germany , United Kingdom , Italy and France ; and the fourth-largest in the Eurozone , based on nominal GDP statistics . In 2012 , Spain was the twelfth-largest exporter in the world and the sixteenth-largest importer . Spain is listed 23rd in UN Human Development Index and 30th in GDP ( PPP ) per capita by the World Bank , thus it is classified as a high income economy and among the countries of very high human development . According to The Economist , Spain has the world 's 10th highest quality of life . Spain has also the biggest life expectancy in Europe . Following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , the Spanish economy 's plunged into recession , entering a cycle of negative macroeconomic performance . Compared to the EU 's and US . average , the Spanish economy entered recession later ( the economy was still growing by 2008 ) , but stayed there for longer . The economic boom of the 2000s was reversed , leaving over a quarter of Spain 's workforce unemployed by 2012 . In aggregated terms , the Spanish GDP contracted by almost 9 % during the 2009-2013 period . The economic situation started improving by 2013-2014 . The country managed to reverse the record trade deficit which had built up during the boom years attaining a trade surplus in 2013 after three decades of running a trade deficit . The surplus kept strengthening during 2014 and 2015 . In 2015 the Spanish GDP grew by 3.2 % , a rate not seen since 2007 , before the crisis struck ; such growth rate was the highest among larger EU economies that year . In just two years ( 2014-2015 ) the Spanish economy had recovered 85 % of the GDP lost during the 2009-2013 recession , which got some international analysts to refer to Spain 's current recovery as `` the showcase for structural reform efforts '' . Strong GDP growth was registered also in 2016 , with the country growing twice as fast as the eurozone average . According to the IMF forecast for 2017 , Spain will recover this year all the GDP growth lost during the economic crisis , exceeding for the first time in 2017 the output level that had been reached in 2008 .
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Doubling_time
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The doubling time is the period of time required for a quantity to double in size or value . It is applied to population growth , inflation , resource extraction , consumption of goods , compound interest , the volume of malignant tumours , and many other things that tend to grow over time . When the relative growth rate ( not the absolute growth rate ) is constant , the quantity undergoes exponential growth and has a constant doubling time or period , which can be calculated directly from the growth rate . This time can be calculated by dividing the natural logarithm of 2 by the exponent of growth , or approximated by dividing 70 by the percentage growth rate ( more roughly but roundly , dividing 72 ; see the rule of 72 for details and a derivation of this formula ) . The doubling time is a characteristic unit ( a natural unit of scale ) for the exponential growth equation , and its converse for exponential decay is the half-life . For example , given Canada 's net population growth of 0.9 % in the year 2006 , dividing 70 by 0.9 gives an approximate doubling time of 78 years . Thus if the growth rate remains constant , Canada 's population would double from its 2006 figure of 33 million to 66 million by 2084 .
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Ecological_correlation
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In statistics , an ecological correlation is a correlation between two variables that are group means , in contrast to a correlation between two variables that describe individuals . For example , one might study the correlation between physical activity and weight among sixth-grade children . A study at the individual level might make use of 100 children , then measure both physical activity and weight ; the correlation between the two variables would be at the individual level . By contrast , another study might make use of 100 classes of sixth-grade students , then measure the mean physical activity and the mean weight of each of the 100 classes . A correlation between these group means would be an example of an ecological correlation . Because a correlation describes the measured strength of a relationship , correlations at the group level can be much higher than those at the individual level . Thinking both are equal is an example of ecological fallacy .
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Economic_growth
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Economic growth is the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time . It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product , or real GDP , usually in per capita terms . Growth is usually calculated in real terms -- i.e. , inflation-adjusted terms -- to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the price of goods produced . Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting . Since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure . The `` rate of economic growth '' refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time . Implicitly , this growth rate is the trend in the average level of GDP over the period , which implicitly ignores the fluctuations in the GDP around this trend . An increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs ( such as labor productivity , physical capital , energy or materials ) is referred to as intensive growth . GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use ( increased population , new territory ) is called extensive growth .
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Economy
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An economy ( From Greek οίκος -- `` household '' and νęμoμαι -- `` manage '' ) is an area of the production , distribution , or trade , and consumption of goods and services by different agents in a given geographical location in various countries . Understood in its broadest sense , ` The economy is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices , discourses , and material expressions associated with the production , use , and management of resources ' . Economic agents can be individuals , businesses , organizations , or governments . Economic transactions occur when two parties agree to the value or price of the transacted good or service , commonly expressed in a certain currency . Monetary transactions only account for a small part of the economic domain . Economic activity is spurred by production which uses natural resources , labor , and capital . It has changed over time due to technology ( automation , accelerator of process , reduction of cost functions ) , innovation ( new products , services , processes , new markets , expands markets , diversification of markets , niche markets , increases revenue functions ) such as that which produces intellectual property and changes in industrial relations ( for example , child labor being replaced in some parts of the world with universal access to education ) . A given economy is the result of a set of processes that involves its culture , values , education , technological evolution , history , social organization , political structure and legal systems , as well as its geography , natural resource endowment , and ecology , as main factors . These factors give context , content , and set the conditions and parameters in which an economy functions . In other words , the economic domain is a social domain of human practices and transactions . It does not stand alone . A market-based economy is where goods and services are produced and exchanged according to demand and supply between participants ( economic agents ) by barter or a medium of exchange with a credit or debit value accepted within the network , such as a unit of currency . A command-based economy is where political agents directly control what is produced and how it is sold and distributed . A green economy is low-carbon , resource efficient , and socially inclusive . In a green economy , growth in income and employment are driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution , enhance energy and resource efficiency , and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services .
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Earth's_magnetic_field
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Earth 's magnetic field , also known as the geomagnetic field , is the magnetic field that extends from the Earth 's interior out into space , where it meets the solar wind , a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun . Its magnitude at the Earth 's surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas ( 0.25 to 0.65 gauss ) . Roughly speaking it is the field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 10 degrees with respect to Earth 's rotational axis , as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth . The North geomagnetic pole , located near Greenland in the northern hemisphere , is actually the south pole of the Earth 's magnetic field , and the South geomagnetic pole is the north pole . Unlike a bar magnet , Earth 's magnetic field changes over time because it is generated by a geodynamo ( in Earth 's case , the motion of molten iron alloys in its outer core ) . While the North and South magnetic poles are usually located near the geographic poles , they can wander widely over geological time scales , but sufficiently slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation . However , at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years , the Earth 's field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles relatively abruptly switch places . These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past . Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in the process of plate tectonics . The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth 's magnetic field in space . It extends several tens of thousands of kilometers into space , protecting the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere , including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation .
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Earthquake
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An earthquake ( also known as a quake , tremor or temblor ) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth , resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth 's lithosphere that creates seismic waves . Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they can not be felt to those violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities . The seismicity or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency , type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period of time . Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers . The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe . The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale , also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale . These two scales are numerically similar over their range of validity . Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas , depending on their depth . The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9 , although there is no limit to the possible magnitude . Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale . The shallower an earthquake , the more damage to structures it causes , all else being equal . At the Earth 's surface , earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground . When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore , the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami . Earthquakes can also trigger landslides , and occasionally volcanic activity . In its most general sense , the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event -- whether natural or caused by humans -- that generates seismic waves . Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults , but also by other events such as volcanic activity , landslides , mine blasts , and nuclear tests . An earthquake 's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter . The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter .
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Discoveries_of_exoplanets
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An exoplanet ( extrasolar planet ) is a planet located outside the Solar System . The first planet was announced in 1992 , with two planets found orbiting a pulsar . The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a main-sequence star was made in 1995 , when a giant planet was found in a four-day orbit around the nearby star 51 Pegasi . Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes , but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods such as the transit method and the radial-velocity method . As of , astronomers have identified such planets ( in planetary systems and multiple planetary systems ) . This is a list of the most notable discoveries :
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Ecology_of_the_Rocky_Mountains
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The ecology of the Rocky Mountains is diverse due to the effects of a variety of environmental factors . The Rocky Mountains are the major mountain range in western North America , running from the far north of British Columbia in Canada to New Mexico in the southwestern United States , climbing from the Great Plains at or below 1800 ft to peaks of over 14000 ft. Temperature and rainfall varies greatly also and thus the Rockies are home to a mixture of habitats including the alpine , subalpine and boreal habitats of the Northern Rocky Mountains in British Columbia and Alberta , the coniferous forests of Montana and Idaho , the wetlands and prairie where the Rockies meet the plains , a different mix of conifers on the Yellowstone Plateau in Wyoming and in the high Rockies of Colorado and New Mexico , and finally the alpine tundra of the highest elevations . These habitats are home to a great deal of wildlife from herbivores , such as elk , moose , mule deer , mountain goat and bighorn sheep , to predators like cougar , Canada lynx , bobcat , black bear , grizzly bear , gray wolf , coyote , and wolverine , along with a great variety of small mammals , fish , reptiles and amphibians , numerous bird species , and tens of thousands of species of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates and soil organisms . Permanent human settlement of the Rocky Mountains has caused numerous species to decline in population , including species of trout , birds , and sheep . Gray wolves and grizzly bears were completely eliminated from the United States portion of the range , but are returning due to conservation measures .
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Dry_season
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The dry season is a yearly period of low rainfall , especially in the tropics . The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt , which moves from the northern to the southern tropics and back over the course of the year . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere roughly from October to March ; during that time the northern tropics have a dry season with sparser precipitation , and days are typically sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and the southern tropics have their dry season . Under the Köppen climate classification , for tropical climates , a dry season month is defined as a month when average precipitation is below 60 mm . The dry season has low humidity , and some watering holes and rivers dry up . This lack of water ( and hence of food ) may force many grazing animals to migrate to more fertile spots . Examples of such animals are zebras , elephants , and wildebeest . Because of the lack of water in the plants , bushfires are common . Data shows that in Africa the start of the dry season coincides with a rise in the cases of measles -- which researchers believe might be attributed to the higher concentration of people in the dry season , as agricultural operations are all but impossible without irrigation . During this time , some farmers move into cities , creating hubs of higher population density , and allowing disease to spread more easily . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . At the equator there are two wet and two dry seasons , as the rain belt passes over twice a year , once moving north and once moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience a short wet and a long wet season ; and a short dry and a long dry season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns , however . New data shows that in the seasonal parts of the South American Amazon forest , foliage growth and coverage varies between the dry and wet seasons -- with about 25 % more leaves and faster growth in the dry season . Researchers believe that the Amazon itself has an effect in bringing the onset of the wet season : by growing more foliage , it evaporates more water . However , this growth appears only in the undisturbed parts of the Amazon basin , where researchers believe roots can reach deeper and gather more rain water . It has also been shown that ozone levels are much higher in the dry than in the wet season in the Amazon basin .
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Dunning–Kruger_effect
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In the field of psychology , the Dunning -- Kruger effect is a cognitive bias , wherein persons of low ability suffer from illusory superiority when they mistakenly assess their cognitive ability as greater than it is . The cognitive bias of illusory superiority derives from the metacognitive inability of low-ability persons to recognize their own ineptitude . Without the self-awareness of metacognition , low-ability people can not objectively evaluate their actual competence or incompetence . As described by David Dunning and Justin Kruger , the cognitive bias of illusory superiority results from an internal illusion in people of low ability and from an external misperception in people of high ability ; that is , `` the miscalibration of the incompetent stems from an error about the self , whereas the miscalibration of the highly competent stems from an error about others . '' Hence , the corollary to the Dunning -- Kruger effect indicates that persons of high-ability tend to underestimate their relative competence , and erroneously presume that tasks that are easy for them to perform also are easy for other people to perform . Although the Dunning -- Kruger effect was formulated in 1999 , the cognitive bias of illusory superiority has been known throughout history and identified by intellectuals , such as the philosopher Confucius ( 551 -- 479 BC ) , who said , `` Real knowledge is to know the extent of one 's ignorance '' ; by the playwright William Shakespeare ( 1564 -- 1616 ) , who said , `` The fool doth think he is wise , but the wise man knows himself to be a fool '' ( As You Like It , V. i. ) ; by the naturalist Charles Darwin ( 1809 -- 1882 ) , who said , `` Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge '' ; and by the philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell ( 1872 -- 1970 ) , who said , `` One of the painful things about our time is that those who feel certainty are stupid , and those with any imagination and understanding are filled with doubt and indecision . ''
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Double_negative
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A double negative is a grammatical construction occurring when two forms of negation are used in the same sentence . Multiple negation is the more general term referring to the occurrence of more than one negative in a clause . In some languages , double negatives cancel one another and produce an affirmative ; in other languages , doubled negatives intensify the negation . Languages where multiple negatives affirm each other are said to have negative concord or emphatic negation . Portuguese , Persian , Russian , Spanish , Neapolitan , Italian , Czech , and some non-standard dialects of English are examples of negative-concord languages , while Latin and German do not have negative concord . It is cross-linguistically observed that negative-concord languages are more common than those without . Languages without negative concord typically have negative polarity items that are used in place of additional negatives when another negating word already occurs . Examples are `` ever '' , `` anything '' and `` anyone '' in the sentence `` I have n't ever owed anything to anyone '' ( cf. `` I have n't never owed nothing to no one '' in negative-concord dialects of English , and `` Nunca devi nada a ninguém '' in Portuguese , lit . `` Never have I owed nothing to no one '' , or `` Non ho mai dovuto nulla a nessuno '' in Italian ) . Note that negative polarity can be triggered not only by direct negatives such as `` not '' or `` never '' , but also by words such as `` doubt '' or `` hardly '' ( `` I doubt he has ever owed anything to anyone '' or `` He has hardly ever owed anything to anyone '' ) . Stylistically , in English , double negatives can sometimes be used for understated affirmation ( e.g. `` I 'm not feeling bad '' vs. `` I 'm feeling good '' ) . The rhetorical term for this is litotes .
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Dolomitization
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Dolomitization is a geological process by which the carbonate mineral dolomite is formed when magnesium ions replace calcium ions in another carbonate mineral , calcite . It is common for this mineral alteration into dolomite to take place due to evaporation of water in the sabkha area . Dolomitization involves substantial amount of recrystallization . This process is described by the stoichiometric equation : 2 CaCO3 ( calcite ) + Mg2 + ↔ CaMg ( CO3 ) 2 ( dolomite ) + Ca2 + Dolomitization depends on specific conditions which include low Ca : Mg ratio in solution , reactant surface area , the mineralogy of the reactant , high temperatures which represents the thermodynamic stability of the system , and the presence of kinetic inhibitors such as sulfate . If the kinetic inhibitors and high temperatures are compatible then dolomitization can take place in saline environments above thermodynamic and kinetic saturation with respect to dolomite . This type of environment includes , freshwater and seawater mixing zones , normal saline to hypersaline subtidal environments , schizohaline environments ( fluctuating salinity : fresh-water to hypersaline conditions ) and hypersaline supratidal environments . When requirements are fulfilled dolomitization can take place in alkaline environments which are those under the influence of bacterial reduction and fermentation processes , and areas with high input alkaline continental groundwaters . Environments with high temperatures ( about 50 ° C ) such as subsurface and hydrothermal environments are conducive to dolomitization .
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Earth's_critical_zone
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Earth 's critical zone is the `` heterogeneous , near surface environment in which complex interactions involving rock , soil , water , air , and living organisms regulate the natural habitat and determine the availability of life-sustaining resources '' ( National Research Council , 2001 ) . The Critical Zone , surface and near-surface environment , sustains nearly all terrestrial life . The Critical Zone is an interdisciplinary field of research exploring the interactions among the land surface , vegetation , and water bodies , and extends through the pedosphere , unsaturated vadose zone , and saturated groundwater zone . Critical Zone science is the integration of Earth surface processes ( such as landscape evolution , weathering , hydrology , geochemistry , and ecology ) at multiple spatial and temporal scales and across anthropogenic gradients . These processes impact mass and energy exchange necessary for biomass productivity , chemical cycling , and water storage . The Critical Zone is studied at Critical Zone Observatories , where multiple scientific communities study various aspects of the Critical Zone that can lead to synthesized understanding of complex systems .
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Economics
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Economics ( UK English : -LSB- iːkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ɛkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- US English : -LSB- ɛkəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ikəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- ) is `` a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services '' . Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work . Consistent with this focus , textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics . Microeconomics examines the behaviour of basic elements in the economy , including individual agents and markets , their interactions , and the outcomes of interactions . Individual agents may include , for example , households , firms , buyers , and sellers . Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy ( meaning aggregated production , consumption , savings , and investment ) and issues affecting it , including unemployment of resources ( labour , capital , and land ) , inflation , economic growth , and the public policies that address these issues ( monetary , fiscal , and other policies ) . Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics , describing `` what is '' , and normative economics , advocating `` what ought to be '' ; between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioural economics ; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics . Economic analysis can be applied throughout society , in business , finance , health care , and government . Economic analyses is sometimes also applied to such diverse subjects as crime , education , the family , law , politics , religion , social institutions , war , science , and the environment .
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Earth's_internal_heat_budget
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The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .
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Drainage_basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet , such as into a river , bay , or other body of water . The drainage basin includes all the surface water from rain runoff , snowmelt , and nearby streams that run downslope towards the shared outlet , as well as the groundwater underneath the earth 's surface . Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at lower elevations in a hierarchical pattern , with smaller sub-drainage basins , which in turn drain into another common outlet . Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment , catchment basin , drainage area , river basin and water basin . In North America , the term watershed is commonly used to mean a drainage basin , though in other English-speaking countries , it is used only in its original sense , to mean a drainage divide , a ridge that separates adjacent drainage basins . In closed ( `` endorheic '' ) drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin , known as a sink , which may be a permanent lake , a dry lake , or a point where surface water is lost underground . The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channelling it to a single point . Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter , the drainage divide , making up a succession of higher geographical features ( such as a ridge , hill or mountains ) forming a barrier . Drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units , which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system . Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets , outlets , or sinks . In a strict sense , all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins .
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Dissolution_(chemistry)
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The dissolution of gases , liquids , or solids into a liquid or other solvent is a process by which these original states become solutes ( dissolved components ) , forming a solution of the gas , liquid , or solid in the original solvent . Solid solutions are the result of dissolution of one solid into another , and occur , e.g. , in metal alloys , where their formation is governed and described by the relevant phase diagram . In the case of a crystalline solid dissolving in a liquid , the crystalline structure must be disintegrated such that the separate atoms , ions , or molecules are released . For liquids and gases , the molecules must be able to form non-covalent intermolecular interactions with those of the solvent for a solution to form . The free energy of the overall , isolated process of dissolution must be negative for it to occur , where the component free energies contributing include those describing the disintegration of the associations holding the original solute components together , the original associations of the bulk solvent , and the old and new associations between the undissolved and dissolved materials . Dissolution is of fundamental importance in all chemical processes , natural and unnatural , from the decomposition of a dying organism and return of its chemical constituents into the biosphere , to the laboratory testing of new , man-made soluble drugs , catalysts , etc. . Dissolution testing is widely used in industry , including in the pharmaceutical industry to prepare and formulate chemical agents of consistent quality that will dissolve , optimally , in their target millieus as they were designed . Some distinctions can be made between solvation , dissolution , and solubility .
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Ecoregion
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An ecoregion ( ecological region ) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion , which in turn is smaller than an ecozone . All three of these are either less or greater than an ecosystem . Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water , and contain characteristic , geographically distinct assemblages of natural communities and species . The biodiversity of flora , fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions . In theory , biodiversity or conservation ecoregions are relatively large areas of land or water where the probability of encountering different species and communities at any given point remains relatively constant , within an acceptable range of variation ( largely undefined at this point ) . Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches . Firstly , no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa . Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible . Secondly , ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges ; rather , ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them . Thirdly , most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome . Biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers . Some physical ( plate tectonics , topographic highs ) , some climatic ( latitudinal variation , seasonal range ) and some ocean chemical related ( salinity , oxygen levels ) .
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Ecological_footprint
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The ecological footprint measures human demand on nature , i.e. , the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy . It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system . The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world ( biocapacity ) . In short , it is a measure of human impact on Earth 's ecosystem and reveals the dependence of the human economy on natural capital . The ecological footprint is defined as the biologically productive area needed to provide for everything people use : fruits and vegetables , fish , wood , fibers , absorption of carbon dioxide from fossil fuel use , and space for buildings and roads . Biocapacity is the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature . Footprint and biocapacity can be compared at the individual , regional , national or global scale . Both footprint and biocapacity change every year with number of people , per person consumption , efficiency of production , and productivity of ecosystems.At a global scale , footprint assessments show how big humanity 's demand is compared to what planet Earth can renew . Global Footprint Network calculates the ecological footprint from UN and other data for the world as a whole and for over 200 nations . They estimate that as of 2013 , humanity has been using natural capital 1.6 times as fast as nature can renew it. , Ecological footprint analysis is widely used around the Earth in support of sustainability assessments . It can be used to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the economy and explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles , goods and services , organizations , industry sectors , neighborhoods , cities , regions and nations . Since 2006 , a first set of ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures . The latest version are the updated standards from 2009
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Earth_ellipsoid
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An Earth ellipsoid is a mathematical figure approximating the shape of the Earth , used as a reference frame for computations in geodesy , astronomy and the geosciences . Various different ellipsoids have been used as approximations . It is an ellipsoid of revolution , whose short ( polar ) axis ( connecting the two flattest spots called geographical north and south poles ) is approximately aligned with the rotation axis of the Earth . The ellipsoid is defined by the equatorial axis a and the polar axis b ; their difference is about 21 km or 0.335 percent . Additional parameters are the mass function J2 , the correspondent gravity formula , and the rotation period ( usually 86164 seconds ) . Many methods exist for determination of the axes of an Earth ellipsoid , ranging from meridian arcs up to modern satellite geodesy or the analysis and interconnection of continental geodetic networks . Amongst the different set of data used in national surveys are several of special importance : the Bessel ellipsoid of 1841 , the international Hayford ellipsoid of 1924 , and ( for GPS positioning ) the WGS84 ellipsoid .
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Dry_state
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A dry state is a state in the United States in which the manufacture , distribution , importation , and sale of alcoholic beverages are prohibited or tightly restricted . While some states , such as North Dakota , entered the United States as dry states , others went dry after passage of prohibition legislation . Currently , no state in the United States remains completely dry , but some states contain dry counties . Prior to the adoption of nationwide prohibition in 1920 , state legislatures in the United States passed local option laws that allowed a county or township to go dry if it chose to do so . The Maine law , passed in 1851 in Maine , was among the first statutory implementations of the developing temperance movement in the United States . Following Maine 's lead , prohibition laws were soon passed in the states of Delaware , Ohio , Illinois , Rhode Island , Minnesota , Massachusetts , Connecticut , Pennsylvania , and New York ; however , all but one were repealed . The debate over prohibition increased in the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century as the drys , including the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) , the National Prohibition Party , the Anti-Saloon League , and others , continued to support temperance and prohibition legislation , while the wets opposed it . By 1913 nine states had statewide prohibition and 31 others had local option laws , placing more than 50 percent of the United States population under some form of alcohol prohibition . Following two unsuccessful attempts at national prohibition legislation ( one in 1913 and the other in 1915 ) , Congress approved a resolution on December 18 , 1917 , to prohibit the manufacture , sale , transportation , and importation of alcoholic beverages in the United States . The resolution was sent to the states for ratification and became the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution . On January 8 , 1918 , Mississippi became the first state to ratify the amendment and on January 16 , 1919 , Nebraska became the 36th state to do so , securing its passage with the required three-fourths of the states . By the end of February 1919 , only three states remained as hold-outs to ratification : New Jersey , Connecticut , and Rhode Island . The National Prohibition Act , also known as the Volstead Act , was enacted on October 18 , 1919 . Prohibition in the United States went into effect on January 17 , 1920 . Nationwide prohibition was repealed in 1933 with the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment on February 20 and its ratification on December 5 .
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Dumbing_down
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Dumbing down is the deliberate oversimplification of intellectual content within education , literature , cinema , news , video games and culture in order to relate to those unable to assimilate more sophisticated information . The term `` dumbing down '' originated in 1933 as movie-business slang , used by motion picture screenplay writers , meaning : '' -LSB- to -RSB- revise so as to appeal to those of little education or intelligence '' . Dumbing-down varies according to subject matter along with the reasons for lowering the intellect of the subject or topic . It often involves diminishment of critical thought involving the undermining of intellectual standards within language and learning ; thus trivializing meaningful information , culture , and academic standards , as is the case of popular culture . Philosophically , the term `` dumbing down '' is a relative definition , because what is considered dumbing down depends on the taste , value judgement , and intellectual level of the person involved in the matter . In Distinction : A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste ( 1979 ) , the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu ( 1930 -- 2002 ) proposed that , in a society in which the cultural practices of the ruling class are rendered and established as the legitimate culture of that society , that action then devalues the cultural capital of the subordinate social classes , and thus limits their social mobility within their own society .
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Earth_system_science
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Earth system science ( ESS ) is the application of systems science to the Earth sciences . In particular , it considers interactions between the Earth 's `` spheres '' -- atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , geosphere , pedosphere , biosphere , and , even , the magnetosphere -- as well as the impact of human societies on these components . At its broadest scale , Earth system science brings together researchers across both the natural and social sciences , from fields including ecology , economics , geology , glaciology , meteorology , oceanography , paleontology , sociology , and space science . Like the broader subject of systems science , Earth system science assumes a holistic view of the dynamic interaction between the Earth 's spheres and their many constituent subsystems , the resulting organization and time evolution of these systems , and their stability or instability . Subsets of Earth system science include systems geology and systems ecology , and many aspects of Earth system science are fundamental to the subjects of physical geography and climate science .
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Ecological_debt
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Ecological debt is the level of resource consumption and waste discharge by a population in excess of locally sustainable natural production and assimilative capacity . The term has been used since 1992 by some environmental organizations from the Global south . The first one to use this term was the Instituto de Ecologia Politica from Chile . J.M. Borrero , from Colombia , a lawyer , wrote a book on the ecological debt in 1994 . This referred to the environmental liabilities of Northern countries for the excessive per capita production of greenhouse gases , historically and at present . Campaigns on the Ecological Debt were launched since 1997 by Accion Ecologica of Ecuador and Friends of the Earth . Ecofeminist scholar Ariel Salleh explains how the capitalist processes at work in the global North exploit nature and people simultaneously , ultimately sustaining a large ecological debt in her article , `` Ecological Debt : Embodied Debt '' . At the 1992 Rio Earth Summit , politicians and corporate leaders from the global North introduced the supposed solution for the foreign debt crisis in the global South . They proposed ` debt for nature swaps ' , which essentially means that those countries that possess abundant biodiversity and environmental resources would give them up to the global North in return for the World Bank reducing their debt . Feminist environmentalists , indigenous activists , and peasants from the global South , primarily in Ecuador , exposed how the global North is much more indebted to the global South . Salleh justifies this by explaining how the 500-year-long colonialisation process involving the extraction of resources has caused immense damage and destruction to the ecosystem of the global South . In fact , scientists at the US National Academy for Sciences state that in the time period of 1961 -- 2000 , analyzing the cost of greenhouse gas emissions created by the rich ( the global North ) alone , it has become apparent that the rich have imposed climate changes on the poor that greatly outweigh the poor 's foreign debt . All of this environmental degradation amounts to ecological debt , seizing the people 's livelihood resources in the global South . The ecological debt manifested in the destruction of the environment and associated climate change the North has created is made possible through the process of modernization and capitalism . There is a disassociation between the wealthy capitalists in the North and the environment . Men in particular through industrialization have viewed themselves as separate from nature , and further , they view nature as a tool to profit from , and continually use and abuse without consequences . The notion of humans being embedded in the ecosystem that they live in is crucial to the discipline of political ecology . In political ecology , which reconnects nature and the economy , ecological debt is crucial because it recognizes that colonialisation has not only resulted in a loss of culture , way of life , and language for Indigenous peoples , but it has shaped the world economy into one that monetizes and commodifies the environment . For example , when the colonialisation of South America occurred over 500 years ago , Western Europeans brought with them their eurocentric values , seeing themselves as better than and therefore entitled to the indigenous people 's knowledge and the land they lived on . In a perceived post colonial world , large corporations and Western governments tend to present solutions to global warming by commodifying nature and hoping to make a profit . This better-than-thou attitude has created the conditions for global warming to occur , making the North 's ecological footprint soar , while also constructing an ecological debt so large as to completely rid the entire global South of their financial debt .
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Doublethink
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Doublethink is the act of simultaneously accepting two mutually contradictory beliefs as correct , often in distinct social contexts . Doublethink is related to , but differs from , hypocrisy and neutrality . Also related is cognitive dissonance , in which contradictory beliefs cause conflict in one 's mind . Doublethink is notable due to a lack of cognitive dissonance -- thus the person is completely unaware of any conflict or contradiction . George Orwell created the word doublethink in his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four ( published in 1949 ) ; doublethink is part of newspeak . In the novel , its origin within the typical citizen is unclear ; while it could be partly a product of Big Brother 's formal brainwashing programmes , the novel explicitly shows people learning doublethink and newspeak due to peer pressure and a desire to `` fit in '' , or gain status within the Party -- to be seen as a loyal Party Member . In the novel , for someone to even recognize -- let alone mention -- any contradiction within the context of the Party line was akin to blasphemy , and could subject that someone to disciplinary action and to the instant social disapproval of fellow Party Members . Like many aspects of the dystopian societies reflected in Orwell 's writings , Orwell considered doublethink to be a feature of Soviet-style totalitarianism , as reflected in this statement from a speech by Joseph Stalin : We are for the withering away of the state , and at the same time we stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat , which represents the most powerful and mighty of all forms of the state which have existed up to the present day . The highest development of the power of the state , with the object of preparing the conditions of the withering away of the state : that is the Marxist formula . Is it `` contradictory '' ? Yes , it is `` contradictory . '' But this contradiction is a living thing and wholly reflects the Marxist dialectic .
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Earth's_energy_budget
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Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .
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Eastern_Hemisphere
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The Eastern Hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the earth that is east of the prime meridian ( which crosses Greenwich , England ) and west of the antimeridian . It is also used to refer to Europe , Asia , Africa , and Australia , in contrast with the Western Hemisphere , which includes North and South America . This hemisphere may also be called the `` Oriental Hemisphere '' . In addition , it may be used in a cultural or geopolitical sense as a synonym for the `` Old World '' .
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Early_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave
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The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C. The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city . The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria . Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .
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Dubiofossil
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The term dubiofossil is a portmanteau word used in geology and paleontology for a problematic structure that looks like a fossil , but whose biologic origin is uncertain . ( From Latin dubius , + fossil ) . It has been mainly used for remains found in rocks dating from the early history of the Earth ( Precambrian rocks ) , but is also applicable in other settings such as problematic microbe-like forms in meteorites . Although ultimately such structures are either biogenic ( i.e. , fossil ) or abiogenic ( i.e. , pseudofossil ) , the information available at the time of study is insufficient to make an unambiguous determination . They belong to the dubiofossil category temporarily , awaiting additional evidence that will allow them to be removed from this category and attributed to the fossils or the pseudofossils . For example , see ALH84001 . Physical and chemical processes can produce structures that look indistinguishable from some that are formed by biologic activity , presenting a hurdle in their interpretation . Living systems are capable of metabolism , reproduction , mutation , and propagation of the mutations . Lines of evidence for biogenicity , called biosignatures , come in various forms and appear at various scales , ranging from the atomic to the planetary dimension . Molecule-building , cell division , colony formation , respiration , excretion , active motility are amongst the biologic processes that effect changes in the environment and can leave distinctive morphologic features or signature chemical by-products in the geologic record . These attributes are susceptible to be modified or obliterated over geologic time , making it more difficult to recognize them in the rocks . The case for biogenicity is most robust when multiple lines of evidence converge .
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Discovery_science
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Discovery science ( also known as discovery-based science ) is a scientific methodology which emphasizes analysis of large volumes of experimental data with the goal of finding new patterns or correlations , leading to hypothesis formation and other scientific methodologies . Discovery-based methodologies are often viewed in contrast to traditional scientific practice , where hypotheses are formed before close examination of experimental data . However , from a philosophical perspective where all or most of the observable `` low hanging fruit '' has already been plucked , examining the phenomenological world more closely than the senses alone ( even augmented senses , e.g. via microscopes , telescopes , bifocals etc. ) opens a new source of knowledge for hypothesis formation . This process is also known as inductive reasoning or the use of specific observations to make generalizations . Data mining is the most common tool used in discovery science , and is applied to data from diverse fields of study such as DNA analysis , climate modeling , nuclear reaction modeling , and others . The use of data mining in discovery science follows a general trend of increasing use of computers and computational theory in all fields of science . Further following this trend , the cutting edge of data mining employs specialized machine learning algorithms for automated hypothesis forming and automated theorem proving .
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Ecosystem
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An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment ( things like air , water and mineral soil ) , interacting as a system . These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows . As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms , and between organisms and their environment , they can be of any size but usually encompass specific , limited spaces ( although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem ) . Energy , water , nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem . The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun . It generally enters the system through photosynthesis , a process that also captures carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . By feeding on plants and on one another , animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system . They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present . By breaking down dead organic matter , decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes . Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors . External factors such as climate , the parent material that forms the soil , and topography control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it , but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem . Other external factors include time and potential biota . Ecosystems are dynamic entities -- invariably , they are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance . Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have very different characteristics simply because they contain different species . The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function . Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops . While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material , the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition , root competition or shading . Other internal factors include disturbance , succession and the types of species present . Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems , their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate . Biodiversity affects ecosystem function , as do the processes of disturbance and succession . Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend ; the principles of ecosystem management suggest that rather than managing individual species , natural resources should be managed at the level of the ecosystem itself . Classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management , but there is no single , agreed-upon way to do this .
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Economic_system
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An economic system is a system of production , resource allocation , and distribution of goods and services within a society or a given geographic area . It includes the combination of the various institutions , agencies , entities , decision-making processes , and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community . As such , an economic system is a type of social system . The mode of production is a related concept . All economic systems have three basic questions to ask : what to produce , how to produce and in what quantities , and who receives the output of production . The study of economic systems includes how these various agencies and institutions are linked to one another , how information flows between them , and the social relations within the system ( including property rights and the structure of management ) . The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies , and on the distinctions between capitalism and socialism . Subsequently , the categorization of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not conform to the traditional dichotomy . Today the dominant form of economic organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies . Economic systems is the category in the Journal of Economic Literature classification codes that includes the study of such systems . One field that cuts across them is comparative economic systems , which include the following subcategories of different systems : planning , coordination , and reform productive enterprises ; factor and product markets ; prices ; population public economics ; financial economics national income , product , and expenditure ; money ; inflation international trade , finance , investment , and aid consumer economics ; welfare and poverty performance and prospects natural resources ; energy ; environment ; regional studies political economy ; legal institutions ; property rights .
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Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave
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The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .
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Eastern_states_of_Australia
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The eastern states of Australia are the states adjoining the east coast of Australia . These are the mainland states of Victoria , Queensland , and New South Wales ; the Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory , while not states , are also included . The term usually includes the island state of Tasmania . On some occasions , the state of South Australia is included in this grouping . Regardless of which definition is used , the eastern states include the majority -- around 80 % -- of the Australian population , the federal capital , Canberra , and the three largest cities : Sydney , Melbourne , and Brisbane . It also includes : the Gold Coast , Queensland ; Newcastle , New South Wales ; and Wollongong , New South Wales as the three largest non-capital cities in the country . In terms of climate , the area is dominated by a humid subtropical zone , with some tropical ( Queensland ) and oceanic climate ( Australian Capital Territory , Victoria , New South Wales ) zones . In most situations , the eastern states are defined as those who use Australian Eastern Standard Time ( AEST ) , and that is the definition that this article will adhere to , unless noted .
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Dodecanese
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The Dodecanese ( -LSB- doʊdɪkəˈniːz -RSB- Δωδεκάνησα , Dodekánisa , -LSB- ðoðeˈkanisa -RSB- , literally `` twelve islands '' ) are a group of 15 larger plus 150 smaller Greek islands in the southeastern Aegean Sea , off the coast of Asia Minor ( Turkey ) , of which 26 are inhabited . Τhis island group generally defines the eastern limit of the Sea of Crete . They belong to the wider Southern Sporades island group . The most historically important and well-known is Rhodes , which has been the area 's dominant island since Antiquity . Of the others , Kos and Patmos are historically the more important ; the remaining eleven are Agathonisi , Astypalaia , Kalymnos , Karpathos , Kasos , Leipsoi , Leros , Nisyros , Symi , Tilos , and Kastellorizo . Other islands in the chain include Alimia , Arkoi , Chalki , Farmakonisi , Gyali , Kinaros , Levitha , Marathos , Nimos , Pserimos , Saria , Strongyli , Syrna and Telendos .
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Dissenting_opinion
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A dissenting opinion ( or dissent ) is an opinion in a legal case in certain legal systems written by one or more judges expressing disagreement with the majority opinion of the court which gives rise to its judgment . When not necessarily referring to a legal decision , this can also be referred to as a minority report . Dissenting opinions are normally written at the same time as the majority opinion and any concurring opinions , and are also delivered and published at the same time . A dissenting opinion does not create binding precedent nor does it become a part of case law . However , they can sometimes be cited as a form of persuasive authority in subsequent cases when arguing that the court 's holding should be limited or overturned . In some cases , a previous dissent is used to spur a change in the law , and a later case may result in a majority opinion adopting a particular rule of law formerly advocated in dissent . As with concurring opinions , the difference in opinion between dissents and majority opinions can often illuminate the precise holding of the majority opinion . The dissent may disagree with the majority for any number of reasons : a different interpretation of the existing case law , the application of different principles , or a different interpretation of the facts . Many legal systems do not provide for a dissenting opinion and provide the decision without any information regarding the discussion between judges or its outcome .
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Doublet_earthquake
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Seismologists sometimes refer to a pair of similarly sized earthquake shocks that occur relatively closely spaced in time and location as an earthquake `` doublet . '' This is distinct from the normal pattern of earthquake aftershocks . Aftershocks gradually diminish in magnitude and generally come from the same origin as a mainshock , whereas doublet earthquakes originate from a place other than the original earthquake . The first earthquake can be some considerable distance and time away from the second . The magnitude of the second quake may be slightly larger than the first . This type of earthquake occurs once or twice every year but are far rarer than more typical earthquakes . In earthquake prone regions officials do not plan on doublet earthquakes occurring since they are a rare occurrence . However , when they do occur , they have a high disaster potential . A relatively recent doublet earthquake occurred late in 2006 and early in 2007 in the Kuril Islands of Japan , which had not had a large-scale earthquake since 1915 . The first earthquake occurred on November 15 and had a magnitude of 8.3 . Shortly after this , seismic activity began in the Pacific plate where the second earthquake occurred on January 13 , which had a magnitude of 8.1 . There was only 1 reported injury from the first earthquake and no reported injuries from the second earthquake since they both originated in the ocean . However , each earthquake caused a tsunami and the earthquake on November 15 created a tsunami that reached the coast of California , causing $ 500,000 - $ 1,000,000 in damage . There may also be examples of triplet earthquakes , such as the 2010 Mindanao earthquakes .
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Eastern_United_States
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The Eastern United States , commonly referred to as the American East or simply the East , is a region roughly coinciding with the boundaries of the United States established in the 1783 Treaty of Paris , which bounded the new country to the west along the Mississippi River . It is geographically diverse , spanning the Northeast and Southeast as well as the eastern part of the Central United States . In 2011 the 26 states east of the Mississippi ( including Washington , D.C. but not the small portions of Minnesota and Louisiana east of the river ) had an estimated population of 179,948,346 or 58.28 % of the total U.S. population of 308,745,358 ( excluding Puerto Rico ) .
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Earth_Changes
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The phrase `` Earth Changes '' was coined by the American psychic Edgar Cayce ( 1877-1945 ) to refer to the belief that the world would soon enter on a series of cataclysmic events causing major alterations in human life on the planet . This includes `` natural events '' ( such as major earthquakes , the melting of the polar ice caps , a pole shift of the planetary axis , major weather events , solar flares and so on ) as well as huge changes of the local and global social , economical and political systems .
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Disease_diffusion_mapping
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Disease diffusion occurs when a disease is transmitted to a new location . It implies that a disease spreads , or pours out , from a central source . The idea of showing the spread of disease using a diffusion pattern is relatively modern , compared to earlier methods of mapping disease , which are still used today . According to Rytokonen , the goals of disease mapping are : 1 ) to describe the spatial variation in disease incidence to formulate an etiological hypothesis ; 2 ) to identify areas of high risk in order to increase prevention ; and 3 ) to provide a map of disease risk for a region for better risk preparedness . Torsten Hägerstrand 's early work on `` waves of innovation '' is the basis that many medical cartographers and geographers use for mapping spatial diffusion ( 1968 ) . The diffusion of disease can be described in four patterns : expansion diffusion , contagious diffusion , hierarchal diffusion and relocation diffusion . Cromley and McLafferty also mention network diffusion and mixed diffusion . The diffusion of infectious disease tends to occur in a ` wave ' fashion , spreading from a central source . Pyle mentions barriers that pose a resistance towards a wave of diffusion , which include but are not limited to : physiographic features ( i.e. mountains , water bodies ) , political boundaries , linguistic barriers , and with diseases , a barrier could be differing control programs . The diffusion of disease can be identified as a normal distribution over time and translated into an S-shaped curve to show the phases of disease diffusion . The phases are : Infusion ( 25th percentile ) , Inflection ( 50th percentile ) , Saturation ( 75th percentile ) , and Waning to the upper limits .
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Discrete_choice
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In economics , discrete choice models , or qualitative choice models , describe , explain , and predict choices between two or more discrete alternatives , such as entering or not entering the labor market , or choosing between modes of transport . Such choices contrast with standard consumption models in which the quantity of each good consumed is assumed to be a continuous variable . In the continuous case , calculus methods ( e.g. first-order conditions ) can be used to determine the optimum amount chosen , and demand can be modeled empirically using regression analysis . On the other hand , discrete choice analysis examines situations in which the potential outcomes are discrete , such that the optimum is not characterized by standard first-order conditions . Thus , instead of examining `` how much '' as in problems with continuous choice variables , discrete choice analysis examines `` which one . '' However , discrete choice analysis can also be used to examine the chosen quantity when only a few distinct quantities must be chosen from , such as the number of vehicles a household chooses to own and the number of minutes of telecommunications service a customer decides to purchase . Techniques such as logistic regression and probit regression can be used for empirical analysis of discrete choice . Estimation of such models is usually done via parametric , semi-parametric and non-parametric maximum likelihood methods . Discrete choice models theoretically or empirically model choices made by people among a finite set of alternatives . The models have been used to examine , e.g. , the choice of which car to buy , where to go to college , which mode of transport ( car , bus , rail ) to take to work among numerous other applications . Discrete choice models are also used to examine choices by organizations , such as firms or government agencies . In the discussion below , the decision-making unit is assumed to be a person , though the concepts are applicable more generally . Daniel McFadden won the Nobel prize in 2000 for his pioneering work in developing the theoretical basis for discrete choice . Discrete choice models statistically relate the choice made by each person to the attributes of the person and the attributes of the alternatives available to the person . For example , the choice of which car a person buys is statistically related to the person 's income and age as well as to price , fuel efficiency , size , and other attributes of each available car . The models estimate the probability that a person chooses a particular alternative . The models are often used to forecast how people 's choices will change under changes in demographics and/or attributes of the alternatives . Discrete choice models specify the probability that an individual chooses an option among a set of alternatives . The probabilistic description of discrete choice behavior is used not to reflect individual behavior that is viewed as intrinsically probabilistic . Rather , it is the lack of information that leads us to describe choice in a probabilistic fashion . In practice , we can not know all factors affecting individual choice decisions as their determinants are partially observed or imperfectly measured . Therefore , discrete choice models rely on stochastic assumptions and specifications to account for unobserved factors related to a ) choice alternatives , b ) taste variation over people ( interpersonal heterogeneity ) and over time ( intra-individual choice dynamics ) , and c ) heterogeneous choice sets . The different formulations have been summarized and classified into groups of models .
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Drought_in_the_United_Kingdom
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Droughts are a relatively common feature of the weather in the United Kingdom , with one around every 5 -- 10 years on average . These droughts are usually during the summer , when a blocking high causes hot , dry weather for an extended period . However droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east of the country usually suffers most , as it has the highest population ( and therefore demand ) and the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . Even in these areas in severe droughts , the definition , impacts , effects and management are all minimal in comparison to drought prone areas such as Australia and parts of the United States . In recent years however , the summers of 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and August 2010 were wetter than normal , 2007 being wettest on record .
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Earth_Day
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Earth Day is an annual event celebrated on April 22 . Worldwide , various events are held to demonstrate support for environmental protection . First celebrated in 1970 , Earth Day events in more than 193 countries are now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network . On Earth Day 2016 , the landmark Paris Agreement was signed by the United States , China , and some 120 other countries . This signing satisfied a key requirement for the entry into force of the historic draft climate protection treaty adopted by consensus of the 195 nations present at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris . In 1969 at a UNESCO Conference in San Francisco , peace activist John McConnell proposed a day to honor the Earth and the concept of peace , to first be celebrated on March 21 , 1970 , the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere . This day of nature 's equipoise was later sanctioned in a proclamation written by McConnell and signed by Secretary General U Thant at the United Nations . A month later a separate Earth Day was founded by United States Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in first held on April 22 , 1970 . Nelson was later awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom award in recognition of his work . While this April 22 Earth Day was focused on the United States , an organization launched by Denis Hayes , who was the original national coordinator in 1970 , took it international in 1990 and organized events in 141 nations . Numerous communities celebrate Earth Week , an entire week of activities focused on the environmental issues that the world faces . In 2017 , the March for Science occurred on Earth day ( April 22 , 2017 ) and will be followed by the People 's Climate Mobilization ( April 29 , 2017 ) .
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Disease
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A disease is a particular abnormal condition , a disorder of a structure or function , that affects part or all of an organism . The study of disease is called pathology which includes the study of cause . Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs . It may be caused by external factors such as pathogens , or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions particularly of the immune system such as an immunodeficiency , or a hypersensitivity including allergies and autoimmunity . When caused by pathogens ( i.e. Plasmodium ssp . in malaria ) , even in the scientific literature , the term disease is often misleadingly used in the place of its causal agent , viz . the pathogen . This language habitat can cause confusion in the communication of the cause-effect principle in epidemiology , and as such it should be strongly discouraged . In humans , disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain , dysfunction , distress , social problems , or death to the person afflicted , or similar problems for those in contact with the person . In this broader sense , it sometimes includes injuries , disabilities , disorders , syndromes , infections , isolated symptoms , deviant behaviors , and atypical variations of structure and function , while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories . Diseases can affect people not only physically , but also emotionally , as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person 's perspective on life . Death due to disease is called death by natural causes . There are four main types of disease : infectious diseases , deficiency diseases , genetic diseases ( both hereditary and non-hereditary ) , and physiological diseases . Diseases can also be classified as communicable and non-communicable . The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease ( blood flow obstruction ) , followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections .
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Earth_immune_system
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The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .
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Ecological_succession
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Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time . The time scale can be decades ( for example , after a wildfire ) , or even millions of years after a mass extinction . The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community . The ʺengineʺ of succession , the cause of ecosystem change , is the impact of established species upon their own environments . A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt alteration of one 's own environment . It is a phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of a new habitat . Succession may be initiated either by formation of new , unoccupied habitat , such as from a lava flow or a severe landslide , or by some form of disturbance of a community , such as from a fire , severe windthrow , or logging . Succession that begins in new habitats , uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called primary succession , whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession . Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology . The study of succession remains at the core of ecological science . Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana which led to efforts to preserve the Indiana Dunes . Exhibits on ecological succession are displayed in the Hour Glass , a museum in Ogden Dunes .
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East_Antarctica
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East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre . Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer .
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East_North_Central_States
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The East North Central States form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States which are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau . The division contains five states : Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio , and Wisconsin . It is one of two divisions used to categorize the region of the U.S. generally called the `` Midwest '' or `` Great Lakes region '' ; the other such division is the West North Central States ( The Great Plains States ) . The region closely matches the area of the Northwest Territory , excepting a portion of Minnesota . The East North Central division is a large part of the Great Lakes region , although the latter also includes Minnesota , New York , Pennsylvania , and the Canadian province of Ontario . It has a low rate of population growth and the estimated population as of 2015 is 46,787,011 . The region is part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis with an estimated 54 million people . The Great Lakes provide access to the Atlantic Ocean via the Great Lakes Waterway and St. Lawrence Seaway , or by the New York State Barge Canal and the Hudson River or via the Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi River and the Illinois Waterway . Chicago and Detroit , two of the division 's largest cities , are among the major ports of the United States .
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Dry_ice
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Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .
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Earth
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Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .
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Diurnal_cycle
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A diurnal cycle is any pattern that recurs every 24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun . In climatology , the diurnal cycle is one of the most basic forms of climate patterns . The most familiar such pattern is the diurnal temperature variation . Such a cycle may be approximately sinusoidal , or include components of a truncated sinusoid ( due to the sun 's rising and setting ) and thermal relaxation ( Newton cooling ) at night . Diurnal cycles of environmental conditions ( light or temperature ) can result in similar cycles in dependent biological processes , such as photosynthesis in plants , or clinical depression in humans . Plant responses to environmental cycles may even induce indirect cycles in rhizosphere microbial activities , including nitrogen fixation . A semi-diurnal cycle refers to a pattern that occurs about every twelve hours or about twice a day . Often these can be related to lunar tides , in which case the interval is closer to 12 hours and 25 minutes .
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EchoStar_XVI
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EchoStar XVI is an American geostationary communications satellite which is operated by EchoStar . It is positioned in geostationary orbit , and will be located at a longitude of 61.5 ° West , from where it is intended to provide direct broadcasting of high-definition television services to the United States for Dish Network . EchoStar XVI was built by Space Systems/Loral , and is based on the LS-1300 satellite bus . It is equipped with 32 J band ( IEEE Ku band ) transponders . At launch it had a mass of 6258 kg . It has a design life of fifteen years . It has a common configuration with EchoStar XI and EchoStar XV . The launch of EchoStar XVI was conducted by International Launch Services , using a Proton-M carrier rocket with a Briz-M upper stage . The launch occurred on 20 November 2012 , 18:31 UTC from Site 200/39 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan . The arts organization Creative Time launched an archival disc created by artist Trevor Paglen called The Last Pictures into orbit on EchoStar XVI . Made of ultra-archival materials , the disc is expected to orbit the planet Earth for millions of years and possibly up to several billion years affixed to the exterior of the communications satellite if left untouched . The silicon wafer disc , protected by a gold-plated aluminum cover bolted to the satellite 's exterior , contains one hundred black-and-white photographs selected to represent the artist 's take on modern human history .
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Dry_Spell
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A dry spell is a weather condition
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East_Coast_of_the_United_States
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The East Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Eastern United States meets the North Atlantic Ocean . This area is also known as the Eastern Seaboard , the Atlantic Coast , and the Atlantic Seaboard . The coastal states that have shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean are , from north to south , Maine , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , Connecticut , Pennsylvania , New York , New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida .
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EchoStar_XV
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EchoStar XV is an American geostationary communications satellite which is operated by EchoStar . It is positioned in geostationary orbit , and will be located at a longitude of 61.5 ° West , from where it is intended to provide direct broadcasting of high-definition television services to the continental United States and Puerto Rico for Dish Network . EchoStar XV was built by Space Systems/Loral , and is based on the LS-1300 satellite bus . It is equipped with 32 J band ( IEEE Ku band ) transponders , and at launch it had a mass of 5521 kg . It has a design life of fifteen years , ; however , it is carrying enough fuel for around twenty years of operations . It has a common configuration with EchoStar XI and EchoStar XVI . The launch of EchoStar XV was conducted by International Launch Services , using a Proton-M carrier rocket with a Briz-M upper stage . The launch occurred from Site 200/39 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan , at 18:40 UTC on 10 July 2010 . The launch successfully placed EchoStar XV into a geosynchronous transfer orbit . Following separation from the rocket , it manoeuvred into a geostationary orbit with a perigee of 35781 km and an apogee of 35805 km .
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Déjà_vu
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Déjà vu ( -LSB- deɪʒɑː_ˈvuː -RSB- -LSB- deʒa vy -RSB- ) from French , literally `` already seen '' , is the phenomenon of having the strong sensation that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past . Déjà vu is a feeling of familiarity , and déjà vécu ( the feeling of having `` already lived through '' something ) is a feeling of recollection . Scientific approaches reject the explanation of déjà vu as `` precognition '' or `` prophecy '' , but rather explain it as an anomaly of memory , which creates a distinct impression that an experience is `` being recalled '' . This explanation is supported by the fact that the sense of `` recollection '' at the time is strong in most cases , but the circumstances of the `` previous '' experience ( when , where , and how the earlier experience occurred ) are uncertain or believed to be impossible . Two types of déjà vu are suggested to exist : the pathological type of déjà vu usually associated with epilepsy and the non-pathological which is a characteristic of healthy people and psychological phenomena . A 2004 review claimed that approximately two-thirds of the population have had déjà vu experiences . Other studies confirm that déjà vu is a common experience in healthy individuals , with between 31 % and 96 % of individuals reporting it . Déjà vu experiences that are unusually prolonged or frequent , or in association with other symptoms such as hallucinations , may be an indicator of neurological or psychiatric illness .
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Economy_of_Canada
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Canada has the 10th ( nominal ) or 17th-largest ( PPP ) economy in the world ( measured in US dollars at market exchange rates ) , is one of the world 's wealthiest nations , and is a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) and Group of Seven ( G7 ) . As with other developed nations , the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry , which employs about three quarters of Canadians . Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector , with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada 's most important . Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector , based in Central Canada , with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important . With a long coastline , Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world . Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry .
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Economic_Policy_(journal)
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Economic Policy is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Centre for Economic Policy Research , the Center for Economic Studies ( University of Munich ) , and the Paris School of Economics . The journal was established in 1985 and covers international economic policy topics such as macroeconomics , microeconomics , the labour market , trade , exchange rate , taxation , economic growth , government spending , and migration . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 2.875 , ranking it 22nd out of 333 journals in the category `` Economics '' .
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Economy_of_France
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France has the world 's sixth largest economy by nominal figures by IMF estimates for the year 2017 and the tenth largest economy by PPP figures . It has the third-largest economy in Europe with Germany in 1st . The OECD is headquartered in Paris , the nation 's financial capital . The chemical industry is a key sector for France , helping to develop other manufacturing activities and contributing to economic growth . France 's tourism industry is a major component of the economy , as France is the most visited destination in the world . Sophia Antipolis is the major technology hub for the economy of France . According to the IMF , in 2013 , France was the world 's 20th country by GDP per capita with $ 44,099 per inhabitant . In 2013 , France was listed on the United Nations 's Human Development Index with 0.884 ( very high human development ) and 25th on the Corruption Perceptions Index . France 's economy entered the recession of the late 2000s later and appeared to leave it earlier than most affected economies , only enduring four-quarters of contraction . However , France experienced stagnant growth between 2012 and 2014 , with the economy expanding by 0 % in 2012 , 0.8 % in 2013 and 0.2 % in 2014 , though growth picked up in 2015 with a growth of 1.2 % and a growth of 1.3 % for 2016 , and a forecasted growth of 1.3 % for 2017 and 1.6 % for 2018 , the highest since 2011 ( 2.1 % ) .
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Dutch_disease
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In economics , the Dutch disease is the apparent causal relationship between the increase in the economic development of a specific sector ( for example natural resources ) and a decline in other sectors ( like the manufacturing sector or agriculture ) . The putative mechanism is that as revenues increase in the growing sector ( or inflows of foreign aid ) , the given nation 's currency becomes stronger ( appreciates ) compared to currencies of other nations ( manifest in an exchange rate ) . This results in the nation 's other exports becoming more expensive for other countries to buy , and imports becoming cheaper , making those sectors less competitive . While it most often refers to natural resource discovery , it can also refer to `` any development that results in a large inflow of foreign currency , including a sharp surge in natural resource prices , foreign assistance , and foreign direct investment '' . The term was coined in 1977 by The Economist to describe the decline of the manufacturing sector in the Netherlands after the discovery of the large Groningen natural gas field in 1959 .
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Earth_Radiation_Budget_Satellite
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The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite ( ERBS ) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5 , 1984 , to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases . It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the during the STS-41-G mission . The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life , but ultimately , the mission provided scientific data about the Earth 's ozone layer for more than two decades . Data on the ozone layer provided by ERBS was key in the international community 's decision-making process during the Montreal Protocol Agreement , which has resulted in a near elimination of CFCs in industrialized countries . ERBS was one of three satellites in the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment and carried two instruments as part of that endeavor : the ERBE scanner ( three detectors that study longwave radiation , shortwave radiation and total energy radiating from the Earth along a line of the satellite 's path ) and the ERBE non-scanner ( five detectors measuring the total energy from the Sun , and the shortwave and total energy from the entire Earth disk and the area beneath the satellite ) . The second ERBE Instrument was aboard the NOAA-9 satellite when it was launched in January 1985 , and the third was aboard the NOAA-10 satellite when it was launched in October 1986 . In addition , it carried the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE II ) . It was retired for budgetary reasons on October 14 , 2005 , as one of the longest-running spacecraft missions to date .
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Economy_of_Nicaragua
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Nicaragua 's economy is focused primarily on the agricultural sector . It is the least developed country in Central America , and the second poorest in the Americas by nominal GDP . In recent years , under the administrations of Daniel Ortega , the Nicaraguan economy has increased dramatically , although it has also been subject to the global recession . The country 's economy actually contracted by 1.5 % in 2009 , due to decreased export demand in the US and Central American markets , lower commodity prices for key agricultural exports , and low remittance growth , but saw 4.5 % growth in 2010 thanks to a recovery in export demand and growth in its tourism industry . Nicaragua 's economy continues to post growth , with preliminary indicators showing the Nicaraguan economy growing an additional 5 % in 2011 . Consumer Price inflation have also curtailed since 2008 , when Nicaragua 's inflation rate hovered at 19.82 % . In 2009 and 2010 , the country posted lower inflation rates , 3.68 % and 5.45 % , respectively . Remittances are a major source of income , equivalent to 15 % of the country 's GDP , which originate primarily from Costa Rica , the United States , and European Union member states . Approximately one million Nicaraguans contribute to the remittance sector of the economy . In early 2004 , Nicaragua secured some $ 4.5 billion in foreign debt reduction under the International Monetary Fund and World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative . In April 2006 , the US-Central America Free Trade Agreement went into effect , expanding export opportunities for Nicaragua 's agricultural and manufactured goods . Textiles and apparel account for nearly 60 % of Nicaragua 's exports . In October 2007 , the IMF approved an additional poverty reduction and growth facility program in support of the government 's economic plans . Nicaragua relies on international economic assistance to meet internal - and external-debt financing obligations , although foreign donors curtailed this funding in response to widespread allegations of electoral fraud in Nicaragua 's November 2008 elections .
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ESPN_Inc.
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ESPN Inc. is an American sports media conglomerate based in Bristol , Connecticut . Jointly owned by The Walt Disney Company and the Hearst Corporation ( which owns a 20 % minority share ) , it owns various sports broadcasting operations , including cable channels ( such as the titular ESPN ) , a sports radio network , an accompanying website , and other assets . ESPN markets itself as the `` Worldwide Leader in Sports '' . Most programming on ESPN networks consist of live or tape-delayed sporting events , sports news programming , sports talk shows , and original series and documentaries . In August 2016 , Disney purchased a 1/3 stake in BAMTech for $ 1 billion from MLB Advanced Media with the option to purchase a majority share . Disney purchased the stake to first develop a ESPN subscription streaming service . The service would not include any current ESPN channel or its content , but tap BAMTech licensed rights and ESPN college rights .
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Earth_in_the_Balance
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Earth in the Balance : Ecology and the Human Spirit ( ISBN 0-452-26935-0 , paperback ISBN 1-85383-743-1 ) is a 1992 book written by Al Gore , published in June 1992 , shortly before he was elected Vice President in the 1992 presidential election . Known by the short title Earth in the Balance , the book explains the world 's ecological predicament and describes a range of policies to deal with the most pressing problems . It includes a proposed `` Global Marshall Plan '' to address current ecological issues . Written while his son was recovering from a serious accident , Earth in the Balance became the first book written by a sitting U.S. Senator to make the New York Times bestseller list since John F. Kennedy 's Profiles in Courage . In 1993 , Earth in the Balance was released in paperback and audiobook format on audio cassette tape . It received the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights 1993 Book award given annually to a book that `` most faithfully and forcefully reflects Robert Kennedy 's purposes - his concern for the poor and the powerless , his struggle for honest and even-handed justice , his conviction that a decent society must assure all young people a fair chance , and his faith that a free democracy can act to remedy disparities of power and opportunity . '' The book was followed by An Inconvenient Truth , a book that was the companion for a movie narrated by Al Gore , shown at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and released on 24 May 2006 . In the Futurama episode `` Crimes of the Hot , '' Al Gore himself references the book and its `` far more popular '' fictional future sequel , Harry Potter and the Balance of Earth .
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Ecotoxicity
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Ecotoxicity , the subject of study of the field of ecotoxicology ( a portmanteau of Ecology and Toxicology ) refers to the potential for biological , chemical or physical stressors to affect ecosystems . Such stressors might occur in the natural environment at densities , concentrations or levels high enough to disrupt the natural biochemistry , physiology , behavior and interactions of the living organisms that comprise the ecosystem . Ecotoxicology has been defined as , `` the branch of toxicology concerned with the study of toxic effects , caused by natural or synthetic pollutants , to the constituents of ecosystems , animal ( including human ) , vegetable and microbial , in an integral context '' .
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Distributed_generation
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Distributed generation , also distributed energy , on-site generation ( OSG ) or district/decentralized energy is generated or stored by a variety of small , grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources ( DER ) or distributed energy resource systems . Conventional power stations , such as coal-fired , gas and nuclear powered plants , as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations , are centralized and often require electricity to be transmitted over long distances . By contrast , DER systems are decentralized , modular and more flexible technologies , that are located close to the load they serve , albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts ( MW ) or less . These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components . In this instance they are referred to as Hybrid power systems . DER systems typically use renewable energy sources , including small hydro , biomass , biogas , solar power , wind power , and geothermal power , and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system . A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system , and is often called a distributed energy storage system ( DESS ) . By means of an interface , DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid . Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply . Microgrids are modern , localized , small-scale grids , contrary to the traditional , centralized electricity grid ( macrogrid ) . Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and operate autonomously , strengthen grid resilience and help mitigate grid disturbances . They are typically low-voltage AC grids , often use diesel generators , and are installed by the community they serve . Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources , such as solar hybrid power systems , which reduce the amount of emitted carbon significantly .
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Double_taxation
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Double taxation is the levying of tax by two or more jurisdictions on the same declared income ( in the case of income taxes ) , asset ( in the case of capital taxes ) , or financial transaction ( in the case of sales taxes ) . Double liability is mitigated in a number of ways , for example : the main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax , the main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax if tax had been paid on it in another jurisdiction , or above some benchmark to not include tax haven jurisdictions , the main taxing jurisdiction may tax the foreign-source income but give a credit for foreign jurisdiction taxes paid . Another approach is for the jurisdictions affected to enter into a tax treaty which sets out rules to avoid double taxation . The term `` double taxation '' can also refer to the double taxation of some income or activity . For example , in some jurisdictions , corporate profits are taxed twice , once when earned by the corporation and again when the profits are distributed to shareholders as a dividend or other distribution . The term is not usually used to refer to the taxation of the same income by different levels of government , such as by federal , state and local authorities .
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Earth_(2007_film)
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Earth is a 2007 nature documentary film which depicts the diversity of wild habitats and creatures across the planet . The film begins in the Arctic in January of one year and moves southward , concluding in Antarctica in the December of the same year . Along the way , it features the journeys made by three particular species -- the polar bear , African bush elephant and humpback whale -- to highlight the threats to their survival in the face of rapid environmental change . A companion piece to the 2006 BBC/Discovery television series Planet Earth , the film uses many of the same sequences , though most are edited differently , and features previously unseen footage . Earth was co-directed by Alastair Fothergill , the executive producer of the television series , and Mark Linfield , the producer of Planet Earth '' 's `` From Pole to Pole '' and `` Seasonal Forests '' episodes . It was co-produced by BBC Natural History Unit and Greenlight Media , with Discovery providing some of the funding . It was also the first film released under the Disneynature label . The same organisations collaborated on Fothergill 's previous film , Deep Blue ( 2003 ) , itself a companion to his 2001 television series on the natural history of the world 's oceans , The Blue Planet . The British version of Earth was narrated by Patrick Stewart and the US version was narrated by James Earl Jones.Earth was released in cinemas internationally during the final quarter of 2007 and throughout 2008 . With total worldwide box office revenue exceeding $ 100 million , Earth is the second-highest grossing nature documentary of all time . A sequel , titled Earth : One Amazing Day '' , is scheduled for release in 2017 .
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Econometrics
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Econometrics is the application of statistical methods to economic data and is described as the branch of economics that aims to give empirical content to economic relations . More precisely , it is `` the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation , related by appropriate methods of inference . '' An introductory economics textbook describes econometrics as allowing economists `` to sift through mountains of data to extract simple relationships . '' The first known use of the term `` econometrics '' ( in cognate form ) was by Polish economist Paweł Ciompa in 1910 . Ragnar Frisch is credited with coining the term in the sense in which it is used today . The basic tool for econometrics is the multiple linear regression model . Econometric theory uses statistical theory and mathematical statistics to evaluate and develop econometric methods . Econometricians try to find estimators that have desirable statistical properties including unbiasedness , efficiency , and consistency . Applied econometrics uses theoretical econometrics and real-world data for assessing economic theories , developing econometric models , analyzing economic history , and forecasting .
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Drylands
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Drylands are defined by a scarcity of water . Drylands are zones where precipitation is balanced by evaporation from surfaces and transpiration by plants ( evapotranspiration ) . UNEP defines drylands as tropical and temperate areas with an aridity index of less than 0.65 . The drylands can be classified into four sub-types : dry sub-humid lands , semi-arid lands , arid lands , and hyper-arid lands . Some authorities consider Hyper-arid lands as deserts ( UNCCD ) although a number of the world 's deserts include both hyper arid and arid climate zones . The UNCCD excludes hyper-arid zones from its definition of drylands . Drylands cover 41.3 % of the earth 's land surface , including 15 % of Latin America , 66 % of Africa , 40 % of Asia and 24 % of Europe . There is a significantly greater proportion of drylands in developing countries ( 72 % ) , and the proportion increases with aridity : almost 100 % of all Hyper Arid lands are in the developing world . Nevertheless , the United States , Australia and several countries in Southern Europe also contain significant dryland areas . Drylands are complex , evolving structures whose characteristics and dynamic properties depend on many interrelated links between climate , soil , and vegetation .
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Droughts_in_the_United_States
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Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years . The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close .
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Dole_effect
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The Dole effect , named after Malcolm Dole , describes an inequality in the ratio of the heavy isotope 18O ( a `` standard '' oxygen atom with two additional neutrons ) to the lighter 16O , measured in the atmosphere and seawater . This ratio is usually denoted δ18O . It was noticed in 1935 that air contained more 18O than seawater ; this was quantified in 1975 to 23.5 ‰ , but later refined as 23.88 ‰ in 2005 . The imbalance arises mainly as a result of respiration in plants and in animals . Due to thermodynamics of isotope reactions , respiration removes the lighter -- hence more reactive -- 16O in preference to 18O , increasing the relative amount of 18O in the atmosphere . The inequality is balanced by photosynthesis . Photosynthesis emits oxygen with the same isotopic composition ( i.e. the ratio between 18O and 16O ) as the water ( H2O ) used in the reaction , which is independent of the atmospheric ratio . Thus when atmospheric 18O levels are high enough , photosynthesis will act as a reducing factor . However , as a complicating factor , the degree of fractionation ( i.e. change in isotope ratio ) occurring due to photosynthesis is not entirely dependent on the water drawn up by the plant , as fractionation can occur as a result of preferential evaporation of and other small but significant processes .
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Earth_observation
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Earth observation ( EO ) is the gathering of information about planet Earth 's physical , chemical and biological systems via remote sensing technologies supplemented by earth surveying techniques , encompassing the collection , analysis and presentation of data . Earth observation is used to monitor and assess the status of , and changes in , the natural environment and the built environment . In recent years , Earth observation has become technologically increasingly sophisticated . It has also become more important due to the dramatic impact that modern human civilization is having on the planet Earth , and the need to minimize negative impacts along with the opportunities Earth observation provides to improve social and economic well-being . The term Earth observation is used in two ways , leading to confusion . In Europe , in particular , it has often been used to refer to satellite-based remote sensing , but the term is also used to refer to any form of observations of the Earth system , including in situ and airborne observations , for example . The Group on Earth Observations , which has over 100 member countries and over 100 participating organizations , uses EO in this broader sense . To add to the confusion , in the US , for example , the term remote sensing is often used to refer to satellite-based remote sensing , but sometimes used more broadly for observations using any form of remote sensing technology , including airborne sensors and even ground-based sensors such as cameras . Perhaps the least ambiguous term to use for satellite-based sensors is satellite remote sensing , or SRS , an acronym which is gradually starting to appear in the literature . Earth observations can include : numerical measurements taken by a thermometer , wind gauge , ocean buoy , altimeter or seismometer photos and radar or sonar images taken from ground or ocean-based instruments photos and radar images taken from remote-sensing satellites decision-support tools based on processed information , such as maps and models Just as Earth observations consist of a wide variety of possible elements , they can be applied to a wide variety of possible uses . Some of the specific applications of Earth observations are : forecasting weather tracking biodiversity and wildlife trends measuring land-use change ( such as deforestation ) monitoring and responding to natural disasters , including fires , floods , earthquakes and tsunamis managing natural resources , such as energy , freshwater and agriculture addressing emerging diseases and other health risks predicting , adapting to and mitigating climate change The quality and quantity of Earth observations continue to mount rapidly . In addition to the ongoing launch of new remote-sensing satellites , increasingly sophisticated in situ instruments located on the ground , on balloons and airplanes , and in rivers , lakes and oceans , are generating increasingly comprehensive , near-real time observations .
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Earth_analog
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An Earth analog ( also referred to as a Twin Earth , Earth Twin , or Earth-like planet , though this latter term may refer to any terrestrial planet ) is a planet or moon with environmental conditions similar to those found on the planet Earth . The possibility is of particular interest to astronomers under reasoning that the more similar a planet is to Earth , the more likely it is to be capable of sustaining complex extraterrestrial life . As such , it has long been speculated and the subject expressed in science , philosophy , science fiction and popular culture . Advocates of space colonization have long sought an Earth analog as a `` second home '' , while advocates for space and survival would regard such a planet as a potential `` new home '' for humankind . Before the scientific search for and study of extrasolar planets , the possibility was argued through philosophy and science fiction . The mediocrity principle suggests that planets like Earth should be common in the universe , while the Rare Earth hypothesis suggests that they are extremely rare . The thousands of exoplanetary star systems discovered so far are profoundly different from our solar system , supporting the Rare Earth hypothesis . Philosophers have pointed out that the size of the universe is such that a near-identical planet must exist somewhere . In the future , technology may be used by humans to artificially produce an Earth analog by terraforming . The multiverse theory suggests that an Earth analog could exist in another universe or even be another version of the Earth itself in a parallel universe . On November 4 , 2013 , astronomers reported , based on Kepler space mission data , that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way galaxy . 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars . The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away . Scientific findings since the 1990s have greatly influenced the scope of the fields of astrobiology , models of planetary habitability and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) . NASA and the SETI Institute have proposed categorising the increasing number of planets found using a measure called the Earth Similarity Index ( ESI ) based on mass , radius and temperature . According to this measure , as of 23 July 2015 , the confirmed planet currently thought to be most similar to Earth on mass , radius and temperature is Kepler-438b . Scientists estimate that there may be billions of Earth-size planets within the Milky Way galaxy alone .
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Eastern_Ontario
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Eastern Ontario ( census population 1,603,625 in 2006 ) is a secondary region of Southern Ontario in the Canadian province of Ontario which lies in a wedge-shaped area between the Ottawa River and St. Lawrence River . It shares water boundaries with Quebec to the north and New York State to the east and south , as well as a small land boundary with the Vaudreuil-Soulanges region of Quebec to the east . It includes the census divisions of the following : the counties of Prescott and Russell , Stormont , Dundas and Glengarry , Lanark , Renfrew , Leeds and Grenville , Frontenac and Lennox and Addington ; and the single-tier municipality of Ottawa . Some sources may also include Hastings , Prince Edward , and sometimes even Northumberland in the definition of Eastern Ontario , but others classify them as Central Ontario . The region may also be referred to as Southeastern Ontario to differentiate it from the Northern Ontario secondary region of Northeastern Ontario .
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Doomsday_argument
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The Doomsday argument ( DA ) is a probabilistic argument that claims to predict the number of future members of the human species given an estimate of the total number of humans born so far . Simply put , it says that supposing that all humans are born in a random order , chances are that any one human is born roughly in the middle . It was first proposed in an explicit way by the astrophysicist Brandon Carter in 1983 , from which it is sometimes called the Carter catastrophe ; the argument was subsequently championed by the philosopher John A. Leslie and has since been independently discovered by J. Richard Gott and Holger Bech Nielsen . Similar principles of eschatology were proposed earlier by Heinz von Foerster , among others . A more general form was given earlier in the Lindy effect , in which for certain phenomena the future life expectancy is proportional to ( though not necessarily equal to ) the current age , and is based on decreasing mortality rate over time : old things endure . Denoting by N the total number of humans who were ever or will ever be born , the Copernican principle suggests that humans are equally likely ( along with the other N − 1 humans ) to find themselves at any position n of the total population N , so humans assume that our fractional position f = n/N is uniformly distributed on the interval -LSB- 0 , 1 -RSB- prior to learning our absolute position . f is uniformly distributed on ( 0 , 1 ) even after learning of the absolute position n . That is , for example , there is a 95 % chance that f is in the interval ( 0.05 , 1 ) , that is f > 0.05 . In other words , we could assume that we could be 95 % certain that we would be within the last 95 % of all the humans ever to be born . If we know our absolute position n , this implies an upper bound for N obtained by rearranging n/N > 0.05 to give N < 20n . If Leslie 's figure is used , then 60 billion humans have been born so far , so it can be estimated that there is a 95 % chance that the total number of humans N will be less than 20 × 60 billion = 1.2 trillion . Assuming that the world population stabilizes at 10 billion and a life expectancy of 80 years , it can be estimated that the remaining 1140 billion humans will be born in 9120 years . Depending on the projection of world population in the forthcoming centuries , estimates may vary , but the main point of the argument is that it is unlikely that more than 1.2 trillion humans will ever live on Earth . This problem is similar to the famous German tank problem .
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Drift_ice
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Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas . Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km . Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed . Drift ice affects : Security of navigation Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs ) Geological impact Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice ) The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .
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East_Greenland_Current
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The East Greenland Current ( EGC ) is a cold , low salinity current that extends from Fram Strait ( ~ 80N ) to Cape Farewell ( ~ 60N ) . The current is located off the eastern coast of Greenland along the Greenland continental margin . The current cuts through the Nordic Seas ( the Greenland and Norwegian Seas ) and through the Denmark Strait . The current is of major importance because it directly connects the Arctic to the Northern Atlantic , it is a major contributor to sea ice export out of the Arctic , and it is a major freshwater sink for the Arctic .
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Drought_in_Spain
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Droughts in Spain mainly happen in the south east . These droughts are usually confined to summer , with hot , dry weather for an extended period . However , droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east usually suffers most , as it has the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . The drought , along with high winds and fallen cables , is being looked at as a prime causal factor in the massive forest fires . In 2012 Spain experienced the driest period since the 1940s , with rainfall decreased by up to 75 % .
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Eastern_Oregon
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Eastern Oregon is the eastern part of the U.S. state of Oregon . It is not an officially recognized geographic entity ; thus , the boundaries of the region vary according to context . It is sometimes understood to include only the eight easternmost counties in the state ; in other contexts , it includes the entire area east of the Cascade Range . Cities in the basic 8-county definition include Baker City , Bend , Burns , Hermiston , John Day , La Grande , and Ontario . Umatilla County is home to the largest population base in Eastern Oregon ; accounting for 74 % of the region 's population in 2016 . Hermiston , located in Umatilla Conty , is the largest city in the region . Major industries include transportation/warehousing , timber , agriculture , and tourism . The main transportation corridors are I-84 , U.S. Route 395 , U.S. Route 97 , U.S. Route 26 , U.S. Route 30 , and U.S. Route 20 . Compared to the climate of Western Oregon , the climate of Eastern Oregon is a drier continental climate , with much greater seasonal variations in temperature . Unlike the Willamette Valley , Eastern Oregon receives a significant amount of snow in the winter . Some parts of Eastern Oregon receive fewer than 10 in of rain yearly , classifying them as deserts . This desert climate is in part due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Cascade Range . Pine and juniper forests cover 35 % of Eastern Oregon , much in the mountains that include the Blue Mountains , Strawberry Mountains , Wallowa Mountains , Trout Creek Mountains , Ochoco Mountains , and Steens Mountain . Volcanic basalt flows from the Columbia River Basalt Group covered large sections of Eastern Oregon 6 to 17 million years ago . Other landforms include the Alvord Desert , Owyhee Desert , Warner Valley , Deschutes River , Owyhee River , Grande Ronde River , Joseph Canyon , The Honeycombs , and Malheur Butte .
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Disaster
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A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human , material , economic or environmental loss and impacts , which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources . In contemporary academia , disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk . These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability . Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become disasters , as in the case of uninhabited regions . Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits -- more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by hazards occur in developing countries , and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater ( as a percentage of GDP ) in developing countries than in industrialized countries .
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