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INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 315 The increase in enrolment is given in the following table Table A2.3 Year Enrolment Increase (in ) 0 41.9 0 1 42.6 0.7 2 42.7 0.1 3 42.9 0.2 4 43.1 0.2 5 43.2 0.1 6 43.5 0.3 7 43.5 0 8 43.6 0.1 9 43.7 0.1 10 44.1 0.4 At the end of the one-year period from 1991 to 1992, the enrolment has increased by 0.7 from 41.9 to 42.6. At the end of the second year, this has increased by 0.1, from 42.6 to 42.7. From the table above, we cannot find a definite relationship between the number of years and percentage. But the increase is fairly steady. Only in the first year and in the 10th year there is a jump. The mean of the values is 0.7 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0 0.1 0.1 0.4 10 0.22 Let us assume that the enrolment steadily increases at the rate of 0.22 per cent. Mathematical Description We have assumed that the enrolment increases steadily at the rate of 0.22 per year. So, the Enrolment Percentage (EP) in the first year 41.9 0.22 EP in the second year 41.9 0.22 0.22 41.9 2 0.22 EP in the third year 41.9 0.22 0.22 0.22 41.9 3 0.22 So, the enrolment percentage in the nth year 41.9 0.22n, for n 1. (1) 2019-2020 | [
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71 Nationalism in India The identity of the nation, as you know (see Chapter 1), is most often symbolised in a figure or image. This helps create an image with which people can identify the nation. It was in the twentieth century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the 1870s he wrote Vande Mataram as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata (see Fig. 12). In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an ascetic figure she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In subsequent years, the image of Bharat Mata acquired many different forms, as it circulated in popular prints, and was painted by different artists (see Fig. 14). Devotion to this mother figure came to be seen as evidence of ones nationalism. Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in order to discover ones national identity and restore a sense of pride in ones past. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk Fig. 12 Bharat Mata, Abanindranath Tagore, 1905. Notice that the mother figure here is shown as dispensing learning, food and clothing. The mala in one hand emphasises her ascetic quality. Abanindranath Tagore, like Ravi Varma before him, tried to develop a style of painting that could be seen as truly Indian. Fig. 13 Jawaharlal Nehru, a popular print. Nehru is here shown holding the image of Bharat Mata and the map of India close to his heart. In a lot of popular prints, nationalist leaders are shown offering their heads to Bharat Mata. The idea of sacrifice for the mother was powerful within popular imagination. 2018-19 | [
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SCIENCE 214 Organic farming is a farming system with minimal or no use of chemicals as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides etc. and with a maximum input of organic manures, recyled farm wastes, and bio-agents, with healthy cropping systems. Mixed farming is a system of farming on a particular farm which includes crop production, raising of livestock etc. Mixed cropping is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. Growing two or more crops in definite row patterns is known as inter-cropping. The growing of different crops on a piece of land in pre-planned succession is called crop rotation. Varietal improvement is required for higher yield, good quality, biotic and abiotic resistance, shortening the maturity duration, wider adaptability and desirable agronomic characteristics. Farm animals require proper care and management such as shelter, feeding, breeding and disease control. This is called animal husbandry. Poultry farming is done to raise domestic fowls. Poultry production includes egg production and broiler production for poultry meat. To enhance poultry production, cross breeding is done between Indian and exotic breeds for variety improvement. Fish may be obtained from marine resources as well as inland resources. To increase production of fish, they can be cultured in marine and inland ecosystems. Marine fish capture is done by fishing nets guided by echo- sounders and satellites. Composite fish culture system is commonly used for fish farming. Bee-keeping is done to get honey and wax. Exercises 1. Explain any one method of crop production which ensures high yield. 2. Why are manure and fertilizers used in fields? 3. What are the advantages of inter-cropping and crop rotation? 4. What is genetic manipulation? How is it useful in agricultural practices? 2019-2020 | [
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Life Processes like in the lungs, is a cluster of very thin-walled blood capillaries. Each capillary cluster in the kidney is associated with the cup-shaped end of a coiled tube called Bowmans capsule that collects the filtrate (Fig. 6.14). Each kidney has large numbers of these filtration units called nephrons packed close together. Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows along the tube. The amount of water re-absorbed depends on how much excess water there is in the body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted. The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder. Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra. The bladder is muscular, so it is under nervous control, as we have discussed elsewhere. As a result, we can usually control the urge to urinate. Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis) Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or restricted blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to death. In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis. Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled with dialysing fluid. This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes. The patients blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is pumped back into the patient. This is similar to the function of the kidney, but it is different since there is no re- absorption involved. Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily. However, the volume actually excreted is only a litre or two a day, because the remaining filtrate is re- absorbed in the kidney tubules. Figure 6.14 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.14 Structure of a nephron 2019-20 | [
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] |
Acids, Bases and Salts We know how acid-base indicators can be used to distinguish between an acid and a base. We have also learnt in the previous section about dilution and decrease in concentration of H or OH ions in solutions. Can we quantitatively find the amount of these ions present in a solution? Can we judge how strong a given acid or base is? We can do this by making use of a universal indicator, which is a mixture of several indicators. The universal indicator shows different colours at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a solution. A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, called pH scale has been developed. The p in pH stands for potenz in German, meaning power. On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline). pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a solution. Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value. The pH of a neutral solution is 7. Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic solution. As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it represents an increase in OH ion concentration in the solution, that is, increase in the strength of alkali (Fig. 2.6). Generally paper impregnated with the universal indicator is used for measuring pH. 1. Why do HCl, HNO3, etc., show acidic characters in aqueous solutions while solutions of compounds like alcohol and glucose do not show acidic character? 2. Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct electricity? 3. Why does dry HCl gas not change the colour of the dry litmus paper? 4. While diluting an acid, why is it recommended that the acid should be added to water and not water to the acid? 5. How is the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O) affected when a solution of an acid is diluted? 6. How is the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ) affected when excess base is dissolved in a solution of sodium hydroxide? Figure 2.6 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.6 Variation of pH with the change in concentration of H(aq) and OH(aq) ions 2019-20 | [
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78 D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s Popular Popular Popular Popular Popular in inin inin political parties political parties political parties political parties political parties participation participation participation participation participation It is often said that political parties are facing a crisis because they are very unpopular and the citizens are indifferent to political parties. The available evidence shows that this belief is only partly true for India. The evidence, based on a series of large sample surveys conducted over several decades, shows that l Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people in South Asia. The proportion of those who say their trust in political parties is not much or not at all is more than those who have some or great trust. l The same is true of most other democracies as well. Political parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world. l Yet the level of participation in the activities of political parties was fairly high. The proportion of those who said they were members of some political party was higher in India than many advanced countries like Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea. l Over the last three decades the proportion of those who report to be members of political parties in India has gone up steadily. l The proportion of those who say they feel close to a political party has also gone up in India in this period. Source SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi Oxford University Press, 2007 2018-19 | [
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4013,
315,
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31213,
13075,
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3807,
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36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I Figure 4.6 Seasonal Rainfall (June-September) 2019-20 | [
18,
21,
3418,
48343,
868,
8642,
19317,
5863,
21477,
19037,
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India and the Contemporary World 68 3 The Inter-war Economy The First World War (1914-18) was mainly fought in Europe. But its impact was felt around the world. Notably for our concerns in this chapter, it plunged the first half of the twentieth century into a crisis that took over three decades to overcome. During this period the world experienced widespread economic and political instability, and another catastrophic war. 3.1 Wartime Transformations The First World War, as you know, was fought between two power blocs. On the one side were the Allies Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the US) and on the opposite side were the Central Powers Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey. When the war began in August 1914, many governments thought it would be over by Christmas. It lasted more than four years. The First World War was a war like no other before. The fighting involved the worlds leading industrial nations which now harnessed the vast powers of modern industry to inflict the greatest possible destruction on their enemies. This war was thus the first modern industrial war. It saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc. on a massive scale. These were all increasingly products of modern large- scale industry. To fight the war, millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and moved to the frontlines on large ships and trains. The scale of death and destruction 9 million dead and 20 million injured was unthinkable before the industrial age, without the use of industrial arms. Most of the killed and maimed were men of working age. These deaths and injuries reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe. With fewer numbers within the family, household incomes declined after the war. During the war, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods. Entire societies were also reorganised for war as men went to battle, women stepped in to undertake jobs that earlier only men were expected to do. Fig. 20 Workers in a munition factory during the First World War. Production of armaments increased rapidly to meet war demands. 2019-20 | [
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Nazism and the Rise of Hitler 71 Box 1 How did the common people react to Nazism? Many saw the world through Nazi eyes, and spoke their mind in Nazi language. They felt hatred and anger surge inside them when they saw someone who looked like a Jew. They marked the houses of Jews and reported suspicious neighbours. They genuinely believed Nazism would bring prosperity and improve general well-being. But not every German was a Nazi. Many organised active resistance to Nazism, braving police repression and death. The large majority of Germans, however, were passive onlookers and apathetic witnesses. They were too scared to act, to differ, to protest. They preferred to look away. Pastor Niemoeller, a resistance fighter, observed an absence of protest, an uncanny silence, amongst ordinary Germans in the face of brutal and organised crimes committed against people in the Nazi empire. He wrote movingly about this silence First they came for the Communists, Well, I was not a Communist So I said nothing. Then they came for the Social Democrats, Well, I was not a Social Democrat So I did nothing, Then they came for the trade unionists, But I was not a trade unionist. And then they came for the Jews, But I was not a Jew so I did little. Then when they came for me, There was no one left who could stand up for me. Was the lack of concern for Nazi victims only because of the Terror? No, says Lawrence Rees who interviewed people from diverse backgrounds for his recent documentary, The Nazis A Warning from History. Erna Kranz, an ordinary German teenager in the1930s and a grandmother now, said to Rees 1930s offered a glimmer of hope, not just for the unemployed but for everybody for we all felt downtrodden. From my own experience I could say salaries increased and Germany seemed to have regained its sense of purpose. I could only say for myself, I thought it was a good time. I liked it. 5 Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity Activity Why does Erna Kranz say, I could only say for myself? How do you view her opinion? 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 128 Discuss Project 1. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism? 2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India. 3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India? 4. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India. Find out more about the changes in print technology in the last 100 years. Write about the changes, explaining why they have taken place, what their consequences have been. Discuss Write in brief 1. Give reasons for the following a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295. b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it. c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century. d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association. 2. Write short notes to show what you know about a) The Gutenberg Press b) Erasmuss idea of the printed book c) The Vernacular Press Act 3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to a) Women b) The poor c) Reformers Write in brief Project 2019-20 | [
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Sustainable Management of Natural Resources Not just roads and buildings, but all the things we use or consume food, clothes, books, toys, furniture, tools and vehicles are obtained from resources on this earth. The only thing we get from outside is energy which we receive from the Sun. Even this energy is processed by living organisms and various physical and chemical processes on the earth before we make use of it. Why do we need to use our resources carefully? Because these are not unlimited and with the human population increasing at a tremendous rate due to improvement in health-care, the demand for all resources is increasing at an exponential rate. The management of natural resources requires a long-term perspective so that these will last for the generations to come and will not merely be exploited to the Repurpose This means when a product can no more be used for the original purpose, think carefully and use it for some other useful purpose. For example, cracked crockery, or cups with broken handles can be used to grow small plants and as feeding vessels for birds. Recycle This means that you collect plastic, paper, glass and metal items and recycle these materials to make required things instead of synthesising or extracting fresh plastic, paper, glass or metal. In order to recycle, we first need to segregate our wastes so that the material that can be recycled is not dumped along with other wastes. Does your villagetown city have a mechanism in place for recycling these materials? Even while making everyday choices, we can make environment- friendly decisions. For doing this, we need to know more about how our choices affect the environment, these effects may be immediate or long- term or long-ranging. The concept of sustainable development encourages forms of growth that meet current basic human needs, while preserving the resources for the needs of future generations. Economic development is linked to environmental conservation. Thus sustainable development implies a change in all aspects of life. It depends upon the willingness of the people to change their perceptions of the socio-economic and environmental conditions around them, and the readiness of each individual to alter their present use of natural resources. Have you ever visited a town or village after a few years of absence? If so, have you noticed new roads and houses that have come up since you were there last? Where do you think the materials for making these roads and buildings have come from? Try and make a list of the materials and their probable sources. Discuss the list you have prepared with your classmates. Can you think of ways in which the use of these materials be reduced? 2019-20 | [
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] |
India and the Contemporary World 54 1 The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation In the years after 1919, we see the national movement spreading to new areas, incorporating new social groups, and developing new modes of struggle. How do we understand these developments? What implications did they have? First of all, the war created a new economic and political situation. It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes customs duties were raised and income tax introduced. Through the war years prices increased doubling between 1913 and 1918 leading to extreme hardship for the common people. Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger. Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen. At this stage a new leader appeared and suggested a new mode of struggle. 1.1 The Idea of Satyagraha Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. As you know, he had come from South Africa where he had successfully fought New words Forced recruitment A process by which the colonial state forced people to join the army Fig. 2 Indian workers in South Africa march through Volksrust, 6 November 1913. Mahatma Gandhi was leading the workers from Newcastle to Transvaal. When the marchers were stopped and Gandhiji arrested, thousands of more workers joined the satyagraha against racist laws that denied rights to non-whites. 2018-19 | [
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POLYNOMIALS 35 Solution Note that the given polynomials are not in standard form. To carry out division, we first write both the dividend and divisor in decreasing orders of their degrees. So, dividend x3 3x2 3x 5 and divisor x2 x 1. Division process is shown on the right side. We stop here since degree (3) 0 2 degree (x2 x 1). So, quotient x 2, remainder 3. Now, Divisor Quotient Remainder (x2 x 1) (x 2) 3 x3 x2 x 2x2 2x 2 3 x3 3x2 3x 5 Dividend In this way, the division algorithm is verified. Example 9 Find all the zeroes of 2x4 3x3 3x2 6x 2, if you know that two of its zeroes are 2 and 2 . Solution Since two zeroes are 2 and 2 , ( )( ) 2 2 x x x2 2 is a factor of the given polynomial. Now, we divide the given polynomial by x2 2. First term of quotient is 4 2 2 2 2 x x x Second term of quotient is 3 2 3 3 x x x Third term of quotient is 2 2 1 x x 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 90 While Surat and Hoogly decayed, Bombay and Calcutta grew. This shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of colonial power. Trade through the new ports came to be controlled by European companies, and was carried in European ships. While many of the old trading houses collapsed, those that wanted to survive had to now operate within a network shaped by European trading companies. How did these changes affect the life of weavers and other artisans? 3.2 What Happened to Weavers? The consolidation of East India Company power after the 1760s did not initially lead to a decline in textile exports from India. British cotton industries had not yet expanded and Indian fine textiles were in great demand in Europe. So the company was keen on expanding textile exports from India. Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export. The French, Dutch, Fig. 13 The English factory at Surat, a seventeenth-century drawing. Fig. 14 A weaver at work, Gujarat. 2019-20 | [
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Light Reflection and Refraction The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by-and-large spherical. The surface, then, has a circular outline. The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture. In Fig.10.2, distance MN represents the aperture. We shall consider in our discussion only such spherical mirrors whose aperture is much smaller than its radius of curvature. Is there a relationship between the radius of curvature R, and focal length f, of a spherical mirror? For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be equal to twice the focal length. We put this as R 2f . This implies that the principal focus of a spherical mirror lies midway between the pole and centre of curvature. You have studied about the image formation by plane mirrors. You also know the nature, position and relative size of the images formed by them. How about the images formed by spherical mirrors? How can we locate the image formed by a concave mirror for different positions of the object? Are the images real or virtual? Are they enlarged, diminished or have the same size? We shall explore this with an Activity. You have already learnt a way of determining the focal length of a concave mirror. In Activity 10.2, you have seen that the sharp bright spot of light you got on the paper is, in fact, the image of the Sun. It was a tiny, real, inverted image. You got the approximate focal length of the concave mirror by measuring the distance of the image from the mirror. Take a concave mirror. Find out its approximate focal length in the way described above. Note down the value of focal length. (You can also find it out by obtaining image of a distant object on a sheet of paper.) Mark a line on a Table with a chalk. Place the concave mirror on a stand. Place the stand over the line such that its pole lies over the line. Draw with a chalk two more lines parallel to the previous line such that the distance between any two successive lines is equal to the focal length of the mirror. These lines will now correspond to the positions of the points P, F and C, respectively. Remember For a spherical mirror of small aperture, the principal focus F lies mid-way between the pole P and the centre of curvature C. Keep a bright object, say a burning candle, at a position far beyond C. Place a paper screen and move it in front of the mirror till you obtain a sharp bright image of the candle flame on it. Observe the image carefully. Note down its nature, position and relative size with respect to the object size. Repeat the activity by placing the candle (a) just beyond C, (b) at C, (c) between F and C, (d) at F, and (e) between P and F. In one of the cases, you may not get the image on the screen. Identify the position of the object in such a case. Then, look for its virtual image in the mirror itself. Note down and tabulate your observations. 2019-20 | [
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STATISTICS 279 From the table above, we see that 50th observaton is 28 (Why?) 51st observation is 29 So, Median 28 29 28.5 2 Remark The part of Table 14.11 consisting Column 1 and Column 3 is known as Cumulative Frequency Table. The median marks 28.5 conveys the information that about 50 students obtained marks less than 28.5 and another 50 students obtained marks more than 28.5. Now, let us see how to obtain the median of grouped data, through the following situation. Consider a grouped frequency distribution of marks obtained, out of 100, by 53 students, in a certain examination, as follows Table 14.12 Marks Number of students 0 - 10 5 10 - 20 3 20 - 30 4 30 - 40 3 40 - 50 3 50 - 60 4 60 - 70 7 70 - 80 9 80 - 90 7 90 - 100 8 From the table above, try to answer the following questions How many students have scored marks less than 10? The answer is clearly 5. 2019-20 | [
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TRIANGLES 129 7.6 Inequalities in a Triangle So far, you have been mainly studying the equality of sides and angles of a triangle or triangles. Sometimes, we do come across unequal objects, we need to compare them. For example, line-segment AB is greater in length as compared to line segment CD in Fig. 7.41 (i) and A is greater than B in Fig 7.41 (ii). Fig. 7.41 Let us now examine whether there is any relation between unequal sides and unequal angles of a triangle. For this, let us perform the following activity Activity Fix two pins on a drawing board say at B and C and tie a thread to mark a side BC of a triangle. Fix one end of another thread at C and tie a pencil at the other (free) end . Mark a point A with the pencil and draw ABC (see Fig 7.42). Now, shift the pencil and mark another point A on CA beyond A (new position of it) So, AC AC (Comparing the lengths) Join A to B and complete the triangle ABC. What can you say about ABC and ABC? Compare them. What do you observe? Clearly, ABC ABC Continue to mark more points on CA (extended) and draw the triangles with the side BC and the points marked. You will observe that as the length of the side AC is increased (by taking different positions of A), the angle opposite to it, that is, B also increases. Let us now perform another activity Fig. 7.42 2019-2020 | [
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Nazism and the Rise of Hitler 61 Activity The crimes that Nazis committed were linked to a system of belief and a set of practices. Nazi ideology was synonymous with Hitlers worldview. According to this there was no equality between people, but only a racial hierarchy. In this view blond, blue-eyed, Nordic German Aryans were at the top, while Jews were located at the lowest rung. They came to be regarded as an anti-race, the arch-enemies of the Aryans. All other coloured people were placed in between depending upon their external features. Hitlers racism borrowed from thinkers like Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. Darwin was a natural scientist who tried to explain the creation of plants and animals through the concept of evolution and natural selection. Herbert Spencer later added the idea of survival of the fittest. According to this idea, only those species survived on earth that could adapt themselves to changing climatic conditions. We should bear in mind that Darwin never advocated human intervention in what he thought was a purely natural process of selection. However, his ideas were used by racist thinkers and politicians to justify imperial rule over conquered peoples. The Nazi argument was simple the strongest race would survive and the weak ones would perish. The Aryan race was the finest. It had to retain its purity, become stronger and dominate the world. The other aspect of Hitlers ideology related to the geopolitical concept of Lebensraum, or living space. He believed that new territories had to be acquired for settlement. This would enhance the area of the mother country, while enabling the settlers on new lands to retain an intimate link with the place of their origin. It would also enhance the material resources and power of the German nation. Hitler intended to extend German boundaries by moving eastwards, to concentrate all Germans geographically in one place. Poland became the laboratory for this experimentation. 3.1 Establishment of the Racial State Once in power, the Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those who were seen as undesirable in the 3 The Nazi Worldview Source A For this earth is not allotted to anyone nor is it presented to anyone as a gift. It is awarded by providence to people who in their hearts have the courage to conquer it, the strength to preserve it, and the industry to put it to the plough The primary right of this world is the right to life, so far as one possesses the strength for this. Hence on the basis of this right a vigorous nation will always find ways of adapting its territory to its population size. Hitler, Secret Book, ed. Telford Taylor. Read Sources A and B What do they tell you about Hitlers imperial ambition? What do you think Mahatma Gandhi would have said to Hitler about these ideas? Source B In an era when the earth is gradually being divided up among states, some of which embrace almost entire continents, we cannot speak of a world power in connection with a formation whose political mother country is limited to the absurd area of five hundred kilometers. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 644. New words Nordic German Aryans One branch of those classified as Aryans. They lived in north European countries and had German or related origin. 2019-2020 | [
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Science Note that the metal in the above reactions displaces hydrogen atoms from the acids as hydrogen gas and forms a compound called a salt. Thus, the reaction of a metal with an acid can be summarised as Acid Metal Salt Hydrogen gas Can you now write the equations for the reactions you have observed? The reactions occurring in the above Activity are written as Test tube A Na CO HCl(aq) Cl(aq) H O(l) CO 2 3 2 2 (s) Na (g) 2 2 Test tube B NaHCO HCl(aq) Cl(aq) H O(l) CO 3 2 2 (s) Na (g) On passing the carbon dioxide gas evolved through lime water, Ca(OH) CO H O(l) 2 2 2 (aq) (g) CaCO s 3 ( ) (Lime water) (White precipitate) Place a few pieces of granulated zinc metal in a test tube. Add 2 mL of sodium hydroxide solution and warm the contents of the test tube. Repeat the rest of the steps as in Activity 2.3 and record your observations. The reaction that takes place can be written as follows. 2NaOH(aq) Zn(s) Na2ZnO2(s) H2(g) (Sodium zincate) You find again that hydrogen is formed in the reaction. However, such reactions are not possible with all metals. Take two test tubes, label them as A and B. Take about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in test tube A and about 0.5 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) in test tube B. Add about 2 mL of dilute HCl to both the test tubes. What do you observe? Pass the gas produced in each case through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) as shown in Fig. 2.2 and record your observations. Figure 2.2 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.2 Passing carbon dioxide gas through calcium hydroxide solution 2019-20 | [
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50 Economics of poorest of the poor and indigent senior citizens, respectively. The functioning of these two schemes was linked with the existing network of the PDS. Some important features of PDS are summarised in Table 4.3. The PDS has proved to be the most effective instrument of government policy over the years in stabilising prices and making food available to consumers at affordable prices. It has been instrumental in averting widespread hunger and famine by supplying food from surplus regions of the country to the deficit ones. In addition, the prices have been under revision in favour of poor households in general. The system, including the minimum support price and procurement has contributed to an increase in foodgrain production and provided income security to farmers in certain regions. However, the Public Distribution System has faced severe criticism on several grounds. Instances of hunger are prevalent despite overflowing granaries. FCI godowns are overflowing with grains, with some rotting away and some being eaten by rats. Graph 4.2 shows the Source Food Corporation and India Graph 4.2 Central Foodgrains (Wheat Rice) Stock and Minimum Buffer Norm (Million Tonnes) difference in foodgrain stocks in Central pool and its stocking norms. Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) AAY was launched in December 2000. Under this scheme one crore of the poorest among the BPL families covered under the targeted public distribution system were identified. Poor families were identified by the respective state rural development departments through a Below Poverty Line (BPL) survey. Twenty-five kilograms of foodgrains were made available to each eligible family at a highly subsidised rate of 2 per kg for wheat and 3 per kg for rice. This quantity has been enhanced from 25 to 35 kg with effect from April 2002. The scheme has been further expanded twice by additional 50 lakh BPL families in June 2003 and in August 2004. With this increase, 2 crore families have been covered under the AAY. 2019-2020 | [
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SCIENCE 38 3. Formula of carbon tetrachloride For magnesium chloride, we write the symbol of cation (Mg2) first followed by the symbol of anion (Cl-). Then their charges are criss-crossed to get the formula. 4. Formula of magnesium chloride Formula MgCl2 Thus, in magnesium chloride, there are two chloride ions (Cl-) for each magnesium ion (Mg2). The positive and negative charges must balance each other and the overall structure must be neutral. Note that in the formula, the charges on the ions are not indicated. Some more examples (a) Formula for aluminium oxide Formula Al2O3 (b) Formula for calcium oxide Here, the valencies of the two elements are the same. You may arrive at the formula Ca2O2. But we simplify the formula as CaO. The rules that you have to follow while writing a chemical formula are as follows the valencies or charges on the ion must balance. when a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the name or symbol of the metal is written first. For example calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO) etc., where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non- metals and are written on the right, whereas calcium, sodium, iron and copper are metals, and are written on the left. in compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the number of ions present in the compound is indicated by enclosing the formula of ion in a bracket and writing the number of ions outside the bracket. For example, Mg (OH)2. In case the number of polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not required. For example, NaOH. 3.4.1 FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS The simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements are called binary compounds. Valencies of some ions are given in Table 3.6. You can use these to write formulae for compounds. While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent elements and their valencies as shown below. Then we must crossover the valencies of the combining atoms. Examples 1. Formula of hydrogen chloride Formula of the compound would be HCl. 2. Formula of hydrogen sulphide 2019-2020 | [
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127 Print Culture 9 Print and Censorship Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was not too concerned with censorship. Strangely, its early measures to control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade monopoly in India. By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspapers that would celebrate Britsh rule. In 1835, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms. After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the native press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated. Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. Box 4 Sometimes, the government found it hard to find candidates for editorship of loyalist papers. When Sanders, editor of the Statesman that had been founded in 1877, was approached, he asked rudely how much he would be paid for suffering the loss of freedom. The Friend of India refused a government subsidy, fearing that this would force it to be obedient to government commands. Box 5 The power of the printed word is most often seen in the way governments seek to regulate and suppress print. The colonial government kept continuous track of all books and newspapers published in India and passed numerous laws to control the press. During the First World War, under the Defence of India Rules, 22 newspapers had to furnish securities. Of these, 18 shut down rather than comply with government orders. The Sedition Committee Report under Rowlatt in 1919 further strengthened controls that led to imposition of penalties on various newspapers. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the Defence of India Act was passed, allowing censoring of reports of war-related topics. All reports about the Quit India movement came under its purview. In August 1942, about 90 newspapers were suppressed. Source Source F Gandhi said in 1922 Liberty of speech ... liberty of the press ... freedom of association. The Government of India is now seeking to crush the three powerful vehicles of expressing and cultivating public opinion. The fight for Swaraj, for Khilafat ... means a fight for this threatened freedom before all else ... 2019-20 | [
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POPULATION 59 Aged (Above 59 years) They can be economically productive though they may have retired. They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment through recruitment. The percentage of children and the aged affect the dependency ratio because these groups are not producers. The proportion of the three groups in Indias population is already presented in Figure 6.5 . Activity (i) How many children do you know who are engaged as household helpers or labourers in your locality? (ii) How many adults do you know in your locality who are unemployed? (iii) What do you feel are the reasons for this? Sex Ratio Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. This information is an important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females in a society at a given time. The sex ratio in the country has always remained unfavourable to females. Find out why this is so? Table 6.2 shows the sex ratio from 19512011. Table 6.2 India Sex Ratio 1951-2011 Census year Sex ratio (Females per 1000 males) 1951 946 1961 941 1971 930 1981 934 1991 929 2001 933 2011 943 Kerala has a sex ratio of 1084 females per 1000 males, Puducherry has 1038 females for every 1000 males, while Delhi has only 866 females per 1000 males and Haryana has just 877. What could be the reasons for such variations? Literacy Rates Literacy is a very important quality of a population. Obviously, only an informed and educated citizen can make intelligent choices and undertake research and development projects. Low levels of literacy are a serious obstacle for economic improvement. According to the Census 2011, a person aged 7 years and above, who can read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate. There has been a steady improvement in the literacy levels in India. The literacy rate in the country as per the Census of 2011 is 73 per cent 80.9 per cent for males and 64.6 per cent for females. Why do such differences exist? Occupational Structure The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of development. The distribution of the population according to different types of occupation is referred to as the occupational structure. An enormous variety of occupations are found in any country. Occupations are, generally, classified as primary, secondary and tertiary. Figure 6.5 India Age Composition Adults,58.7 Aged,6.9 Children,34.4 India AgeStructure 2019-20 | [
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Control and Coordination object is an urgent and dangerous situation for us. We need to detect it, and respond to it. How do we detect that we are touching a hot object? All information from our environment is detected by the specialised tips of some nerve cells. These receptors are usually located in our sense organs, such as the inner ear, the nose, the tongue, and so on. So gustatory receptors will detect taste while olfactory receptors will detect smell. This information, acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell Fig. 7.1 (a), sets off a chemical reaction that creates an electrical impulse. This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body, and then along the axon to its end. At the end of the axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release of some chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next neuron. This is a general scheme of how nervous impulses travel in the body. A similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells, such as muscles cells or gland Fig. 7.1 (b). It is thus no surprise that nervous tissue is made up of an organised network of nerve cells or neurons, and is specialised for conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another. Look at Fig. 7.1 (a) and identify the parts of a neuron (i) where information is acquired, (ii) through which information travels as an electrical impulse, and (iii) where this impulse must be converted into a chemical signal for onward transmission. Put some sugar in your mouth. How does it taste? Block your nose by pressing it between your thumb and index finger. Now eat sugar again. Is there any difference in its taste? While eating lunch, block your nose in the same way and notice if you can fully appreciate the taste of the food you are eating. Is there a difference in how sugar and food taste if your nose is blocked? If so, why might this be happening? Read and talk about possible explanations for these kinds of differences. Do you come across a similar situation when you have a cold? Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1 (a) Structure of neuron, (b) Neuromuscular junction (a) (b) 2019-20 | [
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CONSTRUCTIONS 189 11.2 Basic Constructions In Class VI, you have learnt how to construct a circle, the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, angles of 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120, and the bisector of a given angle, without giving any justification for these constructions. In this section, you will construct some of these, with reasoning behind, why these constructions are valid. Construction 11.1 To construct the bisector of a given angle. Given an angle ABC, we want to construct its bisector. Steps of Construction 1. Taking B as centre and any radius, draw an arc to intersect the rays BA and BC, say at E and D respectively see Fig.11.1(i). 2. Next, taking D and E as centres and with the radius more than 1 2 DE, draw arcs to intersect each other, say at F. 3. Draw the ray BF see Fig.11.1(ii). This ray BF is the required bisector of the angle ABC. Fig. 11.1 Let us see how this method gives us the required angle bisector. Join DF and EF. In triangles BEF and BDF, BE BD (Radii of the same arc) EF DF (Arcs of equal radii) BF BF (Common) Therefore, BEF BDF (SSS rule) This gives EBF DBF (CPCT) 2019-2020 | [
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INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY 177 From this, we find MP AP BC sin A AC . Similarly, AM AB AP AC cos A, MP BC tan A AM AB and so on. This shows that the trigonometric ratios of angle A in PAM not differ from those of angle A in CAB. In the same way, you should check that the value of sin A (and also of other trigonometric ratios) remains the same in QAN also. From our observations, it is now clear that the values of the trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with the lengths of the sides of the triangle, if the angle remains the same. Note For the sake of convenience, we may write sin2A, cos2A, etc., in place of (sin A)2, (cos A)2, etc., respectively. But cosec A (sin A)1 sin1 A (it is called sine inverse A). sin1 A has a different meaning, which will be discussed in higher classes. Similar conventions hold for the other trigonometric ratios as well. Sometimes, the Greek letter (theta) is also used to denote an angle. We have defined six trigonometric ratios of an acute angle. If we know any one of the ratios, can we obtain the other ratios? Let us see. If in a right triangle ABC, sin A 1, 3 then this means that BC 1 AC 3 , i.e., the lengths of the sides BC and AC of the triangle ABC are in the ratio 1 3 (see Fig. 8.7). So if BC is equal to k, then AC will be 3k, where k is any positive number. To determine other trigonometric ratios for the angle A, we need to find the length of the third side AB. Do you remember the Pythagoras theorem? Let us use it to determine the required length AB. AB2 AC2 BC2 (3k)2 (k)2 8k2 (2 2 k)2 Therefore, AB 2 2 k So, we get AB 2 2 k (Why is AB not 2 2 k ?) Now, cos A AB 2 2 2 2 AC 3 3 k k Similarly, you can obtain the other trigonometric ratios of the angle A. Fig. 8.7 2019-20 | [
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56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I Population Growth Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a countryterritory during a specific period of time, say during the last 10 years. Such a change can be expressed in two ways in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage change per year. The absolute numbers added each year or decade is the magnitude of increase. It is obtained by simply subtracting the earlier population (e.g. that of 2001) from the later population (e.g. that of 2011). It is referred to as the absolute increase. The rate or the pace of population increase is the other important aspect. It is studied in per cent per annum, e.g. a rate of increase of 2 per cent per annum means that in a given year, there was an increase of two persons for every 100 persons in the base population. This is referred to as the annual growth rate. Indias population has been steadily increasing from 361 million in 1951 to 1210 million in 2011. Table 6.1 The Magnitude and Rate of Indias Population Growth Year Total Absolute Annual Population Increase in Growth (in million) the Decade Rate (in million) ( ) 1951 361.0 42.43 1.25 1961 439.2 78.15 1.96 1971 548.2 108.92 2.20 1981 683.3 135.17 2.22 1991 846.4 163.09 2.16 2001 1028.7 182.32 1.97 2011 1210.6 181.46 1.64 Table 6.1 and Figures 6.4 (a) and 6.4 (b) reveal that from 1951 to 1981, the annual rate of population growth was steadily increasing which explains the rapid increase in population from 361 million in 1951 to 683 million in 1981. Table 6.1 reveals that despite the decline in growth rates, the number of people being added every decade is steadily increasing. Why? Since 1981, however, the rate of growth started declining gradually. During this period, birth rates declined rapidly. Still 182 million is calculated as the number of persons per unit area. India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world. Do You Know Only Bangladesh and Japan have higher average population densities than India. Find out the population densities of Bangladesh and Japan. The population density of India in the year 2011 was 382 persons per sq km. Densities vary from 1,102 persons per sq km in Bihar to only 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh. A study of the Figure 6.3 shows the pattern of uneven distribution of population densities at the State level. Activity Study the Figure 6.3 and compare it with Figure 2.4 and Figure 4.7. Do you find any corelation between these maps? Note the States with population densities below 250 persons per square km. Rugged terrain and unfavourable climatic conditions are primarily responsible for sparse population in these areas. Which states have density below 250 persons per square km? Assam and most of the Peninsular states have moderate population densities. Hilly, dissected and rocky nature of the terrain, moderate to low rainfall, shallow and less fertile soils have influenced population densities in these areas. The Northern plains and Kerala in the south have high to very high population densities because of the flat plains with fertile soils and abundant rainfall. Identify the three states of the Northern Plains with high population densities. POPULATION GROWTH AND PROCESSES OF POPULATION CHANGE Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are constantly changing. This is the influence of the interaction of the three processes, namely births, deaths and migrations. 2019-20 | [
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Acids, Bases and Salts 8. Why do acids not show acidic behaviour in the absence of water? 9. Five solutions A,B,C,D and E when tested with universal indicator showed pH as 4,1,11,7 and 9, respectively. Which solution is (a) neutral? (b) strongly alkaline? (c) strongly acidic? (d) weakly acidic? (e) weakly alkaline? Arrange the pH in increasing order of hydrogen-ion concentration. 10. Equal lengths of magnesium ribbons are taken in test tubes A and B. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added to test tube A, while acetic acid (CH3COOH) is added to test tube B. Amount and concentration taken for both the acids are same. In which test tube will the fizzing occur more vigorously and why? 11. Fresh milk has a pH of 6. How do you think the pH will change as it turns into curd? Explain your answer. 12. A milkman adds a very small amount of baking soda to fresh milk. (a) Why does he shift the pH of the fresh milk from 6 to slightly alkaline? (b) Why does this milk take a long time to set as curd? 13. Plaster of Paris should be stored in a moisture-proof container. Explain why? 14. What is a neutralisation reaction? Give two examples. 15. Give two important uses of washing soda and baking soda. (I) Prepare your own indicator Crush beetroot in a mortar. Add sufficient water to obtain the extract. Filter the extract by the procedure learnt by you in earlier classes. Collect the filtrate to test the substances you may have tasted earlier. Arrange four test tubes in a test tube stand and label them as A,B,C and D. Pour 2 mL each of lemon juice solution, soda-water, vinegar and baking soda solution in them respectively. Put 2-3 drops of the beetroot extract in each test tube and note the colour change if any. Write your observation in a Table. You can prepare indicators by using other natural materials like extracts of red cabbage leaves, coloured petals of some flowers such as Petunia, Hydrangea and Geranium. 2019-20 | [
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53 Nationalism in India As you have seen, modern nationalism in Europe came to be associated with the formation of nation-states. It also meant a change in peoples understanding of who they were, and what defined their identity and sense of belonging. New symbols and icons, new songs and ideas forged new links and redefined the boundaries of communities. In most countries the making of this new national identity was a long process. How did this consciousness emerge in India? In India, as in Vietnam and many other colonies, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together. But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently, their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were not always the same. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement. But the unity did not emerge without conflict. In an earlier textbook you have read about the growth of nationalism in India up to the first decade of the twentieth century. In this chapter we will pick up the story from the 1920s and study the Non- Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. We will explore how the Congress sought to develop the national movement, how different social groups participated in the movement, and how nationalism captured the imagination of people. Nationalism in India Chapter III Nationalism in India Fig. 1 6 April 1919. Mass processions on the streets became a common feature during the national movement. 2018-19 | [
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214 MATHEMATICS 13.3 Surface Area of a Right Circular Cylinder If we take a number of circular sheets of paper and stack them up as we stacked up rectangular sheets earlier, what would we get (see Fig. 13.6)? Fig. 13.6 Here, if the stack is kept vertically up, we get what is called a right circular cylinder, since it has been kept at right angles to the base, and the base is circular. Let us see what kind of cylinder is not a right circular cylinder. In Fig 13.7 (a), you see a cylinder, which is certainly circular, but it is not at right angles to the base. So, we can not say this a right circular cylinder. Of course, if we have a cylinder with a non circular base, as you see in Fig. 13.7 (b), then we also cannot call it a right circular cylinder. Remark Here, we will be dealing with only right circular cylinders. So, unless stated otherwise, the word cylinder would mean a right circular cylinder. Now, if a cylinder is to be covered with coloured paper, how will we do it with the minimum amount of paper? First take a rectangular sheet of paper, whose length is just enough to go round the cylinder and whose breadth is equal to the height of the cylinder as shown in Fig. 13.8. Fig. 13.7 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 72 What Jews felt in Nazi Germany is a different story altogether. Charlotte Beradt secretly recorded peoples dreams in her diary and later published them in a highly disconcerting book called the Third Reich of Dreams. She describes how Jews themselves began believing in the Nazi stereotypes about them. They dreamt of their hooked noses, black hair and eyes, Jewish looks and body movements. The stereotypical images publicised in the Nazi press haunted the Jews. They troubled them even in their dreams. Jews died many deaths even before they reached the gas chamber. 5.1 Knowledge about the Holocaust Information about Nazi practices had trickled out of Germany during the last years of the regime. But it was only after the war ended and Germany was defeated that the world came to realise the horrors of what had happened. While the Germans were preoccupied with their own plight as a defeated nation emerging out of the rubble, the Jews wanted the world to remember the atrocities and sufferings they had endured during the Nazi killing operations also called the Holocaust. At its height, a ghetto inhabitant had said to another that he wanted to outlive the war just for half an hour. Presumably he meant that he wanted to be able to tell the world about what had happened in Nazi Germany. This indomitable spirit to bear witness and to preserve the documents can be seen in many ghetto and camp inhabitants who wrote diaries, kept notebooks, and created archives. On the other hand when the war seemed lost, the Nazi leadership distributed petrol to its functionaries to destroy all incriminating evidence available in offices. Yet the history and the memory of the Holocaust live on in memoirs, fiction, documentaries, poetry, memorials and museums in many parts of the world today. These are a tribute to those who resisted it, an embarrassing reminder to those who collaborated, and a warning to those who watched in silence. Fig.31 Inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto collected documents and placed them in three milk cans along with other containers. As destruction seemed imminent, these containers were buried in the cellars of buildings in 1943. This can was discovered in 1950. Fig.32 Denmark secretly rescued their Jews from Germany. This is one of the boats used for the purpose. 2019-2020 | [
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Science Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb points towards the direction of current. Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 13.7. This is known as the right-hand thumb rule. Example 13.1 A current through a horizontal power line flows in east to west direction. What is the direction of magnetic field at a point directly below it and at a point directly above it? Solution The current is in the east-west direction. Applying the right-hand thumb rule, we get that the magnetic field (at any point below or above the wire) turns clockwise in a plane perpendicular to the wire, when viewed from the east end, and anti-clockwise, when viewed from the west end. Figure 13.7 Figure 13.7 Figure 13.7 Figure 13.7 Figure 13.7 Right-hand thumb rule This rule is also called Maxwells corkscrew rule. If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the current, then the direction of the rotation of corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic field. We have so far observed the pattern of the magnetic field lines produced around a current-carrying straight wire. Suppose this straight wire is bent in the form of a circular loop and a current is passed through it. How would the magnetic field lines look like? We know that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends inversely on the distance from it. Similarly at every point of a current-carrying circular loop, the concentric circles representing the magnetic field around it would become larger and larger as we move away from the wire (Fig. 13.8). By the time we reach at the centre of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would appear as straight lines. Every point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as straight lines at the center of the loop. By applying the right hand rule, it is easy to check that every section of the wire contributes to the magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop. Figure 13.8 Figure 13.8 Figure 13.8 Figure 13.8 Figure 13.8 Magnetic field lines of the field produced by a current-carrying circular loop 1. Draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet. 2. List the properties of magnetic field lines. 3. Why dont two magnetic field lines intersect each other? 2019-20 | [
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256 MATHEMATICS Example 14 An open metal bucket is in the shape of a frustum of a cone, mounted on a hollow cylindrical base made of the same me- tallic sheet (see Fig. 13.23). The diameters of the two circular ends of the bucket are 45 cm and 25 cm, the total vertical height of the bucket is 40 cm and that of the cylindrical base is 6 cm. Find the area of the metallic sheet used to make the bucket, where we do not take into account the handle of the bucket. Also, find the volume of water the bucket can hold. 22 Take 7 . Solution The total height of the bucket 40 cm, which includes the height of the base. So, the height of the frustum of the cone (40 6) cm 34 cm. Therefore, the slant height of the frustum, l 2 2 1 2 ( ) h r r , where r1 22.5 cm, r2 12.5 cm and h 34 cm. So, l 2 2 34 (22.5 12.5) cm 2 2 34 10 35.44 cm The area of metallic sheet used curved surface area of frustum of cone area of circular base curved surface area of cylinder 35.44 (22.5 12.5) (12.5)2 2 12.5 6 cm2 2 22 (1240.4 156.25 150) cm 7 4860.9 cm2 Fig. 13.23 2019-20 | [
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246 MATHEMATICS parts per million (ppm) of a certain city. The data obtained for 30 days is as follows 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.04 0.17 0.16 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.18 0.20 0.11 0.08 0.12 0.13 0.22 0.07 0.08 0.01 0.10 0.06 0.09 0.18 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.04 (i) Make a grouped frequency distribution table for this data with class intervals as 0.00 - 0.04, 0.04 - 0.08, and so on. (ii) For how many days, was the concentration of sulphur dioxide more than 0.11 parts per million? 6. Three coins were tossed 30 times simultaneously. Each time the number of heads occurring was noted down as follows 0 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 3 0 1 3 1 1 2 2 0 1 2 1 3 0 0 1 1 2 3 2 2 0 Prepare a frequency distribution table for the data given above. 7. The value of upto 50 decimal places is given below 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510 (i) Make a frequency distribution of the digits from 0 to 9 after the decimal point. (ii) What are the most and the least frequently occurring digits? 8. Thirty children were asked about the number of hours they watched TV programmes in the previous week. The results were found as follows 1 6 2 3 5 12 5 8 4 8 10 3 4 12 2 8 15 1 17 6 3 2 8 5 9 6 8 7 14 12 (i) Make a grouped frequency distribution table for this data, taking class width 5 and one of the class intervals as 5 - 10. (ii) How many children watched television for 15 or more hours a week? 9. A company manufactures car batteries of a particular type. The lives (in years) of 40 such batteries were recorded as follows 2.6 3.0 3.7 3.2 2.2 4.1 3.5 4.5 3.5 2.3 3.2 3.4 3.8 3.2 4.6 3.7 2.5 4.4 3.4 3.3 2.9 3.0 4.3 2.8 3.5 3.2 3.9 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.7 3.4 4.6 3.8 3.2 2.6 3.5 4.2 2.9 3.6 Construct a grouped frequency distribution table for this data, using class intervals of size 0.5 starting from the interval 2 - 2.5. 2019-2020 | [
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STATISTICS 265 Table 14.12 Marks Number of students fixi (xi) ( fi) 10 1 10 20 1 20 36 3 108 40 4 160 50 3 150 56 2 112 60 4 240 70 4 280 72 1 72 80 1 80 88 2 176 92 3 276 95 1 95 13 1 30 i i f 13 1 1779 i i i f x Thus, in the case of an ungrouped frequency distribution, you can use the formula x 1 1 n i i i n i i f x f for calculating the mean. Let us now move back to the situation of the argument between Hari and Mary, and consider the second case where Hari found his performance better by finding the middle-most score. As already stated, this measure of central tendency is called the median. The median is that value of the given number of observations, which divides it into exactly two parts. So, when the data is arranged in ascending (or descending) order the median of ungrouped data is calculated as follows 2019-2020 | [
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Science A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their physical states symbolically. A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type involved in a chemical reaction are the same on the reactant and product sides of the equation. Equations must always be balanced. In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new single substance. Decomposition reactions are opposite to combination reactions. In a decomposition reaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or more substances. Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called exothermic reactions. Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions. When an element displaces another element from its compound, a displacement reaction occurs. Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged in double displacement reactions. Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts. Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen or hydrogen by substances. Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen. 1. Which of the statements about the reaction below are incorrect? 2PbO(s) C(s) 2Pb(s) CO2(g) (a) Lead is getting reduced. (b) Carbon dioxide is getting oxidised. (c) Carbon is getting oxidised. (d) Lead oxide is getting reduced. (i) (a) and (b) (ii) (a) and (c) (iii) (a), (b) and (c) (iv) all 2. Fe2O3 2Al Al2O3 2Fe The above reaction is an example of a (a) combination reaction. (b) double displacement reaction. 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 34 2 The Dilemma of Colonial Education French colonisation was not based only on economic exploitation. It was also driven by the idea of a civilising mission. Like the British in India, the French claimed that they were bringing modern civilisation to the Vietnamese. They took for granted that Europe had developed the most advanced civilisation. So it became the duty of the Europeans to introduce these modern ideas to the colony even if this meant destroying local cultures, religions and traditions, because these were seen as outdated and prevented modern development. Education was seen as one way to civilise the native. But in order to educate them, the French had to resolve a dilemma. How far were the Vietnamese to be educated? The French needed an educated local labour force but they feared that education might create problems. Once educated, the Vietnamese may begin to question colonial domination. Moreover, French citizens living in Vietnam (called colons) began fearing that they might lose their jobs as teachers, shopkeepers, policemen to the educated Vietnamese. So they opposed policies that would give the Vietnamese full access to French education. 2.1 Talking Modern The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere of education the elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. To consolidate their power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence. So they systematically dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the Vietnamese. But this was not easy. Chinese, the language used by the elites so far, had to be replaced. But what was to take its place? Was the language to be Vietnamese or French? There were two broad opinions on this question. Some policy- makers emphasised the need to use the French language as the medium of instruction. By learning the language, they felt, the Vietnamese would be introduced to the culture and civilisation of France. This would help create an Asiatic France solidly tied to European France. The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments and ideals, see the superiority of French culture, and work for the French. Others were opposed to French being the only medium of instruction. They suggested that Vietnamese be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes. The few 2018-19 | [
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230 MATHEMATICS Solution The volume of juice in the vessel volume of the cylindrical vessel R2H (where R and H are taken as the radius and height respectively of the vessel) 15 15 32 cm3 Similarly, the volume of juice each glass can hold r2h (where r and h are taken as the radius and height respectively of each glass) 3 3 8 cm3 So, number of glasses of juice that are sold volume of the vessel volume of each glass 15 15 32 3 3 8 100 Therefore, amount received by the stall keeper 15 100 1500 EXERCISE 13.6 Assume 22 7 , unless stated otherwise. 1. The circumference of the base of a cylindrical vessel is 132 cm and its height is 25 cm. How many litres of water can it hold? (1000 cm3 1l) 2. The inner diameter of a cylindrical wooden pipe is 24 cm and its outer diameter is 28 cm. The length of the pipe is 35 cm. Find the mass of the pipe, if 1 cm3 of wood has a mass of 0.6 g. 3. A soft drink is available in two packs (i) a tin can with a rectangular base of length 5 cm and width 4 cm, having a height of 15 cm and (ii) a plastic cylinder with circular base of diameter 7 cm and height 10 cm. Which container has greater capacity and by how much? 4. If the lateral surface of a cylinder is 94.2 cm2 and its height is 5 cm, then find (i) radius of its base (ii) its volume. (Use 3.14) 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 132 Imagine you are investigating the conditions in which the London poor lived. Write a note discussing all the dangers to public health which were created by these conditions. Activity Fig. 5 For the poor, the street often was the only place for rest, leisure and fun. The Illustrated London News, 1856. Over the nineteenth century, the elites became increasingly worried about drunkenness and squalor on the streets. Gradually, a temperance movement developed to fight against the evils of drinking. The children too must not be forgotten in the open spaces. The kinderbank, or low seat to suit their short legs, should always be provided and where possible spaces of turf be supplied with swings or seesaws, with ponds for sailing boats, and with sand pits where these can be kept sufficiently clean. Source Source A New words Temperance movement A largely middle- class-led social reform movement which emerged in Britain and America from the nineteenth century onwards. It identified alcoholism as the cause of the ruin of families and society, and aimed at reducing the consumption of alcoholic drinks particularly amongst the working classes. 1.4 Cleaning London A variety of steps were taken to clean up London. Attempts were made to decongest localities, green the open spaces, reduce pollution and landscape the city. Large blocks of apartments were built, akin to those in Berlin and New York cities which had similar housing problems. Rent control was introduced in Britain during the First World War to ease the impact of a severe housing shortage. The congestion in the nineteenth-century industrial city also led to a yearning for clean country air. Many wealthy residents of London were able to afford a holiday home in the countryside. Demands were made for new lungs for the city, and some attempts 2018-19 | [
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PROBABILITY 307 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) 2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) 3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) 4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) 5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) 6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) Fig. 15.3 Note that the pair (1, 4) is different from (4, 1). (Why?) So, the number of possible outcomes 6 6 36. (i) The outcomes favourable to the event the sum of the two numbers is 8 denoted by E, are (2, 6), (3, 5), (4, 4), (5, 3), (6, 2) (see Fig. 15.3) i.e., the number of outcomes favourable to E 5. Hence, P(E) 5 36 (ii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, there is no outcome favourable to the event F, the sum of two numbers is 13. So, P(F) 0 0 36 (iii) As you can see from Fig. 15.3, all the outcomes are favourable to the event G, sum of two numbers 12. So, P(G) 36 1 36 2019-20 | [
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64 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS 4.3 POLITICAL EXECUTIVE Do you remember the story of the Office Memorandum with which we started this chapter? We found out that the person who signed the document did not take this decision. He was only executing the policy decision taken by someone else. We noted the role of the Prime Minister in taking that decision. But we also know that he could not have taken that decision if he did not have support from the Lok Sabha. In that sense he was only executing the wishes of the Parliament. Thus, at different levels of any government we find functionaries who take day-to-day decisions but do not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people. All those functionaries are collectively known as the executive. They are called executive because they are in charge of the execution of the policies of the government. Thus, when we talk about the government we usually mean the executive. PPPPPolitical and P olitical and P olitical and P olitical and P olitical and Pererererermanen manen manen manen manenttttt EEEEExxxxxeeeeecccccutiv utiv utiv utiv utiveeeee In a democratic country, two categories make up the executive. One that is elected by the people for a specific period, is called the political executive. Political leaders who take the big decisions fall in this category. In the second category, people are appointed on a long-term basis. This is called the permanent executive or civil services. Persons working in civil services are called civil servants. They remain in office even when the ruling party changes. These officers work under political executive and assist them in carrying out the day-to-day administration. Can you recall the role of political and non-political executive in the case of the Office Memorandum? You might ask Why does the political executive have more power than the non-political executive? Why is the minister more powerful than the civil servant? The civil servant is usually more educated and has more expert knowledge of the subject. The advisors working in the Finance Ministry know more about economics than the Finance Minister. Sometimes the ministers may know very little about the technical matters that come under their ministry. This could easily happen in ministries like Defence, Industry, Health, Science and Technology, Mines, etc. Why should the minister have the final say on these matters? The reason is very simple. In a democracy the will of the people is supreme. The minister is an elected representative of the people and thus empowered to exercise the will of the people on their behalf. She is finally answerable to the people for all the consequences of her decision. That is why the minister takes all the final decisions. The minister decides the overall framework and objectives in which decisions on policy should be made. The minister is not, and is not expected to be, an expert in the matters of her ministry. The minister takes the advice of experts on all technical matters. But very often experts hold different opinions or place before her more than one option. Depending on what the overall objective is, the minister decides. Actually this happens in any large organisation. Those who understand the overall picture take the most 2019-20 | [
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] |
SCIENCE 140 water on the bottle is greater than its weight. Therefore it rises up when released. To keep the bottle completely immersed, the upward force on the bottle due to water must be balanced. This can be achieved by an externally applied force acting downwards. This force must at least be equal to the difference between the upward force and the weight of the bottle. The upward force exerted by the water on the bottle is known as upthrust or buoyant force. In fact, all objects experience a force of buoyancy when they are immersed in a fluid. The magnitude of this buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid. 10.5.3 WHY OBJECTS FLOAT OR SINK WHEN PLACED ON THE SURFACE OF WATER? Let us do the following activities to arrive at an answer for the above question. Activity 10.5 Take a beaker filled with water. Take an iron nail and place it on the surface of the water. Observe what happens. The nail sinks. The force due to the gravitational attraction of the earth on the iron nail pulls it downwards. There is an upthrust of water on the nail, which pushes it upwards. But the downward force acting on the nail is greater than the upthrust of water on the nail. So it sinks (Fig. 10.5). exert pressure on the base and walls of the container in which they are enclosed. Pressure exerted in any confined mass of fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. 10.5.2 BUOYANCY Have you ever had a swim in a pool and felt lighter? Have you ever drawn water from a well and felt that the bucket of water is heavier when it is out of the water? Have you ever wondered why a ship made of iron and steel does not sink in sea water, but while the same amount of iron and steel in the form of a sheet would sink? These questions can be answered by taking buoyancy in consideration. Let us understand the meaning of buoyancy by doing an activity. Activity 10.4 Take an empty plastic bottle. Close the mouth of the bottle with an airtight stopper. Put it in a bucket filled with water. You see that the bottle floats. Push the bottle into the water. You feel an upward push. Try to push it further down. You will find it difficult to push deeper and deeper. This indicates that water exerts a force on the bottle in the upward direction. The upward force exerted by the water goes on increasing as the bottle is pushed deeper till it is completely immersed. Now, release the bottle. It bounces back to the surface. Does the force due to the gravitational attraction of the earth act on this bottle? If so, why doesnt the bottle stay immersed in water after it is released? How can you immerse the bottle in water? The force due to the gravitational attraction of the earth acts on the bottle in the downward direction. So the bottle is pulled downwards. But the water exerts an upward force on the bottle. Thus, the bottle is pushed upwards. We have learnt that weight of an object is the force due to gravitational attraction of the earth. When the bottle is immersed, the upward force exerted by the Fig. 10.5 An iron nail sinks and a cork floats when placed on the surface of water. 2019-2020 | [
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44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I TYPES OF VEGETATION The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country (Figure 5.3). (i) Tropical Evergreen Forests (ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests (iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs (iv) Montane Forests (v) Mangrove Forests Tropical Evergreen Forests These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above. Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds trees, shrubs and creepers giving it a multilayered structure. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such, these forests appear green all the year round. Figure 5.1 Area under Forest Cover Source India State of Forest Report 201314 AREA IN PER CENT STATEUT Figure 5.2 Tropical Evergreen Forest 2019-20 | [
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the RBI sees that the banks give loans not just to profit-making businesses and traders but also to small cultivators, small scale industries, to small borrowers etc. Periodically, banks have to submit information to the RBI on how much they are lending, to whom, at what interest rate, etc. There is no organisation which supervises the credit activities of lenders in the informal sector. They can lend at whatever interest rate they We have seen in the above examples that people obtain loans from various sources. The various types of loans can be conveniently grouped as formal sector loans and informal sector loans. Among the former are loans from banks and cooperatives. The informal lenders include moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives and friends, etc. In Graph 1 you can see the various sources of credit to rural households in India. Is more credit coming from the formal sector or the informal sector? The Reserve Bank of India supervises the functioning of formal sources of loans. For instance, we have seen that the banks maintain a minimum cash balance out of the deposits they receive. The RBI monitors the banks in actually maintaining cash balance. Similarly, Graph 1 Sources of Credit per Rs 1000 of Rural Households in India in 2012 Other non Institutional Agencies 2 Government 1 Cooperative SocietyBanks 25 Relatives and Friends 8 Landlords 1 Other Institutional Agencies 5 Commercial Banks 25 Money Lender 33 2019-20 | [
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34 MATHEMATICS Now, 2x 1 0 gives us x 1 2 So, 1 2 is a zero of the polynomial 2x 1. Now, if p(x) ax b, a 0, is a linear polynomial, how can we find a zero of p(x)? Example 4 may have given you some idea. Finding a zero of the polynomial p(x), amounts to solving the polynomial equation p(x) 0. Now, p(x) 0 means ax b 0, a 0 So, ax b i.e., x b a . So, x b a is the only zero of p(x), i.e., a linear polynomial has one and only one zero. Now we can say that 1 is the zero of x 1, and 2 is the zero of x 2. Example 5 Verify whether 2 and 0 are zeroes of the polynomial x2 2x. Solution Let p(x) x2 2x Then p(2) 22 4 4 4 0 and p(0) 0 0 0 Hence, 2 and 0 are both zeroes of the polynomial x2 2x. Let us now list our observations (i) A zero of a polynomial need not be 0. (ii) 0 may be a zero of a polynomial. (iii) Every linear polynomial has one and only one zero. (iv) A polynomial can have more than one zero. EXERCISE 2.2 1. Find the value of the polynomial 5x 4x2 3 at (i) x 0 (ii) x 1 (iii) x 2 2. Find p(0), p(1) and p(2) for each of the following polynomials (i) p(y) y2 y 1 (ii) p(t) 2 t 2t2 t3 (iii) p(x) x3 (iv) p(x) (x 1) (x 1) 2019-2020 | [
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174 MATHEMATICS Theorem 10.4 The line drawn through the centre of a circle to bisect a chord is perpendicular to the chord. Is this true? Try it for few cases and see. You will see that it is true for these cases. See if it is true, in general, by doing the following exercise. We will write the stages and you give the reasons. Let AB be a chord of a circle with centre O and O is joined to the mid-point M of AB. You have to prove that OM AB. Join OA and OB (see Fig. 10.16). In triangles OAM and OBM, OA OB (Why ?) AM BM (Why ?) OM OM (Common) Therefore, OAM OBM (How ?) This gives OMA OMB 90 (Why ?) 10.5 Circle through Three Points You have learnt in Chapter 6, that two points are sufficient to determine a line. That is, there is one and only one line passing through two points. A natural question arises. How many points are sufficient to determine a circle? Take a point P. How many circles can be drawn through this point? You see that there may be as many circles as you like passing through this point see Fig. 10.17(i). Now take two points P and Q. You again see that there may be an infinite number of circles passing through P and Q see Fig.10.17(ii). What will happen when you take three points A, B and C? Can you draw a circle passing through three collinear points? Fig. 10. 17 Fig. 10.16 2019-2020 | [
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3 WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Ribiang went back home and collected some more famous quotations on democracy. This time she did not mention the names of the people who said or wrote these. She wants you to read these and comment on how good or useful these thoughts are Democracy gives every man the right to be his own oppressor. Democracy consists of choosing your dictators after theyve told you what you think it is you want to hear. Mans capacity for justice makes democracy possible, but mans inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary Democracy is a device that insures we shall be governed no better than we deserve. All the ills of democracy can be cured by more democracy. democracies. One simple factor common to all democracies is the government is chosen by the people. We could thus start with a simple definition democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people. This is a useful starting point. This definition allows us to separate democracy from forms of government that are clearly not democratic. The army rulers of Myanmar were not elected by the people. Those who happened to be in control of the army became the rulers of the country. People had no say in this decision. Dictators like Pinochet (Chile) are not elected by the people. This also applies to monarchies. The kings of Saudi Arabia rule not because the people have chosen them to do so but because they happen to be born into the royal family. This simple definition is not adequate. It reminds us that democracy is peoples rule. But if we use this definition in an unthinking manner, we would end up calling almost every government that holds an election a democracy. That would be very misleading. As we shall find out in Chapter 3, every government in contemporary world wants to be called a democracy, even if it is not so. That is why we need to carefully distinguish between a government that is a democracy and one that pretends to be one. We can do so by understanding each word in this definition carefully and spelling out the features of a democratic government. This cartoon was drawn when elections were held in Iraq with the presence of US and other foreign powers. What do you think this cartoon is saying? Why is democracy written the way it is? rrrrreeeeeaaaaaddddd ttttthe hehe hehe cccccaaaaarrrrrtttttoon oon oon oon oon Stephane Peray, Thailand, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 2019-20 | [
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DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS 91 Echinus (sea urchin) Asterias (sea-star) Fig. 7.19 Echinodermata Antedon (feather star) Holothuria (sea cucumber) Palamnaeus (Scorpion) 7.5.7 MOLLUSCA In the animals of this group, there is bilateral symmetry. The coelomic cavity is reduced. There is little segmentation. They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. There is a foot that is used for moving around. Examples are snails and mussels (see Fig. 7.18). 7.5.8 ECHINODERMATA In Greek, echinos means hedgehog (spiny mammal), and derma means skin. Thus, these are spiny skinned organisms. These are exclusively free-living marine animals. They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity. They also have a peculiar water-driven tube system that they use for moving around. They have hard calcium carbonate structures that they use as a skeleton. Examples are sea-stars and sea urchins (see Fig. 7.19). Pariplaneta (Cockroach) Palaemon (Prawn) Aranea(Spider) Fig. 7.17 Arthropoda Chiton Octopus Pila Unio Fig. 7.18 Mollusca 7.5.9 PROTOCHORDATA These animals are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and have a coelom. In addition, they show a new feature of body design, namely a notochord, at least at some stages during their lives. The notochord is a long rod-like support structure (chordstring) that runs along the back of the animal separating the nervous tissue from the gut. It provides a place for muscles to attach for ease of movement. Protochordates may not have a proper notochord present at all stages in their lives or for the entire length of the animal. Protochordates are marine animals. Examples are Balanoglossus, Herdmania and Amphioxus (see Fig. 7.20). Musca (House fly) Butterfly Scolopendra (Centipede) 2019-2020 | [
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LINES AND ANGLES 93 Axiom 6.1 If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is 180. Recall that when the sum of two adjacent angles is 180, then they are called a linear pair of angles. In Axiom 6.1, it is given that a ray stands on a line. From this given, we have concluded that the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is 180. Can we write Axiom 6.1 the other way? That is, take the conclusion of Axiom 6.1 as given and the given as the conclusion. So it becomes (A) If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180, then a ray stands on a line (that is, the non-common arms form a line). Now you see that the Axiom 6.1 and statement (A) are in a sense the reverse of each others. We call each as converse of the other. We do not know whether the statement (A) is true or not. Let us check. Draw adjacent angles of different measures as shown in Fig. 6.7. Keep the ruler along one of the non-common arms in each case. Does the other non-common arm also lie along the ruler? Fig. 6.7 Adjacent angles with different measures 2019-2020 | [
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H ave you observed the type of trees, bushes, grasses and birds in the fields and parks in and around your school? Are they similar or there are variations? India being a vast country you can imagine the types of bio-forms available throughout the country. Our country India is one of the 12 mega bio-diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species India occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are about 15,000 flowering plants in India, which account for 6 per cent in the worlds total number of flowering plants. The country has many non- flowering plants, such as ferns, algae and fungi. India also has approximately 90,000 species of animals, as well as, a rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters. Natural vegetation refers to a plant community, which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation. The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous species but those which have come from outside India are termed as exotic plants. The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period. Similarly, the species of animals are referred to as fauna. This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following factors. NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RELIEF Land Land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. Do you expect the same type of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The nature of land influences the type of vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted to agriculture. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wildlife. Soil The soils also vary over space. Different types of soils provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes, while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees. CLIMATE Temperature The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the temperature affects the types of vegetation and its growth, and changes it from tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine vegetation. 5 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 82 1.3 Plantations Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europes growing need for these commodities. The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests, and planted with tea or coffee. Fig.8 Pleasure Brand Tea. 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 58 2 Differing Strands within the Movement The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921. Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of them responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to different people. 2.1 The Movement in the Towns The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices. The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras, where the Justice Party, the party of the non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some power something that usually only Brahmans had access to. The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up. But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety of reasons. Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass- produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. How then could they boycott mill cloth for too long? Similarly the boycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts. 2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside From the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals New words Picket A form of demonstration or protest by which people block the entrance to a shop, factory or office The year is 1921. You are a student in a government-controlled school. Design a poster urging school students to answer Gandhijis call to join the Non-Cooperation Movement. Activity 2018-19 | [
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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 229 Solution Area of the segment AYB Area of sector OAYB Area of OAB (1) Now, area of the sector OAYB 120 22 21 21 360 7 cm2 462 cm2 (2) For finding the area of OAB, draw OM AB as shown in Fig. 12.10. Note that OA OB. Therefore, by RHS congruence, AMO BMO. So, M is the mid-point of AB and AOM BOM 1 120 60 2 . Let OM x cm So, from OMA, OM OA cos 60 or, 21 x 1 1 cos 60 2 2 or, x 21 2 So, OM 21 2 cm Also, AM OA sin 60 3 2 So, AM 21 3 2 cm Therefore, AB 2 AM 2 21 3 cm 21 3cm 2 So, area of OAB 1 AB OM 2 2 1 21 21 3 cm 2 2 2 441 3cm 4 (3) Therefore, area of the segment AYB 2 441 462 3 cm 4 From (1), (2) and (3) 2 21 (88 21 3)cm 4 Fig. 12.10 2019-20 | [
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TRIANGLES 141 11. In Fig. 6.40, E is a point on side CB produced of an isosceles triangle ABC with AB AC. If AD BC and EF AC, prove that ABD ECF. 12. Sides AB and BC and median AD of a triangle ABC are respectively propor- tional to sides PQ and QR and median PM of PQR (see Fig. 6.41). Show that ABC PQR. 13. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle ABC such that ADC BAC. Show that CA2 CB.CD. 14. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a triangle ABC are respectively proportional to sides PQ and PR and median PM of another triangle PQR. Show that ABC PQR. 15. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Find the height of the tower. 16. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR, respectively where ABC PQR, prove that AB AD PQ PM 6.5 Areas of Similar Triangles You have learnt that in two similar triangles, the ratio of their corresponding sides is the same. Do you think there is any relationship between the ratio of their areas and the ratio of the corresponding sides? You know that area is measured in square units. So, you may expect that this ratio is the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides. This is indeed true and we shall prove it in the next theorem. Theorem 6.6 The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides. Proof We are given two triangles ABC and PQR such that ABC PQR (see Fig. 6.42). Fig. 6.40 Fig. 6.41 Fig. 6.42 2019-20 | [
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You might ask if development can mean different things, how come some countries are generally called developed and others under - developed? Before we come to this, let us consider another question. When we compare different things, they could have similarities as well as differences. Which aspects do we use to compare them? Let us look at students in the class itself. How do we compare different students? They differ in their height, health, talents and interests. The healthiest student may not be the most studious one. The most intelligent student may not be the friendliest one. So, how do we compare students? The criterion we may use depends on the purpose of comparison. We use different criterion to choose a sports team, a debate team, a music team or a team to organise a picnic. Still, if for some purpose, we have to choose the criterion for the all-round progress of children in the class, how shall we do it? Usually we take one or more important characteristics of persons and compare them based on these characteristics. Of course, there can be differences about what are important characteristics that should form the basis of comparison friendliness and spirit of cooperation, creativity or marks secured? This is true of development too. For comparing countries, their income is considered to be one of the most important attributes. Countries with higher income are more developed than others with less income. This is based on the understanding that more income means more of all things that human beings need. Whatever people like, and should have, they will be able to get with greater income. So, greater income itself is considered to be one important goal. Now, what is the income of a country? Intuitively, the income of the country is the income of all the residents of the country. This gives us the total income of the country. However, for comparison between countries, total income is not such an useful measure. Since, countries have different populations, comparing total income will not tell us what an average person is likely to earn. Are people in one country better off than others in a different country? Hence, we compare the average income which is the total income of the country divided by its total population. The average income is also called per capita income. In World Development Reports, brought out by the World Bank, this criterion is used in classifying countries. Countries with per capita income of US 12,056 per annum and above in 2017, are called rich countries and those with per capita income of US 955 or less are called low-income countries. India comes in the category of low middle income countries because its per capita income in 2017 was just US 1820 per annum. The rich countries, excluding countries of Middle East and certain other small countries, are generally called developed countries. 2019-20 | [
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SCIENCE 132 10.1.1 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects. force, the stone flies off along a straight line. This straight line will be a tangent to the circular path. More to know Tangent to a circle A straight line that meets the circle at one and only one point is called a tangent to the circle. Straight line ABC is a tangent to the circle at point B. The motion of the moon around the earth is due to the centripetal force. The centripetal force is provided by the force of attraction of the earth. If there were no such force, the moon would pursue a uniform straight line motion. It is seen that a falling apple is attracted towards the earth. Does the apple attract the earth? If so, we do not see the earth moving towards an apple. Why? According to the third law of motion, the apple does attract the earth. But according to the second law of motion, for a given force, acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of an object Eq. (9.4). The mass of an apple is negligibly small compared to that of the earth. So, we do not see the earth moving towards the apple. Extend the same argument for why the earth does not move towards the moon. In our solar system, all the planets go around the Sun. By arguing the same way, we can say that there exists a force between the Sun and the planets. From the above facts Newton concluded that not only does the earth attract an apple and the moon, but all objects in the universe attract each other. This force of attraction between objects is called the gravitational force. G 2 Mm F d Fig. 10.2 The gravitational force between two uniform objects is directed along the line joining their centres. Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance d from each other as shown in Fig. 10.2. Let the force of attraction between two objects be F. According to the universal law of gravitation, the force between two objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses. That is, FM m (10.1) And the force between two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, that is, 2 1 F d (10.2) Combining Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2), we get F 2 M m d (10.3) or, G 2 M m F d (10.4) where G is the constant of proportionality and is called the universal gravitation constant. By multiplying crosswise, Eq. (10.4) gives F d 2 G M m 2019-2020 | [
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Chemical Reactions and Equations Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china dish. What is its colour? Place this china dish in sunlight for some time (Fig. 1.7). Observe the colour of the silver chloride after some time. Figure 1.7 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.7 Silver chloride turns grey in sunlight to form silver metal You will see that white silver chloride turns grey in sunlight. This is due to the decomposition of silver chloride into silver and chlorine by light. 2AgCl(s) Sunlight 2Ag(s) Cl2(g) (1.22) Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at its base and fit rubber stoppers in these holes. Insert carbon electrodes in these rubber stoppers as shown in Fig. 1.6. Connect these electrodes to a 6 volt battery. Fill the mug with water such that the electrodes are immersed. Add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to the water. Take two test tubes filled with water and invert them over the two carbon electrodes. Switch on the current and leave the apparatus undisturbed for some time. You will observe the formation of bubbles at both the electrodes. These bubbles displace water in the test tubes. Is the volume of the gas collected the same in both the test tubes? Once the test tubes are filled with the respective gases, remove them carefully. Test these gases one by one by bringing a burning candle close to the mouth of the test tubes. CAUTION This step must be performed carefully by the teacher. What happens in each case? Which gas is present in each test tube? Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 Electrolysis of water 2Pb(NO3)2(s) Heat 2PbO(s) 4NO2(g) O2(g) (1.21) (Lead nitrate) (Lead oxide) (Nitrogen (Oxygen) dioxide) Let us perform some more decomposition reactions as given in Activities 1.7 and 1.8. 2019-20 | [
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37 The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China 3 Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance Education was not the only sphere of everyday life in which such political battles against colonialism were fought. In many other institutions we can see the variety of small ways in which the colonised expressed their anger against the colonisers. 3.1 Plague Strikes Hanoi Take the case of health and hygiene. When the French set about creating a modern Vietnam, they decided to rebuild Hanoi. The latest ideas about architecture and modern engineering skills were employed to build a new and modern city. In 1903, the modern part of Hanoi was struck by bubonic plague. In many colonial countries, measures to control the spread of disease created serious social conflicts. But in Hanoi events took a peculiarly interesting turn. The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the native Fig. 7 Modern Hanoi. Colonial buildings like this one came up in the French part of Hanoi. 2018-19 | [
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CIRCLES 179 EXERCISE 10.4 1. Two circles of radii 5 cm and 3 cm intersect at two points and the distance between their centres is 4 cm. Find the length of the common chord. 2. If two equal chords of a circle intersect within the circle, prove that the segments of one chord are equal to corresponding segments of the other chord. 3. If two equal chords of a circle intersect within the circle, prove that the line joining the point of intersection to the centre makes equal angles with the chords. 4. If a line intersects two concentric circles (circles with the same centre) with centre O at A, B, C and D, prove that AB CD (see Fig. 10.25). 5. Three girls Reshma, Salma and Mandip are playing a game by standing on a circle of radius 5m drawn in a park. Reshma throws a ball to Salma, Salma to Mandip, Mandip to Reshma. If the distance between Reshma and Salma and between Salma and Mandip is 6m each, what is the distance between Reshma and Mandip? 6. A circular park of radius 20m is situated in a colony. Three boys Ankur, Syed and David are sitting at equal distance on its boundary each having a toy telephone in his hands to talk each other. Find the length of the string of each phone. 10.7 Angle Subtended by an Arc of a Circle You have seen that the end points of a chord other than diameter of a circle cuts it into two arcs one major and other minor. If you take two equal chords, what can you say about the size of arcs? Is one arc made by first chord equal to the corresponding arc made by another chord? In fact, they are more than just equal in length. They are congruent in the sense that if one arc is put on the other, without bending or twisting, one superimposes the other completely. You can verify this fact by cutting the arc, corresponding to the chord CD from the circle along CD and put it on the corresponding arc made by equal chord AB. You will find that the arc CD superimpose the arc AB completely (see Fig. 10.26). This shows that equal chords make congruent arcs and conversely congruent arcs make equal chords of a circle. You can state it as follows If two chords of a circle are equal, then their corresponding arcs are congruent and conversely, if two arcs are congruent, then their corresponding chords are equal. Fig. 10.25 Fig. 10.26 2019-2020 | [
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] |
178 India and the Contemporary World The novel is a modern form of literature. It is born from print, a mechanical invention. We cannot think of the novel without the printed book. In ancient times, as you have seen (Chapter 7), manuscripts were handwritten. These circulated among very few people. In contrast, because of being printed, novels were widely read and became popular very quickly. At this time big cities like London were growing rapidly and becoming connected to small towns and rural areas through print and improved communications. Novels produced a number of common interests among their scattered and varied readers. As readers were drawn into the story and identified with the lives of fictitious characters, they could think about issues such as the relationship between love and marriage, the proper conduct for men and women, and so on. The novel first took firm root in England and France. Novels began to be written from the seventeenth century, but they really flowered from the eighteenth century. New groups of lower-middle-class people such as shopkeepers and clerks, along with the traditional aristocratic and gentlemanly classes in England and France now formed the new readership for novels. As readership grew and the market for books expanded, the earnings of authors increased. This freed them from financial dependence on the patronage of aristocrats, and gave them independence to experiment with different literary styles. Henry Fielding, a novelist of the early eighteenth century, claimed he was the founder of a new province of writing where he could make his own laws. The novel allowed flexibility in the form of writing. Walter Scott remembered and collected popular Scottish ballads which he used in his historical novels about the wars between Scottish clans. The epistolary novel, on the other hand, used the private and personal form of letters to tell its story. Samuel Richardsons Pamela, written in the eighteenth century, told much of its story through an exchange of letters between two lovers. These letters tell the reader of the hidden conflicts in the heroines mind. 1.1 The Publishing Market For a long time the publishing market excluded the poor. Initially, novels did not come cheap. Henry Fieldings Tom Jones (1749) was 1 1 1 1 1 The Rise of the Novel The Rise of the Novel The Rise of the Novel The Rise of the Novel The Rise of the Novel New words Gentlemanly classes People who claimed noble birth and high social position. They were supposed to set the standard for proper behaviour Epistolary Written in the form of a series of letters 2018-19 | [
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] |
SCIENCE 110 2. A train is travelling at a speed of 90 km h1. Brakes are applied so as to produce a uniform acceleration of 0.5 m s-2. Find how far the train will go before it is brought to rest. 3. A trolley, while going down an inclined plane, has an acceleration of 2 cm s-2. What will be its velocity 3 s after the start? 4. A racing car has a uniform acceleration of 4 m s-2. What distance will it cover in 10 s after start? 5. A stone is thrown in a vertically upward direction with a velocity of 5 m s-1. If the acceleration of the stone during its motion is 10 m s2 in the downward direction, what will be the height attained by the stone and how much time will it take to reach there? 8.6 Uniform Circular Motion When the velocity of an object changes, we say that the object is accelerating. The change in the velocity could be due to change in its magnitude or the direction of the motion or both. Can you think of an example when an object does not change its magnitude of velocity but only its direction of motion? Let us consider an example of the motion of a body along a closed path. Fig 8.9 (a) shows the path of an athlete along a rectangular track ABCD. Let us assume that the athlete runs at a uniform speed on the straight parts AB, BC, CD and DA of the track. In order to keep himself on track, he quickly changes his speed at the corners. How many times will the athlete have to change his direction of motion, while he completes one round? It is clear that to move in a rectangular track once, he has to change his direction of motion four times. Now, suppose instead of a rectangular track, the athlete is running along a hexagonal shaped path ABCDEF, as shown in Fig. 8.9(b). In this situation, the athlete will have to change his direction six times while he completes one round. What if the track was not a hexagon but a regular octagon, with eight equal sides as shown by ABCDEFGH in Fig. 8.9(c)? It is observed that as the number of sides of the track increases the athelete has to take turns more and more often. What would happen to the shape of the track as we go on increasing the number of sides indefinitely? If you do this you will notice that the shape of the track approaches the shape of a circle and the length of each of the sides will decrease to a point. If the athlete moves with a velocity of constant magnitude along the circular path, the only change in his velocity is due to the change in the direction of motion. The motion of the athlete moving along a circular path is, therefore, an example of an accelerated motion. We know that the circumference of a circle of radius r is given by 2 r . If the athlete takes t seconds to go once around the circular path of radius r, the speed v is given by 2 r v t (8.13) When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular motion. (a) Rectangular track (b) Hexagonal track (d) A circular track (c) Octagonal shaped track Fig. 8.9 The motion of an athlete along closed tracks of different shapes. 2019-2020 | [
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Forest Society and Colonialism 91 Source E the earth by making some offerings at each agricultural festival. In addition to the Earth, they show respect to the spirits of the river, the forest and the mountain. Since each village knows where its boundaries lie, the local people look after all the natural resources within that boundary. If people from a village want to take some wood from the forests of another village, they pay a small fee called devsari, dand or man in exchange. Some villages also protect their forests by engaging watchmen and each household contributes some grain to pay them. Every year there is one big hunt where the headmen of villages in a pargana (cluster of villages) meet and discuss issues of concern, including forests. 3.2 The Fears of the People When the colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest in 1905, and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce, the people of Bastar were very worried. Some villages were allowed to stay on in the reserved forests on the condition that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees, and protecting the forest from fires. Subsequently, these came to be known as forest villages. People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation. For long, villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials. Then came the terrible famines, in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908. Reservations proved to be the last straw. People began to gather and discuss these issues in their village councils, in bazaars and at festivals or wherever the headmen and priests of several villages were assembled. The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Although there was no single leader, many people speak of Gunda Dhur, from village Nethanar, as an important figure in the movement. In 1910, mango boughs, a lump of earth, chillies and arrows, began circulating between villages. These were actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British. Every village contributed something to the rebellion expenses. Bazaars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed, and grain redistributed. Most of those who were attacked were in some way associated with the colonial state and its oppressive laws. William Ward, a missionary who observed the events, wrote From all directions came streaming into Jagdalpur, police, merchants, forest peons, schoolmasters and immigrants. Bhondia collected 400 men, sacrificed a number of goats and started off to intercept the Dewan who was expected to return from the direction of Bijapur. This mob started on the 10th February, burnt the Marenga school, the police post, lines and pound at Keslur and the school at Tokapal (Rajur), detached a contingent to burn Karanji school and captured a head constable and four constables of the State reserve police who had been sent out to escort the Dewan and bring him in. The mob did not maltreat the guard seriously but eased them of their weapons and let them go. One party of rebels under Bhondia Majhi went off to the Koer river to block the passage there in case the Dewan left the main road. The rest went on to Dilmilli to stop the main road from Bijapur. Buddhu Majhi and Harchand Naik led the main body. Letter from DeBrett, Political Agent, Chhattisgarh Feudatory States to Commissioner, Chhattisgarh Division, 23 June 1910. 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 6 Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control, Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 usually known as the Napoleonic Code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen Fig. 3 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815. ICELAND (DENMARK) NORWAY (SWEDEN) SWEDEN DENMARK HABOVER (G.B.) NETHERLANDS ENGLAND WALES IRELAND GREAT BRITAIN SCOTLAND FRANCE SPAIN PORTUGAL MOROCCO ALGERIA TUNIS EGYPT PALESTINE SYRIA CYPRUS MESOPOTAMIA ARMENIA OTTOMAN EMPIRE CRETE GREECE BULGARIA ROMANIA SERBIA HUNGARY AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AUSTRIA GALICIA BAVARIA SWITZERLAND PRUSSIA POLAND RUSSIAN EMPIRE SARDINIA CORSICA SMALL STATES KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES GEORGIA PERSIA MEDITERRANEAN SEA ATLANTIC SEA 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 16 National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment were set up. Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments. The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation The misery of the workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they order On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant window- panes, furniture, porcelain another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot. Fig. 9 Peasants uprising, 1848. Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist. Discuss Imagine you are a weaver who saw the events as they unfolded. Write a report on what you saw. Activity 2018-19 | [
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288 MATHEMATICS (iv) Gauri is a kind girl. (v) The product of two odd integers is even. (vi) The product of two even natural numbers is even. Solution (i) This statement is always false, since there are 7 days in a week. (ii) This statement is ambiguous, since it is not clear where here is. (iii) This statement is always true. The sun sets in the west no matter where we live. (iv) This statement is ambiguous, since it is subjectiveGauri may be kind to some and not to others. (v) This statement is always false. The product of two odd integers is always odd. (vi) This statement is always true. However, to justify that it is true we need to do some work. It will be proved in Section A1.4. As mentioned before, in our daily life, we are not so careful about the validity of statements. For example, suppose your friend tells you that in July it rains everyday in Manantavadi, Kerala. In all probability, you will believe her, even though it may not have rained for a day or two in July. Unless you are a lawyer, you will not argue with her! As another example, consider statements we often make to each other like it is very hot today. We easily accept such statements because we know the context even though these statements are ambiguous. It is very hot today can mean different things to different people because what is very hot for a person from Kumaon may not be hot for a person from Chennai. But a mathematical statement cannot be ambiguous. In mathematics, a statement is only acceptable or valid, if it is either true or false. We say that a statement is true, if it is always true otherwise it is called a false statement. For example, 5 2 7 is always true, so 5 2 7 is a true statement and 5 3 7 is a false statement. 2019-2020 | [
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6 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS party called PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party). Opposition parties did contest elections, but never managed to win. The PRI was known to use many dirty tricks to win elections. All those who were employed in government offices had to attend its party meetings. Teachers of government schools used to force parents to vote for the PRI. Media largely ignored the activities of opposition political parties except to criticise them. Sometimes the polling booths were shifted from one place to another in the last minute, which made it difficult for people to cast their votes. The PRI spent a large sum of money in the campaign for its candidates. Should we consider the elections described above as examples of people electing their rulers? Reading these examples we get a sense that we cannot. There are many problems here. In China the elections do not offer the people any serious choice. They have to choose the ruling party and the candidates approved by it. Can we call this a choice? In the Mexican example, people seemed to really have a choice but in practice they had no choice. There was no way the ruling party could be defeated, even if people were against it. These are not fair elections. We can thus add a second feature to our understanding of democracy. Holding elections of any kind is not sufficient. The elections must offer a real choice between political alternatives. And it should be possible for people to use this choice to remove the existing rulers, if they wish so. So, a democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing. We shall find out more about a democratic election in Chapter 3. One person, One person, One person, One person, One person, one v one v one v one v one votototototeeeee,,,,, one value one value one value one value one value Earlier, we read about how the struggle for democracy was linked to the demand for universal adult franchise. This principle has now come to be accepted almost all over the world. Yet there are many instances of denial of equal right to vote. Until 2015, in Saudi Arabia women did not have the right to vote. Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote. In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value than that of an Indian-Fijian. Democracy is based on a fundamental principle of political equality. That gives us the third feature of democracy in a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value. We shall read more about it in Chapter 3. This cartoon was titled Building Democracy and was first published in a Latin American publication. What do moneybags signify here? Could this cartoon be applied to India? rrrrreeeeeaaaaaddddd ttttthe hehe hehe cccccaaaaarrrrrtttttoon oon oon oon oon Nerilicon, El Economista , Mexico, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 17 May 2005 2019-20 | [
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38 Democratic Politics Exercises 5. In dealing with social divisions which one of the following statements is NOT correct about democracy? (a) Due to political competition in a democracy, social divisions get reflected in politics. (b) In a democracy it is possible for communities to voice their grievances in a peaceful manner. (c) Democracy is the best way to accommodate social diversity. (d) Democracy always leads to disintegration of society on the basis of social divisions. 6. Consider the following three statements. A. Social divisions take place when social differences overlap. B. It is possible that a person can have multiple identities. C. Social divisions exist in only big countries like India. Which of the statements isare correct? (a) A, B and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) Only C 7. Arrange the following statements in a logical sequence and select the right answers by using the code given below. A. But all political expression of social divisions need not be always dangerous. B. Social divisions of one kind or the other exist in most countries. C. Parties try to win political support by appealing to social divisions. D. Some social differences may result in social divisions. (a) D, B, C, A (b) D, B, A, C (c) D, A, C, B (d) A, B, C, D 8. Among the following, which country suffered disintegration due to political fights on the basis of religious and ethnic identities? (a) Belgium (b) India (c) Yugoslavia (d) Netherlands 9. Read the following passage from a famous speech by Martin Luther King Jr. in 1963. Which social division is he talking about? What are his aspirations and anxieties? Do you see a relationship between this speech and the incident in Mexico Olympics mentioned in this chapter? I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character. Let freedom ring. And when this happens, and when we allow freedom ringwhen we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of Gods childrenblack men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholicswill be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last! I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal. 2018-19 | [
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100 MATHEMATICS Is PQA BQR? Yes! (Why ?) (2) So, from (1) and (2), you may conclude that BQR QRC. Similarly, AQR QRD. This result can be stated as a theorem given below Theorem 6.2 If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of alternate interior angles is equal. Now, using the converse of the corresponding angles axiom, can we show the two lines parallel if a pair of alternate interior angles is equal? In Fig. 6.22, the transversal PS intersects lines AB and CD at points Q and R respectively such that BQR QRC. Is AB CD? BQR PQA (Why?) (1) But, BQR QRC (Given) (2) So, from (1) and (2), you may conclude that PQA QRC But they are corresponding angles. So, AB CD (Converse of corresponding angles axiom) This result can be stated as a theorem given below Theorem 6.3 If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of alternate interior angles is equal, then the two lines are parallel. In a similar way, you can obtain the following two theorems related to interior angles on the same side of the transversal. Theorem 6.4 If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal is supplementary. Theorem 6.5 If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal is supplementary, then the two lines are parallel. You may recall that you have verified all the above axioms and theorems in earlier classes through activities. You may repeat those activities here also. Fig. 6.22 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 90 market by tariff barriers, Indian textiles now faced stiff competition in other international markets. If we look at the figures of exports from India, we see a steady decline of the share of cotton textiles from some 30 per cent around 1800 to 15 per cent by 1815. By the 1870s this proportion had dropped to below 3 per cent. What, then, did India export? The figures again tell a dramatic story. While exports of manufactures declined rapidly, export of raw materials increased equally fast. Between 1812 and 1871, the share of raw cotton exports rose from 5 per cent to 35 per cent. Indigo used for dyeing cloth was another important export for Fig. 17 East India Company House, London. This was the nerve centre of the worldwide operations of the East India Company. Fig. 18 A distant view of Surat and its river. All through the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Surat remained the main centre of overseas trade in the western Indian Ocean. 2018-19 | [
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28 Economics References References References References References GARY, S. BECKER. 1966. Human Capital A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education, General Series. Number 80. New York. National Bureau of Economic Research. THEODORE, W. SCHULTZ. Investment in Human Capital. American Economic Review. March 1961. Economic Survey 20152016. Ministry of Finance, Government of India, New Delhi. India Vision 2020. The Report. Planning Commission. Government of India, New Delhi. Mid-Term Appraisal of the Tenth Five Year Plan (20022007). Planning Commission, Part II. New Delhi. Tenth Five Year Plan ( 20022007). Planning Commission, New Delhi. Twelth Five Year Plan ( 20122017). Planning Commission, New Delhi. NCERT. 2016. Trilingual Dictionary of Economics, p. 62. 2019-2020 | [
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46 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS Earlier the voters used to indicate who they wanted to vote for by putting a stamp on the ballot paper. A ballot paper is a sheet of paper on which the names of the contesting candidates along with party name and symbols are listed. Nowadays electronic voting machines (EVM) are used to record votes. The machine shows the names of the candidates and the party symbols. Independent candidates too have their own symbols, allotted by election commission. All that the voter has to do is to press the button against the name of the candidate she wants to give her vote. Once the polling is over, all the EVMs are sealed and taken to a Why are party agents present in the polling booth and the counting centre? Election result in Gulbarga Let us go back to our example of Gulbarga. In 2014, a total of 8 candidates contested elections in that constituency. The total eligible voters were 17.21 lakhs. Of these 9.98 lakh voters had cast their votes. The candidate of the Congress party, Mallikarjun Kharge secured about 5.07 lakh votes. This was 50.82 percent of the total votes polled. But since he had secured more votes than anyone else, he was declared elected a Member of Parliament from Gulbarga Lok Sabha constituency. Election Result of Gulbarga constituency, GENERAL ELECTION TO LOK SABHA, 2014 CANDIDATE PARTY VOTES POLLED OF VOTES D.G. Sagar JD(S) 1.57 Mallikarjun Kharge INC 50.82 Danni Mahadev B. BSP 1.14 Revunaik Belamagi BJP 43.33 B.T. Lalitha Naik AAAP 0.91 S.M. Sharma SUCI 0.50 Shankar Jadhav BHPP 0.29 Ramu IND 0.41 None of the Above NOTA 0.99 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Identify the fair and the unfair electoral practices among the following A minister flags off a new train in his constituency a week before polling day. A candidate promises that she will get a new train for her constituency if she is elected. Supporters of a candidate take the voters to a temple and make them take an oath that they will vote for him. The supporters of a candidate distribute blankets in slums in return for a promise for vote. 15690 507193 11428 432460 9074 4943 2877 4085 9888 secure place. A few days later, on a fixed date, all the EVMs from a constituency are opened and the votes secured by each candidate are counted. The agents of all candidates are present there to ensure that the counting is done properly. The candidate who secures the highest number of votes from a constituency is declared elected. In a general election, usually the counting of votes in all the constituencies takes place at the same time, on the same day. Television channels, radio and newspapers report this event. Within a few hours of counting, all the results are declared and it becomes clear as to who will form the next government. What is the percentage of voters who had actually cast their votes? To win an election is it necessary for a person to secure more than half the votes polled? 2019-20 | [
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Democracy and Diversity 37 The demand for only Sinhala was at the cost of the interest and identity of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka. In Yugoslavia, the leaders of different ethnic communities presented their demands in such a way that these could not be accommodated within a single country. Third, it depends on how the government reacts to demands of different groups. As we saw in the examples of Belgium and Sri Lanka, if the rulers are willing to share power and accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, social divisions become less threatening for the country. But if they try to suppress such a demand in the name of national unity, the end result is often quite the opposite. Such attempts at forced integration often sow the seeds of disintegration. Thus the assertion of social diversities in a country need not be seen as a source of danger. In a democracy, political expression of social divisions is very normal and can be healthy. This allows various disadvantaged and marginal social groups to express their grievances and get the government to attend to these. Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in their cancelling one another out and thus reducing their intensity. This leads to strengthening of a democracy. But a positive attitude towards diversity and a willingness to accommodate it do not come about easily. People who feel marginalised, deprived and discriminated have to fight against the injustices. Such a fight often takes the democratic path, voicing their demands in a peaceful and constitutional manner and seeking a fair position through elections. Sometimes social differences can take the form of unacceptable level of social inequality and injustice. The struggle against such inequalities sometimes takes the path of violence and defiance of state power. However history shows that democracy is the best way to fight for recognition and also to accommodate diversity. Draw or collect some images of social divisions in different aspects of life. Can you think of some examples of social division or discrimination in the field of sports? So, you are saying that too many small divisions are better than a single big division? Are you also saying that politics is a force of unity? 1. Discuss three factors that determine the outcomes of politics of social divisions. 2. When does a social difference become a social division? 3. How do social divisions affect politics? Give two examples. 4. social differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions. social differences do not usually lead to conflicts. Exercises Dario Castillejos - Cagle Cartoons Inc. 2018-19 | [
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CONSTRUCTIONS 221 Steps of Construction 1. Join PO and bisect it. Let M be the mid- point of PO. 2. Taking M as centre and MO as radius, draw a circle. Let it intersect the given circle at the points Q and R. 3. Join PQ and PR. Then PQ and PR are the required two tangents (see Fig. 11.5). Now let us see how this construction works. Join OQ. Then PQO is an angle in the semicircle and, therefore, PQO 90 Can we say that PQ OQ? Since, OQ is a radius of the given circle, PQ has to be a tangent to the circle. Similarly, PR is also a tangent to the circle. Note If centre of the circle is not given, you may locate its centre first by taking any two non-parallel chords and then finding the point of intersection of their perpendicular bisectors. Then you could proceed as above. EXERCISE 11.2 In each of the following, give also the justification of the construction 1. Draw a circle of radius 6 cm. From a point 10 cm away from its centre, construct the pair of tangents to the circle and measure their lengths. 2. Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 4 cm from a point on the concentric circle of radius 6 cm and measure its length. Also verify the measurement by actual calculation. 3. Draw a circle of radius 3 cm. Take two points P and Q on one of its extended diameter each at a distance of 7 cm from its centre. Draw tangents to the circle from these two points P and Q. 4. Draw a pair of tangents to a circle of radius 5 cm which are inclined to each other at an angle of 60. 5. Draw a line segment AB of length 8 cm. Taking A as centre, draw a circle of radius 4 cm and taking B as centre, draw another circle of radius 3 cm. Construct tangents to each circle from the centre of the other circle. Fig. 11.5 2019-20 | [
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How do Organisms Reproduce? We must also consider the possible health consequences of having sex. We have discussed in Class IX that diseases can be transmitted from person to person in a variety of ways. Since the sexual act is a very intimate connection of bodies, it is not surprising that many diseases can be sexually transmitted. These include bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections such as warts and HIV-AIDS. Is it possible to prevent the transmission of such diseases during the sexual act? Using a covering, called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to prevent transmission of many of these infections to some extent. The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if she is not ready for it, her health will be adversely affected. Therefore, many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. These contraceptive methods fall in a number of categories. One category is the creation of a mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg. Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in the vagina can serve this purpose. Another category of contraceptives acts by changing the hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released and fertilisation cannot occur. These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. However, since they change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too. Other contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. Again, they can cause side effects due to irritation of the uterus. If the vas deferens in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be prevented. If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the uterus. In both cases fertilisation will not take place. Surgical methods can be used to create such blocks. While surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause infections and other problems if not performed properly. Surgery can also be used for removal of unwanted pregnancies. These may be misused by people who do not want a particular child, as happens in illegal sex-selective abortion of female foetuses. For a healthy society, the female-male sex ratio must be maintained. Because of reckless female foeticides, child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some sections of our society, although prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by law. We have noted earlier that reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their populations. The rates of birth and death in a given population will determine its size. The size of the human population is a cause for concern for many people. This is because an expanding population makes it harder to improve everybodys standard of living. However, if inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living for many people, the size of the population is relatively unimportant. If we look around us, what can we identify as the most important reason(s) for poor living standards? 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 12 Box 1 Reading political symbols The majority of men and women in the eighteenth century could not read or write. So images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate important ideas. The painting by Le Barbier (Fig. 8) uses many such symbols to convey the content of the Declaration of Rights. Let us try to read these symbols. Snake biting its tail to form a ring Symbol of Eternity. A ring has neither beginning nor end. Sceptre Symbol of royal power. The eye within a triangle radiating light The all- seeing eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance. The bundle of rods or fasces One rod can be easily broken, but not an entire bundle. Strength lies in unity. The broken chain Chains were used to fetter slaves. A broken chain stands for the act of becoming free. 2019-2020 | [
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Control and Coordination Can you now trace the sequence of events which occur when a bright light is focussed on your eyes? Is reflex action the only function of the spinal cord? Obviously not, since we know that we are thinking beings. Spinal cord is made up of nerves which supply information to think about. Thinking involves more complex mechanisms and neural connections. These are concentrated in the brain, which is the main coordinating centre of the body. The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system. They receive information from all parts of the body and integrate it. We also think about our actions. Writing, talking, moving a chair, clapping at the end of a programme are examples of voluntary actions which are based on deciding what to do next. So, the brain also has to send messages to muscles. This is the second way in which the nervous system communicates with the muscles. The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of the body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial nerves arising from the brain and spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord. The brain thus allows us to think and take actions based on that thinking. As you will expect, this is accomplished through a complex design, with different parts of the brain responsible for integrating different inputs and outputs. The brain has three such major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-brain. The fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain. It has regions which receive sensory impulses from various receptors. Separate areas of the fore-brain are specialised for hearing, smell, sight and so on. There are separate areas of association where this sensory information is interpreted by putting it together with information from other receptors as well as with information that is already stored in the brain. Based on Figure 7.2 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.2 Reflex arc 2019-20 | [
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DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS 89 7.5 Animalia These are organisms which are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic. Their cells do not have cell-walls. Most animals are mobile. They are further classified based on the extent and type of the body design differentiation found. 7.5.1 PORIFERA The word Porifera means organisms with holes. These are non-motile animals attached to some solid support. There are holes or pores, all over the body. These lead to a canal system that helps in circulating water throughout the body to bring in food and oxygen. These animals are covered with a hard outside layer or skeleton. The body design involves very minimal differentiation and division into tissues. They are commonly called sponges, and are mainly found in marine habitats. Some examples are shown in Fig. 7.12. layers of cells one makes up cells on the outside of the body, and the other makes the inner lining of the body. Some of these species live in colonies (corals), while others have a solitary likespan (Hydra). Jellyfish and sea anemones are common examples (see Fig. 7.13). Sycon Euplectella Spongilla Fig. 7.12 Porifera Tentacles Sea anemone Tentacles Stinging cell Mouth Epidermis Mesoglea Gastrodermis Gastrovascular cavity Foot Fig. 7.13 Coelenterata 7.5.3 PLATYHELMINTHES The body of animals in this group is far more complexly designed than in the two other groups we have considered so far. The body is bilaterally symmetrical, meaning that the left and the right halves of the body have the same design. There are three layers of cells from which differentiated tissues can be made, which is why such animals are called triploblastic. This allows outside and inside body linings as well as some organs to be made. There is thus some degree of tissue formation. However, there is no true internal body cavity or coelom, in which well- developed organs can be accommodated. The body is flattened dorsoventrally (meaning from top to bottom), which is why these animals are called flatworms. They are either free-living or parasitic. Some examples are free-living animals like planarians, or parasitic animals like liverflukes (see Fig. 7.14 for examples). Hydra 7.5.2 COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA) These are animals living in water. They show more body design differentiation. There is a cavity in the body. The body is made of two 2019-2020 | [
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Forest Society and Colonialism 93 Java is now famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia. But once upon a time it was covered mostly with forests. The colonial power in Indonesia were the Dutch, and as we will see, there were many similarities in the laws for forest control in Indonesia and India. Java in Indonesia is where the Dutch started forest management. Like the British, they wanted timber from Java to build ships. In 1600, the population of Java was an estimated 3.4 million. There were many villages in the fertile plains, but there were also many communities living in the mountains and practising shifting cultivation. 4.1 The Woodcutters of Java The Kalangs of Java were a community of skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. They were so valuable that in 1755 when the Mataram kingdom of Java split, the 6,000 Kalang families were equally divided between the two kingdoms. Without their expertise, it would have been difficult to harvest teak and for the kings to build their palaces. When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they tried to make the Kalangs work under them. In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but the uprising was suppressed. 4.2 Dutch Scientific Forestry In the nineteenth century, when it became important to control territory and not just people, the Dutch enacted forest laws in Java, restricting villagers access to forests. Now wood could only be cut for specified purposes like making river boats or constructing houses, and only from specific forests under close supervision. Villagers were punished for grazing cattle in young stands, transporting wood without a permit, or travelling on forest roads with horse carts or cattle. As in India, the need to manage forests for shipbuilding and railways led to the 4 Forest Transformations in Java Fig.21 Train transporting teak out of the forest late colonial period. 2019-2020 | [
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 335 (v) Predicting the trend of the stock market. (vi) Estimating the volume of blood inside the body of a person. (vii) Predicting the population of a city after 10 years. (viii) Estimating the number of leaves in a tree. (ix) Estimating the ppm of different pollutants in the atmosphere of a city. (x) Estimating the effect of pollutants on the environment. (xi) Estimating the temperature on the Suns surface. In this chapter we shall revisit the process of mathematical modelling, and take examples from the world around us to illustrate this. In Section A2.2 we take you through all the stages of building a model. In Section A2.3, we discuss a variety of examples. In Section A2.4, we look at reasons for the importance of mathematical modelling. A point to remember is that here we aim to make you aware of an important way in which mathematics helps to solve real-world problems. However, you need to know some more mathematics to really appreciate the power of mathematical modelling. In higher classes some examples giving this flavour will be found. A2.2 Stages in Mathematical Modelling In Class IX, we considered some examples of the use of modelling. Did they give you an insight into the process and the steps involved in it? Let us quickly revisit the main steps in mathematical modelling. Step 1 (Understanding the problem) Define the real problem, and if working in a team, discuss the issues that you wish to understand. Simplify by making assumptions and ignoring certain factors so that the problem is manageable. For example, suppose our problem is to estimate the number of fishes in a lake. It is not possible to capture each of these fishes and count them. We could possibly capture a sample and from it try and estimate the total number of fishes in the lake. Step 2 (Mathematical description and formulation) Describe, in mathematical terms, the different aspects of the problem. Some ways to describe the features mathematically, include define variables write equations or inequalities gather data and organise into tables make graphs calculate probabilities 2019-20 | [
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41 The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China In Japan, Phan Boi Chau and Phan Chu Trinh spent time together, discussing their visions of Vietnamese independence, and debating their differences. This is what Phan Boi Chau later wrote about their discussions Thereafter over more than ten days, he and I debated time and again, and our opinions were diametrically opposed. That is to say, he wished to overthrow the monarchy in order to create a basis for the promotion of popular rights I, on the contrary, maintained that first the foreign enemy should be driven out, and after our nations independence was restored we could talk about other things. My plan was to make use of the monarchy, which he opposed absolutely. His plan was to raise up the people to abolish the monarchy, with which I absolutely disagreed. In other words, he and I were pursuing one and the same goal, but our means were considerably different. Source Source A New words Republic A form of government based on popular consent and popular representation. It is based on the power of the people as opposed to monarchy French colonialism was resisted at many levels and in various forms. But all nationalists had to grapple with one set of questions What was it to be Modern? What was it to be Nationalist? In order to be modern, was it necessary to regard tradition as backward and reject all earlier ideas and social practices? Was it necessary to consider the West as the symbol of development and civilisation, and try and copy the West? Different answers were offered to such questions. Some intellectuals felt that Vietnamese traditions had to be strengthened to resist the domination of the West, while others felt that Vietnam had to learn from the West even while opposing foreign domination. These differing visions led to complex debates, which could not be easily resolved. In the late nineteenth century, resistance to French domination was very often led by Confucian scholar-activists, who saw their world crumbling. Educated in the Confucian tradition, Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940) was one such nationalist. He became a major figure in the anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with Prince Cuong De as the head. Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929) in Yokohama in 1905. Phans most influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao. It became a widely read bestseller in Vietnam and China and was even made into a play. The book focuses on two connected themes the loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties with China ties that bound the elites of the two countries within a shared culture. It is this double loss that Phan laments, a lament that was typical of reformers from within the traditional elite. Other nationalists strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. One such was Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926). He was intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the idea of resisting the French with the help of the court. His desire was to establish a democratic republic. Profoundly influenced by the democratic ideals of the West, he did not want a wholesale rejection of Western civilisation. He accepted the French revolutionary ideal of liberty but charged the French for not abiding by the ideal. He demanded that the French set up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries. 5 The Vision of Modernisation What ideas did Phan Boi Chau and Phan Chu Trinh share in common? What did they differ on? Discuss 2018-19 | [
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Our Environment Find out what happens to the waste generated at home. Is there a system in place to collect this waste? Find out how the local body (panchayat, municipal corporation, resident welfare association) deals with the waste. Are there mechanisms in place to treat the biodegradable and non- biodegradable wastes separately? Calculate how much waste is generated at home in a day. How much of this waste is biodegradable? Calculate how much waste is generated in the classroom in a day. How much of this waste is biodegradable? Suggest ways of dealing with this waste. Improvements in our life-style have resulted in greater amounts of waste material generation. Changes in attitude also have a role to play, with more and more things we use becoming disposable. Changes in packaging have resulted in much of our waste becoming non- biodegradable. What do you think will be the impact of these on our environment? Find out how the sewage in your locality is treated. Are there mechanisms in place to ensure that local water bodies are not polluted by untreated sewage. Find out how the local industries in your locality treat their wastes. Are there mechanisms in place to ensure that the soil and water are not polluted by this waste? Disposable cups in trains If you ask your parents, they will probably remember a time when tea in trains was served in plastic glasses which had to be returned to the vendor. The introduction of disposable cups was hailed as a step forward for reasons of hygiene. No one at that time perhaps thought about the impact caused by the disposal of millions of these cups on a daily basis. Some time back, kulhads, that is, disposable cups made of clay, were suggested as an alternative. But a little thought showed that making these kulhads on a large scale would result in the loss of the fertile top-soil. Now disposable paper-cups are being used. What do you think are the advantages of disposable paper-cups over disposable plastic cups? Think it over 2019-20 | [
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147 Work, Life and Leisure Box 2 Not all cities in Asian countries developed in an unplanned manner. There were many cities that were carefully planned and organised. Consider the case of modern Singapore. Lee Kuan Yews Singapore Today, most of us know Singapore as a successful, rich, and well- planned city, a model for city planning worldwide. Yet the citys rise to this status is quite recent. Until 1965, Singapore, though an important port, shared all the problems of other Asian cities. Planning was known in Singapore since 1822, but benefited only the small community of white people who ruled Singapore. For the majority of its inhabitants, there was overcrowding, lack of sanitation, poor housing, and poverty. All this changed after the city became an independent nation in 1965 under the leadership of Lee Kuan Yew, President of the Peoples Action Party. A massive housing and development programme was undertaken and it completely altered the face of the island nation. Through a programme of total planning which left nothing to chance, every inch of the islands territory was controlled in its use. The government itself won popular support by providing nearly 85 per cent of the population with ownership housing of good quality. The tall housing blocks, which were well ventilated and serviced, were examples of good physical planning. But the buildings also redesigned social life crime was reduced through external corridors, the aged were housed alongside their families, void decks or empty floors were provided in all buildings for community activities. Migration into the city was strictly controlled. Social relations between the three major groups of people (the Chinese, the Malays and the Indians) were also monitored to prevent racial conflict. Newspapers and journals and all forms of communication and association were also strictly controlled. In 1986, in the National Day Rally speech, Lee Kuan Yews recalled his early experiments with planning we would not have made economic progress, if we had not intervened on very personal matters who your neighbour is, how you live, the noise you make, how you spit or what language you use. We decide what is right. Never mind what the people think that is another problem. Reported in The Straits Times. Although the citizens of Singapore enjoy a very high degree of material comfort and wealth, there are many who point out that the city lacks a lively and challenging political culture. Compare the examples of the work done by Baron Haussmann in Paris and Lee Kuan Yew, almost a hundred years later, in Singapore. Discuss if physical comfort and beauty in the city can be introduced only by controlling social and private life. In your opinion, is this a good enough reason for the government to make rules about the way in which people should live their personal lives? Activity Fig. 24 Singapore Marina, which is built on land reclaimed from the sea. 2018-19 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 56 Explain what we mean when we say that the world shrank in the 1500s. Discuss Guns could be bought or captured and turned against the invaders. But not diseases such as smallpox to which the conquerors were mostly immune. Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe. Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread. Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters were persecuted. Thousands therefore fled Europe for America. Here, by the eighteenth century, plantations worked by slaves captured in Africa were growing cotton and sugar for European markets. Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among the worlds richest countries. They were also pre-eminent in Asian trade. However, from the fifteenth century, China is said to have restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. Chinas reduced role and the rising importance of the Americas gradually moved the centre of world trade westwards. Europe now emerged as the centre of world trade. New words Dissenter One who refuses to accept established beliefs and practices Fig. 5 Slaves for sale, New Orleans, Illustrated London News, 1851. A prospective buyer carefully inspecting slaves lined up before the auction. You can see two children along with four women and seven men in top hats and suit waiting to be sold. To attract buyers, slaves were often dressed in their best clothes. 2019-20 | [
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12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I newer, younger deposits of the floodplains are called khadar. They are renewed almost every year and so are fertile, thus, ideal for intensive agriculture. The Peninsular Plateau The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills. This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major area of the Malwa plateau, is known as the Central Highlands. The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Satpura range on the south and the Aravalis on the northwest. The further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan. The flow of the rivers draining this region, namely the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken is from southwest to northeast, thus indicating the slope. The Central Highlands are wider in the west but narrower in the east. The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar river. The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada. The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north, while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal range form its eastern extensions. Locate these hills and ranges in the Physical map of India. The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards. An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills. It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau. Three prominent hill ranges from the west to the east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau respectively. Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast. They are continuous and can be crossed through passes only. Locate the Thal, Bhor and Pal Ghats in the Physical map of India. The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is 900 1600 metres as against 600 metres of the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south. The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise along the western slopes of the Ghats. The Western Ghats are known by different local names. The height of the Western Ghats progressively increases from north to south. The highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637 metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats. Shevroy Hills and the Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Figure 2.6 A Waterfall in Chotanagpur Plateau 2019-20 | [
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13 Nationalism in Europe 3 The Age of Revolutions 1830-1848 As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, school- teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. When France sneezes, Metternich once remarked, the rest of Europe catches cold. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation. 3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Let us look at Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science 2018-19 | [
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STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 51 Table 4.1 Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements with Electron Distribution in Various Shells helium atom has two electrons in its outermost shell and all other elements have atoms with eight electrons in the outermost shell. The combining capacity of the atoms of elements, that is, their tendency to react and form molecules with atoms of the same or different elements, was thus explained as an attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell. An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons was said to possess an octet. Atoms would thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell. This was done by sharing, gaining or losing electrons. The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, gives us directly the combining capacity of the element, that is, the valency discussed in the previous chapter. For example, hydrogen lithiumsodium atoms contain one electron each in their outermost shell, therefore each one of them can lose one electron. So, they are said to have valency of one. Can you tell, what is valency of magnesium and aluminium? It is two and three, respectively, because magnesium has two electrons in its outermost shell and aluminium has three electrons in its outermost shell. If the number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is close to its full capacity, then valency is determined in a different way. For example, the fluorine atom has 7 electrons in the outermost shell, and its valency could be 7. But it is easier for Name of Symbol Atomic Number Number Number Vale- Element Number of of of ncy Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1 Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0 Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1 Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2 Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3 Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4 Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3 Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2 Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1 Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0 Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1 Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2 Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3 Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4 Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5 Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2 Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1 Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0 Distribution of Electrons 2019-2020 | [
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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current A compass needle is a small magnet. Its one end, which points towards north, is called a north pole, and the other end, which points towards south, is called a south pole. A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected. Field lines are used to represent a magnetic field. A field line is the path along which a hypothetical free north pole would tend to move. The direction of the magnetic field at a point is given by the direction that a north pole placed at that point would take. Field lines are shown closer together where the magnetic field is greater. A metallic wire carrying an electric current has associated with it a magnetic field. The field lines about the wire consist of a series of concentric circles whose direction is given by the right-hand rule. The pattern of the magnetic field around a conductor due to an electric current flowing through it depends on the shape of the conductor. The magnetic field of a solenoid carrying a current is similar to that of a bar magnet. An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire. A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the direction of the field and that of the current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the force acting on the conductor will be perpendicular to both and will be given by Flemings left-hand rule. This is the basis of an electric motor. An electric motor is a device that converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the production of induced current in a coil placed in a region where the magnetic field changes with time. The magnetic field may change due to a relative motion between the coil and a magnet placed near to the coil. If the coil is placed near to a current-carrying conductor, the magnetic field may change either due to a change in the current through the conductor or due to the relative motion between the coil and conductor. The direction of the induced current is given by the Flemings right-hand rule. A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works on the basis of electromagnetic induction. In our houses we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. One of the wires in this supply is with red insulation, called live wire. The other one is of black insulation, which is a neutral wire. The potential difference between the two is 220 V. The third is the earth wire that has green insulation and this is connected to a metallic body deep inside earth. It is used as a safety measure to ensure that any leakage of current to a metallic body does not give any severe shock to a user. Fuse is the most important safety device, used for protecting the circuits due to short-circuiting or overloading of the circuits. 2019-20 | [
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] |
13 Nationalism in Europe 3 The Age of Revolutions 1830-1848 As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, school- teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes. The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. When France sneezes, Metternich once remarked, the rest of Europe catches cold. The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation. 3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Let us look at Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 110 hammers were produced and 45 kinds of axes. These required human skill, not mechanical technology. In Victorian Britain, the upper classes the aristocrats and the bourgeoisie preferred things produced by hand. Handmade products came to symbolise refinement and class. They were better finished, individually produced, and carefully designed. Machine- made goods were for export to the colonies. In countries with labour shortage, industrialists were keen on using mechanical power so that the need for human labour can be minimised. This was the case in nineteenth-century America. Britain, however, had no problem hiring human hands. 2.1 Life of the Workers The abundance of labour in the market affected the lives of workers. As news of possible jobs travelled to the countryside, hundreds tramped to the cities. The actual possibility of getting a job depended on existing networks of friendship and kin relations. If you had a relative or a friend in a factory, you were more likely to get a job quickly. But not everyone had social connections. Many job- seekers had to wait weeks, spending nights under bridges or in night Fig. 9 Workers in an iron works, north-east England, painting by William Bell Scott, 1861. Many artists from the late nineteenth century began idealising workers they were shown suffering hardship and pain for the cause of the nation. Fig. 10 Houseless and Hungry, painting by Samuel Luke Fildes, 1874. This painting shows the homeless in London applying for tickets to stay overnight in a workhouse. These shelters were maintained under the supervision of the Poor Law Commissioners for the destitute, wayfarers, wanderers and foundling. Staying in these workhouses was a humiliating experience everyone was subjected to a medical examination to see whether they were carrying disease, their bodies were cleansed, and their clothes purified. They had to also do hard labour. 2018-19 | [
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When you buy any commodity, you will find certain details given on the packing. These details are about ingredients used, price, batch number, date of manufacture, expiry date and the address of the manufacturer. When we buy medicines, on the packets, you might find directions for proper use and information relating to side effects and risks associated with usage of that medicine. When you buy garments, you will find information on instructions for washing. Why is it that rules have been made so that the manufacturer displays this information? It is because consumers have the right to be informed about the particulars of goods and services that they purchase. Consumers can then complain and ask for compensation or replacement if the product proves to be defective in any manner. For example, if we buy a product and find it defective well within the expiry period, we can ask for a replacement. If the expiry period was not printed, the manufacturer would blame the shopkeeper and will not accept the responsibility. If people sell medicines that have expired severe action can be taken against them. Similarly, one can protest and complain if someone sells a good at more than the printed price on the packet. This is indicated by MRP maximum retail price. In fact consumers can bargain with the seller to sell at less than the MRP. In recent times, the right to information has been expanded to cover various services provided by the Government. In October 2005, the Government of India enacted a law, popularly known as RTI (Right to Information) Act, which ensures its citizens all the information about the functions of government departments. The effect of the RTI Act can be understood from the following case. Amritha, an engineering graduate after submitting all the certificates and attending the interview for a job in a government department, did not receive any news of the result. The officials also refused to comply with her queries. She therefore filed an application using the RTI Act saying that it was her right to know the result in a reasonable time so that she could plan her future. She was not only informed about the reasons for delay in the declaration of results but also got her call letter for appointment as she performed well in the interview. 2019-20 | [
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23 Nationalism in Europe 5 Visualising the Nation While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a statue, how does one go about giving a face to a nation? Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation. In other words they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation. You will recall that during the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols. As you would remember, the attributes of Liberty are the red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales. Similar female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation. In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a peoples nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism. New words Allegory When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic Fig. 16 Postage stamps of 1850 with the figure of Marianne representing the Republic of France. Fig. 17 Germania, Philip Veit, 1848. The artist prepared this painting of Germania on a cotton banner, as it was meant to hang from the ceiling of the Church of St Paul where the Frankfurt parliament was convened in March 1848. 2018-19 | [
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248 MATHEMATICS 3. A gulab jamun, contains sugar syrup up to about 30 of its volume. Find approximately how much syrup would be found in 45 gulab jamuns, each shaped like a cylinder with two hemispherical ends with length 5 cm and diameter 2.8 cm (see Fig. 13.15). 4. A pen stand made of wood is in the shape of a cuboid with four conical depressions to hold pens. The dimensions of the cuboid are 15 cm by 10 cm by 3.5 cm. The radius of each of the depressions is 0.5 cm and the depth is 1.4 cm. Find the volume of wood in the entire stand (see Fig. 13.16). 5. A vessel is in the form of an inverted cone. Its height is 8 cm and the radius of its top, which is open, is 5 cm. It is filled with water up to the brim. When lead shots, each of which is a sphere of radius 0.5 cm are dropped into the vessel, one-fourth of the water flows out. Find the number of lead shots dropped in the vessel. 6. A solid iron pole consists of a cylinder of height 220 cm and base diameter 24 cm, which is surmounted by another cylinder of height 60 cm and radius 8 cm. Find the mass of the pole, given that 1 cm3 of iron has approximately 8g mass. (Use 3.14) 7. A solid consisting of a right circular cone of height 120 cm and radius 60 cm standing on a hemisphere of radius 60 cm is placed upright in a right circular cylinder full of water such that it touches the bottom. Find the volume of water left in the cylinder, if the radius of the cylinder is 60 cm and its height is 180 cm. 8. A spherical glass vessel has a cylindrical neck 8 cm long, 2 cm in diameter the diameter of the spherical part is 8.5 cm. By measuring the amount of water it holds, a child finds its volume to be 345 cm3. Check whether she is correct, taking the above as the inside measurements, and 3.14. 13.4 Conversion of Solid from One Shape to Another We are sure you would have seen candles. Generally, they are in the shape of a cylinder. You may have also seen some candles shaped like an animal (see Fig. 13.17). Fig. 13.15 Fig. 13.16 Fig. 13.17 2019-20 | [
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30 Economics He has to send money home to his old parents who live in a village near Ramgarh. His father a landless labourer, depends on Ram Saran and his brother who lives in Hazaribagh, for sustenance. Ram Saran lives in a one-room rented house in a crowded basti in the outskirts of the city. Its a temporary shack built of bricks and clay tiles. His wife Santa Devi, works as a part time maid in a few houses and manages to earn another Rs 800. They manage a meagre meal of dal and rice twice a day, but theres never enough for all of them. His elder son works as a helper in a tea shop to supplement the family income and earns another Rs 300, while his 10- year-old daughter takes care of the younger siblings. None of the children go to school. They have only two pairs of hand-me-down clothes each. New ones are bought only when the old clothes become unwearable. Shoes are a luxury. The younger kids are undernourished. They have no access to healthcare when they fall ill. Rural case Lakha Singh belongs to a small village near Meerut in Uttar Pradesh. His family doesnt own any land, so they do odd jobs for the big farmers. Work is erratic and so is income. At times they get paid Rs 50 for a hard days work. But often its in kind like a few kilograms of wheat or dal or even vegetables for toiling in the farm through the day. The family of eight cannot always manage two square meals a day. Lakha lives in a kuchha hut on the outskirts of the village. The women of the family spend the day chopping fodder and collecting firewood in the fields. His father a TB patient, passed away two years ago due to lack of medication. His mother now suffers from the same disease and life is slowly ebbing away. Although, the village has a primary school, Lakha never went there. He had to start earning when he was 10 years old. New clothes happen once in a few years. Even soap and oil are a luxury for the family. Study the above cases of poverty and discuss the following issues related to poverty Landlessness Unemployment Size of families Illiteracy Poor healthmalnutrition Child labour Helplessness Picture 3.2 Story of Lakha Singh 2019-2020 | [
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40 MATHEMATICS In fact, this is true for any linear equation, that is, each solution (x, y) of a linear equation in two variables, ax by c 0, corresponds to a point on the line representing the equation, and vice versa. Now, consider Equations (1) and (2) given above. These equations, taken together, represent the information we have about Akhila at the fair. These two linear equations are in the same two variables x and y. Equations like these are called a pair of linear equations in two variables. Let us see what such pairs look like algebraically. The general form for a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is a1x b1y c1 0 and a2x b2y c2 0, where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are all real numbers and a1 2 b1 2 0, a2 2 b2 2 0. Some examples of pair of linear equations in two variables are 2x 3y 7 0 and 9x 2y 8 0 5x y and 7x 2y 3 0 x y 7 and 17 y Do you know, what do they look like geometrically? Recall, that you have studied in Class IX that the geometrical (i.e., graphical) representation of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. Can you now suggest what a pair of linear equations in two variables will look like, geometrically? There will be two straight lines, both to be considered together. You have also studied in Class IX that given two lines in a plane, only one of the following three possibilities can happen (i) The two lines will intersect at one point. (ii) The two lines will not intersect, i.e., they are parallel. (iii) The two lines will be coincident. We show all these possibilities in Fig. 3.1 In Fig. 3.1 (a), they intersect. In Fig. 3.1 (b), they are parallel. In Fig. 3.1 (c), they are coincident. 2019-20 | [
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19 2.1 DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA I have fought against white domination and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. This was Nelson Mandela, being tried for treason by the white South African government. He and seven other leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in his country. He spent the next 28 years in South Africas most dreaded prison, Robben Island. SSSSStrtrtrtrtruggle against apar uggle against apar uggle against apar uggle against apar uggle against apartheid theid theid theid theid Apartheid was the name of a system of racial discrimination unique to South Africa. The white Europeans imposed this system on South Africa. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the trading companies from Europe occupied it with arms and force, in the way they occupied India. But unlike India, a large number of whites had settled in South Africa and became the local rulers. The system of apartheid divided the people and labelled them on the basis of their skin colour. The native people of South Africa are black in colour. They made up about three-fourth of the population and were called blacks. Besides these two groups, there were people of mixed races who were called coloured and people who migrated from India. The white rulers treated all non- whites as inferiors. The non-whites did not have voting rights. The apartheid system was particularly oppressive for the blacks. They were forbidden from living in white areas. They could work in white areas only if they had a permit. Trains, buses, taxis, hotels, hospitals, schools and colleges, libraries, cinema halls, theatres, beaches, swimming pools, CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN Sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu In English it reads CITY OF DURBAN Under section 37 of the Durban beach by-laws, this bathing area is reserved for the sole use of members of the white race group. 1 2 1 2 A signboard emblematic of the tense relations of the apartheid era, 1953. Nelson Mandela South Africa History Online John Mullen, Wikipedia, GNU Free Documentation License 2019-20 | [
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145 Work, Life and Leisure Since then, there have been several reclamation projects. The need for additional commercial space in the mid-nineteenth century led to the formulation of several plans, both by government and private companies, for the reclamation of more land from the sea. Private companies became more interested in taking financial risks. In 1864, the Back Bay Reclamation Company won the right to reclaim the western foreshore from the tip of Malabar Hill to the end of Colaba. Reclamation often meant the levelling of the hills around Bombay. By the 1870s, although most of the private companies closed down due to the mounting cost, the city had expanded to about 22 square miles. As the population continued to increase rapidly in the early twentieth century, every bit of the available area was built over and new areas were reclaimed from the sea. A successful reclamation project was undertaken by the Bombay Port Trust, which built a dry dock between 1914 and 1918 and used the excavated earth to create the 22-acre Ballard Estate. Subsequently, the famous Marine Drive of Bombay was developed. 4.5 Bombay as the City of Dreams The World of Cinema and Culture Who does not associate Bombay with its film industry? Despite its massive overcrowding and difficult living conditions, Bombay appears to many as a mayapuri a city of dreams. Many Bombay films deal with the arrival in the city of new migrants, and their encounters with the real pressures of daily life. Some popular songs from the Bombay film industry speak of the contradictory aspects of the city. In the film CID (1956) the heros buddy sings, Ai dil hai mushkil jeena yahan zara hatke zara bachke, ye hai Bambai meri jaan (My heart, it is difficult to live here! move over a little, take care of yourself! this is Bombay! my love). A slightly more disillusioned voice sings in Guest House (1959) Jiska juta usika sar, dil hai chhote bada shahar, are vah re vah teri Bambai (Bombay, you city what a place! Here one gets beaten with ones own shoes! The city is big but peoples hearts are small!). When did the Bombay film industry make its first appearance? Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatwadekar shot a scene of a wrestling Fig. 22 Colaba Causeway, late nineteenth century. Notice that the trams are being drawn by horses.You can see stables for horses on the left and the Tram Companys offices in the background. Fig. 23 Marine Drive. A familiar landmark of Bombay, it was built on land reclaimed from the sea in the twentieth century. 2018-19 | [
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] |
STATISTICS 275 of the students. In the first situation, the mean is required and in the second situation, the mode is required. Activity 3 Continuing with the same groups as formed in Activity 2 and the situations assigned to the groups. Ask each group to find the mode of the data. They should also compare this with the mean, and interpret the meaning of both. Remark The mode can also be calculated for grouped data with unequal class sizes. However, we shall not be discussing it. EXERCISE 14.2 1. The following table shows the ages of the patients admitted in a hospital during a year Age (in years) 5 - 15 15 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 55 55 - 65 Number of patients 6 11 21 23 14 5 Find the mode and the mean of the data given above. Compare and interpret the two measures of central tendency. 2. The following data gives the information on the observed lifetimes (in hours) of 225 electrical components Lifetimes (in hours) 0 - 20 20 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 80 80 - 100 100 - 120 Frequency 10 35 52 61 38 29 Determine the modal lifetimes of the components. 3. The following data gives the distribution of total monthly household expenditure of 200 families of a village. Find the modal monthly expenditure of the families. Also, find the mean monthly expenditure Expenditure (in ) Number of families 1000 - 1500 24 1500 - 2000 40 2000 - 2500 33 2500 - 3000 28 3000 - 3500 30 3500 - 4000 22 4000 - 4500 16 4500 - 5000 7 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 6 Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control, Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 usually known as the Napoleonic Code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen Fig. 3 Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815. ICELAND (DENMARK) NORWAY (SWEDEN) SWEDEN DENMARK HABOVER (G.B.) NETHERLANDS ENGLAND WALES IRELAND GREAT BRITAIN SCOTLAND FRANCE SPAIN PORTUGAL MOROCCO ALGERIA TUNIS EGYPT PALESTINE SYRIA CYPRUS MESOPOTAMIA ARMENIA OTTOMAN EMPIRE CRETE GREECE BULGARIA ROMANIA SERBIA HUNGARY AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AUSTRIA GALICIA BAVARIA SWITZERLAND PRUSSIA POLAND RUSSIAN EMPIRE SARDINIA CORSICA SMALL STATES KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES GEORGIA PERSIA MEDITERRANEAN SEA ATLANTIC SEA 2018-19 | [
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ANSWERSHINTS 335 2. (i) (ii) EXERCISE 5.1 1. (i) False. This can be seen visually by the student. (ii) False. This contradicts Axiom 5.1. (iii) True. (Postulate 2) (iv) True. If you superimpose the region bounded by one circle on the other, then they coincide. So, their centres and boundaries coincide. Therefore, their radii will coincide. (v) True. The first axiom of Euclid. 3. There are several undefined terms which the student should list. They are consistent, because they deal with two different situations (i) says that given two points A and B, there is a point C lying on the line in between them (ii) says that given A and B, you can take C not lying on the line through A and B. These postulates do not follow from Euclids postulates. However, they follow from Axiom 5.1. 4. AC BC So, AC AC BC AC (Equals are added to equals) i.e., 2AC AB (BC AC coincides with AB) Therefore, AC 1 2 AB 2019-2020 | [
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