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STATISTICS 271 4. Thirty women were examined in a hospital by a doctor and the number of heartbeats per minute were recorded and summarised as follows. Find the mean heartbeats per minute for these women, choosing a suitable method. Number of heartbeats 65 - 68 68 - 71 71 - 74 74 - 77 77 - 80 80 - 83 83 - 86 per minute Number of women 2 4 3 8 7 4 2 5. In a retail market, fruit vendors were selling mangoes kept in packing boxes. These boxes contained varying number of mangoes. The following was the distribution of mangoes according to the number of boxes. Number of mangoes 50 - 52 53 - 55 56 - 58 59 - 61 62 - 64 Number of boxes 15 110 135 115 25 Find the mean number of mangoes kept in a packing box. Which method of finding the mean did you choose? 6. The table below shows the daily expenditure on food of 25 households in a locality. Daily expenditure 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 250 250 - 300 300 - 350 (in ) Number of 4 5 12 2 2 households Find the mean daily expenditure on food by a suitable method. 7. To find out the concentration of SO2 in the air (in parts per million, i.e., ppm), the data was collected for 30 localities in a certain city and is presented below Concentration of SO2 (in ppm) Frequency 0.00 - 0.04 4 0.04 - 0.08 9 0.08 - 0.12 9 0.12 - 0.16 2 0.16 - 0.20 4 0.20 - 0.24 2 Find the mean concentration of SO2 in the air. 2019-20 | [
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SCIENCE 108 OA OC 1 2 (AD BD) (8.10) Substituting OA u, OC AD t and BD at, we get s u t 1 ( ) 2 t at or s u t 1 2 a t 2 8.5.3 EQUATION FOR POSITIONVELOCITY RELATION From the velocity-time graph shown in Fig. 8.8, the distance s travelled by the object in time t, moving under uniform acceleration a is given by the area enclosed within the trapezium OABC under the graph. That is, s area of the trapezium OABC ( ) OA BC OC 2 Substituting OA u, BC v and OC t, we get ( ) 2 u v t s (8.11) From the velocity-time relation (Eq. 8.6), we get ( ) v u t a (8.12) Using Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12) we have ( ) ( ) v u v - u s 2a or 2 a s v2 u2 Example 8.5 A train starting from rest attains a velocity of 72 km h1 in 5 minutes. Assuming that the acceleration is uniform, find (i) the acceleration and (ii) the distance travelled by the train for attaining this velocity. shown in Fig. 8.8 (similar to Fig. 8.6, but now with u 0). From this graph, you can see that initial velocity of the object is u (at point A) and then it increases to v (at point B) in time t. The velocity changes at a uniform rate a. In Fig. 8.8, the perpendicular lines BC and BE are drawn from point B on the time and the velocity axes respectively, so that the initial velocity is represented by OA, the final velocity is represented by BC and the time interval t is represented by OC. BD BC CD, represents the change in velocity in time interval t. Let us draw AD parallel to OC. From the graph, we observe that BC BD DC BD OA Substituting BC v and OA u, we get v BD u or BD v u (8.8) From the velocity-time graph (Fig. 8.8), the acceleration of the object is given by a Change in velocity time taken BD BD AD OC Substituting OC t, we get a BD t or BD at (8.9) Using Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9) we get v u at 8.5.2 EQUATION FOR POSITION-TIME RELATION Let us consider that the object has travelled a distance s in time t under uniform acceleration a. In Fig. 8.8, the distance travelled by the object is obtained by the area enclosed within OABC under the velocity-time graph AB. Thus, the distance s travelled by the object is given by s area OABC (which is a trapezium) area of the rectangle OADC area of the triangle ABD 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 62 2.4 Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague or rinderpest had a terrifying impact on peoples livelihoods and the local economy. This is a good example of the widespread European imperial impact on colonised societies. It shows how in this era of conquest even a disease affecting cattle reshaped the lives and fortunes of thousands of people and their relations with the rest of the world. Historically, Africa had abundant land and a relatively small population. For centuries, land and livestock sustained African livelihoods and people rarely worked for a wage. In late- nineteenth-century Africa there were few consumer goods that wages could buy. If you had been an African possessing land and livestock and there was plenty of both you too would have seen little reason to work for a wage. In the late nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to Africa due to its vast resources of land and minerals. Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops and minerals for export to Europe. But there was an unexpected problem a shortage of labour willing to work for wages. Employers used many methods to recruit and retain labour. Heavy taxes were imposed which could be paid only by working for wages on plantations and mines. Inheritance laws were changed so that Fig. 12 Transport to the Transvaal gold mines, The Graphic, 1887. Crossing the Wilge river was the quickest method of transport to the gold fields of Transvaal. After the discovery of gold in Witwatersrand, Europeans rushed to the region despite their fear of disease and death, and the difficulties of the journey. By the 1890s, South Africa contributed over 20 per cent of the world gold production. Fig. 13 Diggers at work in the Transvaal gold fields in South Africa, The Graphic, 1875. 2019-20 | [
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SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 247 Example 7 A solid toy is in the form of a hemisphere surmounted by a right circular cone. The height of the cone is 2 cm and the diameter of the base is 4 cm. Determine the volume of the toy. If a right circular cylinder circumscribes the toy, find the difference of the volumes of the cylinder and the toy. (Take 3.14) Solution Let BPC be the hemisphere and ABC be the cone standing on the base of the hemisphere (see Fig. 13.14). The radius BO of the hemisphere (as well as of the cone) 1 2 4 cm 2 cm. So, volume of the toy 3 2 2 1 3 3 r r h 3 2 3 2 1 3.14 (2) 3.14 (2) 2 cm 3 3 25.12 cm3 Now, let the right circular cylinder EFGH circumscribe the given solid. The radius of the base of the right circular cylinder HP BO 2 cm, and its height is EH AO OP (2 2) cm 4 cm So, the volume required volume of the right circular cylinder volume of the toy (3.14 22 4 25.12) cm3 25.12 cm3 Hence, the required difference of the two volumes 25.12 cm3. EXERCISE 13.2 Unless stated otherwise, take 22 7 . 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. A solid is in the shape of a cone standing on a hemisphere with both their radii being equal to 1 cm and the height of the cone is equal to its radius. Find the volume of the solid in terms of . 2. Rachel, an engineering student, was asked to make a model shaped like a cylinder with two cones attached at its two ends by using a thin aluminium sheet. The diameter of the model is 3 cm and its length is 12 cm. If each cone has a height of 2 cm, find the volume of air contained in the model that Rachel made. (Assume the outer and inner dimensions of the model to be nearly the same.) Fig. 13.14 2019-20 | [
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Chemical Reactions and Equations Let us discuss some more examples of combination reactions. (i) Burning of coal C(s) O2(g) CO2(g) (1.15) (ii) Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g) 2H2(g) O2(g) 2H2O(l) (1.16) In simple language we can say that when two or more substances (elements or compounds) combine to form a single product, the reactions are called combination reactions. In Activity 1.4, we also observed that a large amount of heat is evolved. This makes the reaction mixture warm. Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called exothermic chemical reactions. Other examples of exothermic reactions are (i) Burning of natural gas CH4(g) 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) 2H2O (g) (1.17) (ii) Do you know that respiration is an exothermic process? We all know that we need energy to stay alive. We get this energy from the food we eat. During digestion, food is broken down into simpler substances. For example, rice, potatoes and bread contain carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are broken down to form glucose. This glucose combines with oxygen in the cells of our body and provides energy. The special name of this reaction is respiration, the process of which you will study in Chapter 6. C6H12O6(aq) 6O2(aq) 6CO2(aq) 6H2O(l) energy (1.18) (Glucose) (iii) The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is also an example of an exothermic reaction. Identify the type of the reaction taking place in Activity 1.1, where heat is given out along with the formation of a single product. A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction 1.13 is used for whitewashing walls. Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium carbonate is formed after two to three days of whitewashing and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is interesting to note that the chemical formula for marble is also CaCO3. Ca(OH)2(aq) CO2(g) CaCO3(s) H2O(l) (1.14) (Calcium (Calcium hydroxide) carbonate) 2019-20 | [
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Light Reflection and Refraction (ii) A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel to the principal axis. This is illustrated in Fig.10.4 (a) and (b). (iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected back along the same path. This is illustrated in Fig.10.5 (a) and (b). The light rays come back along the same path because the incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface. (iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on the concave mirror Fig. 10.6 (a) or a convex mirror Fig. 10.6 (b), is reflected obliquely. The incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making equal angles with the principal axis. (a) (b) Figure 10.4 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.4 Figure 10.4 Remember that in all the above cases the laws of reflection are followed. At the point of incidence, the incident ray is reflected in such a way that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. (a) Image formation by Concave Mirror Figure 10.7 illustrates the ray diagrams for the formation of image by a concave mirror for various positions of the object. (b) (a) Figure 10.5 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.5 (a) (b) Figure 10.6 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.6 2019-20 | [
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193 Novels, Society and History Fig. 20 Cover page of Kathanjali, a Kannada magazine. Kathanjali started publication in 1929 and published short stories regularly. The picture shows a mother reading out stories from a book to her children. He was also a first-rate Sanskrit scholar. He dressed in Western clothes. But, at the same time, he kept a long tuft of hair, according to the Nayar custom. The heroes and heroines in most of the novels were people who lived in the modern world. Thus they were different from the ideal or mythological characters of the earlier poetic literature of India. Under colonial rule, many of the English-educated class found new Western ways of living and thinking attractive. But they also feared that a wholesale adoption of Western values would destroy their traditional ways of living. Characters like Indulekha and Madhavan showed readers how Indian and foreign lifestyles could be brought together in an ideal combination. 3.3 Pleasures of Reading As elsewhere in the world, in India too, the novel became a popular medium of entertainment among the middle class. The circulation of printed books allowed people to amuse themselves in new ways. Picture books, translations from other languages, popular songs sometimes composed on contemporary events, stories in newspapers and magazines all these offered new forms of entertainment. Within this new culture of print, novels soon became immensely popular. In Tamil, for example, there was a flood of popular novels in the early decades of the twentieth century. Detective and mystery novels often had to be printed again and again to meet the demand of readers some of them were reprinted as many as twenty-two times! The novel also assisted in the spread of silent reading. We are so used to reading in silence that it is difficult for us to think that this practice was not very common in the past. As late as the nineteenth century and perhaps even in the early twentieth century, written texts were often read aloud for several people to hear. Sometimes novels were also read in this way, but in general novels encouraged reading alone and in silence. Individuals sitting at home or travelling in trains enjoyed them. Even in a crowded room, the novel offered a special world of imagination into which the reader could slip, and be all alone. In this, reading a novel was like daydreaming. 2018-19 | [
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175 Print Culture 9 Print and Censorship Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was not too concerned with censorship. Strangely, its early measures to control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade monopoly in India. By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspapers that would celebrate Britsh rule. In 1835, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws. Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules that restored the earlier freedoms. After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the native press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated. Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. Box 4 Sometimes, the government found it hard to find candidates for editorship of loyalist papers. When Sanders, editor of the Statesman that had been founded in 1877, was approached, he asked rudely how much he would be paid for suffering the loss of freedom. The Friend of India refused a government subsidy, fearing that this would force it to be obedient to government commands. Box 5 The power of the printed word is most often seen in the way governments seek to regulate and suppress print. The colonial government kept continuous track of all books and newspapers published in India and passed numerous laws to control the press. During the First World War, under the Defence of India Rules, 22 newspapers had to furnish securities. Of these, 18 shut down rather than comply with government orders. The Sedition Committee Report under Rowlatt in 1919 further strengthened controls that led to imposition of penalties on various newspapers. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the Defence of India Act was passed, allowing censoring of reports of war-related topics. All reports about the Quit India movement came under its purview. In August 1942, about 90 newspapers were suppressed. Source Source F Gandhi said in 1922 Liberty of speech ... liberty of the press ... freedom of association. The Government of India is now seeking to crush the three powerful vehicles of expressing and cultivating public opinion. The fight for Swaraj, for Khilafat ... means a fight for this threatened freedom before all else ... 2018-19 | [
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SCIENCE 104 8.4 Graphical Representation of Motion Graphs provide a convenient method to present basic information about a variety of events. For example, in the telecast of a one-day cricket match, vertical bar graphs show the run rate of a team in each over. As you have studied in mathematics, a straight line graph helps in solving a linear equation having two variables. To describe the motion of an object, we can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs show dependence of one physical quantity, such as distance or velocity, on another quantity, such as time. 8.4.1 DISTANCETIME GRAPHS The change in the position of an object with time can be represented on the distance-time graph adopting a convenient scale of choice. In this graph, time is taken along the xaxis and distance is taken along the y-axis. Distance-time graphs can be employed under various conditions where objects move with uniform speed, non-uniform speed, remain at rest etc. Fig. 8.3 Distance-time graph of an object moving with uniform speed We know that when an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, it moves with uniform speed. This shows that the distance travelled by the object is directly proportional to time taken. Thus, for uniform speed, a graph of distance travelled against time is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 8.3. The portion OB of the graph shows that the distance is increasing at a uniform rate. Note that, you can also use the term uniform velocity in place of uniform speed if you take the magnitude of displacement equal to the distance travelled by the object along the y-axis. We can use the distance-time graph to determine the speed of an object. To do so, consider a small part AB of the distance-time graph shown in Fig 8.3. Draw a line parallel to the x-axis from point A and another line parallel to the y-axis from point B. These two lines meet each other at point C to form a triangle ABC. Now, on the graph, AC denotes the time interval (t2 t1) while BC corresponds to the distance (s2 s1). We can see from the graph that as the object moves from the point A to B, it covers a distance (s2 s1) in time (t2 t1). The speed, v of the object, therefore can be represented as v 2 1 2 1 s s t t (8.4) We can also plot the distance-time graph for accelerated motion. Table 8.2 shows the distance travelled by a car in a time interval of two seconds. Table 8.2 Distance travelled by a car at regular time intervals Time in seconds Distance in metres 0 0 2 1 4 4 6 9 8 16 10 25 12 36 2019-2020 | [
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274 MATHEMATICS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 come up. Record your observations in the form of a table, as in Table 15.3 Table 15.3 Number of times a die is thrown Number of times these scores turn up 1 2 3 4 5 6 20 Find the values of the following fractions Number of times 1 turned up Total number of times the die is thrown Number of times 2 turned up Total number of times the die is thrown Number of times 6 turned up Total number of times the die is thrown (ii) Now throw the die 40 times, record the observations and calculate the fractions as done in (i). As the number of throws of the die increases, you will find that the value of each fraction calculated in (i) and (ii) comes closer and closer to 1 6 . To see this, you could perform a group activity, as done in Activity 2. Divide the students in your class, into small groups. One student in each group should throw a die ten times. Observations should be noted and cumulative fractions should be calculated. The values of the fractions for the number 1 can be recorded in Table 15.4. This table can be extended to write down fractions for the other numbers also or other tables of the same kind can be created for the other numbers. 2019-2020 | [
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152 MATHEMATICS EXERCISE 6.6 (Optional) 1. In Fig. 6.56, PS is the bisector of QPR of PQR. Prove that QS PQ SR PR Fig. 6.56 Fig. 6.57 2. In Fig. 6.57, D is a point on hypotenuse AC of ABC, such that BD AC, DM BC and DN AB. Prove that (i) DM2 DN . MC (ii) DN2 DM . AN 3. In Fig. 6.58, ABC is a triangle in which ABC 90 and AD CB produced. Prove that AC2 AB2 BC2 2 BC . BD. Fig. 6.58 Fig. 6.59 4. In Fig. 6.59, ABC is a triangle in which ABC 90 and AD BC. Prove that AC2 AB2 BC2 2 BC . BD. 5. In Fig. 6.60, AD is a median of a triangle ABC and AM BC. Prove that (i) AC2 AD2 BC . DM 2 BC 2 These exercises are not from examination point of view. Fig. 6.60 2019-20 | [
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196 MATHEMATICS 11.4 Summary In this chapter, you have done the following constructions using a ruler and a compass 1. To bisect a given angle. 2. To draw the perpendicular bisector of a given line segment. 3. To construct an angle of 60 etc. 4. To construct a triangle given its base, a base angle and the sum of the other two sides. 5. To construct a triangle given its base, a base angle and the difference of the other two sides. 6. To construct a triangle given its perimeter and its two base angles. 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 106 could remain in the countryside and continue to cultivate their small plots. Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use of their family labour resources. Within this system a close relationship developed between the town and the countryside. Merchants were based in towns but the work was done mostly in the countryside. A merchant clothier in England purchased wool from a wool stapler, and carried it to the spinners the yarn (thread) that was spun was taken in subsequent stages of production to weavers, fullers, and then to dyers. The finishing was done in London before the export merchant sold the cloth in the international market. London in fact came to be known as a finishing centre. This proto-industrial system was thus part of a network of commercial exchanges. It was controlled by merchants and the goods were produced by a vast number of producers working within their family farms, not in factories. At each stage of production 20 to 25 workers were employed by each merchant. This meant that each clothier was controlling hundreds of workers. 1.1 The Coming Up of the Factory The earliest factories in England came up by the 1730s. But it was only in the late eighteenth century that the number of factories multiplied. The first symbol of the new era was cotton. Its production boomed in the late nineteenth century. In 1760 Britain was importing 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By 1787 this import soared to 22 million pounds. This increase was linked to a number of changes within the process of production. Let us look briefly at some of these. A series of inventions in the eighteenth century increased the efficacy of each step of the production process (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling). They enhanced the output per worker, enabling each worker to produce more, and they made possible the production of stronger threads and yarn. Then Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill. Till this time, as you have seen, cloth production was spread all over the countryside and carried out within village households. But now, the costly new machines could be purchased, set up and maintained in the mill. Within the mill all the New words Stapler A person who staples or sorts wool according to its fibre Fuller A person who fulls that is, gathers cloth by pleating Carding The process in which fibres, such as cotton or wool, are prepared prior to spinning Fig. 4 A Lancashire cotton mill, painted by C.E. Turner, The Illustrated London News, 1925. The artist said Seen through the humid atmosphere that makes Lancashire the best cotton-spinning locality in the world, a huge cotton-mill aglow with electricity in the twilight, is a most impressive sight. 2018-19 | [
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183 Novels, Society and History Fig. 9 A girl reading, a painting by Jean Renoir (1841-1919). By the nineteenth century, images of women reading silently, in the privacy of the room, became common in European paintings. Fig. 10 The home of a woman author, by George Cruikshank. When women began writing novels many people feared that they would now neglect their traditional role as wives and mothers and homes would be in disorder. 2018-19 | [
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AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES 231 10. An umbrella has 8 ribs which are equally spaced (see Fig. 12.13). Assuming umbrella to be a flat circle of radius 45 cm, find the area between the two consecutive ribs of the umbrella. 11. A car has two wipers which do not overlap. Each wiper has a blade of length 25 cm sweeping through an angle of 115. Find the total area cleaned at each sweep of the blades. 12. To warn ships for underwater rocks, a lighthouse spreads a red coloured light over a sector of angle 80 to a distance of 16.5 km. Find the area of the sea over which the ships are warned. (Use 3.14) 13. A round table cover has six equal designs as shown in Fig. 12.14. If the radius of the cover is 28 cm, find the cost of making the designs at the rate of 0.35 per cm2. (Use 3 1.7) 14. Tick the correct answer in the following Area of a sector of angle p (in degrees) of a circle with radius R is (A) 2 R 180 p (B) 2 R 180 p (C) 2 R 360 p (D) 2 2 R 720 p 12.4 Areas of Combinations of Plane Figures So far, we have calculated the areas of different figures separately. Let us now try to calculate the areas of some combinations of plane figures. We come across these types of figures in our daily life and also in the form of various interesting designs. Flower beds, drain covers, window designs, designs on table covers, are some of such examples. We illustrate the process of calculating areas of these figures through some examples. Example 4 In Fig. 12.15, two circular flower beds have been shown on two sides of a square lawn ABCD of side 56 m. If the centre of each circular flower bed is the point of intersection O of the diagonals of the square lawn, find the sum of the areas of the lawn and the flower beds. Fig. 12.13 Fig. 12.14 Fig. 12.15 2019-20 | [
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DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS 85 Fig. 7.4 The Five Kingdom classification uestions 1. What is the criterion for classification of organisms as belonging to kingdom Monera or Protista? 2. In which kingdom will you place an organism which is single- celled, eukaryotic and photosynthetic? 3. In the hierarchy of classification, which grouping will have the smallest number of organisms with maximum common characteristics and which will have the largest number of organisms? Q 7.4 Plantae The first level of classification among plants depends on whether the plant body has well- differentiated, distinct parts. The next level of classification is based on whether the differentiated plant body has special tissues for the transport of water and other substances. Further classification looks at the ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within fruits. 7.4.1 THALLOPHYTA Plants that do not have well-differentiated body design fall in this group. The plants in this group are commonly called algae. These plants 2019-2020 | [
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Heredity and Evolution 151 happen between populations that are partly, but not completely separated. If, however, between two such sub-populations a large river comes into existence, the two populations will be further isolated. The levels of gene flow between them will decrease even further. Over generations, genetic drift will accumulate different changes in each sub-population. Also, natural selection may also operate differently in these different geographic locations. Thus, for example, in the territory of one sub-population, crows are eliminated by eagles. But this does not happen for the other sub-population, where crow numbers are very high. As a result, the green variation will not be selected at the first site, while it will be strongly selected at the second. Together, the processes of genetic drift and natural selection will result in these two isolated sub-populations of beetles becoming more and more different from each other. Eventually, members of these two groups will be incapable of reproducing with each other even if they happen to meet. There can be a number of ways by which this can happen. If the DNA changes are severe enough, such as a change in the number of chromosomes, eventually the germ cells of the two groups cannot fuse with each other. Or a new variation emerges in which green females will not mate with red males, but only with green males. This allows very strong natural selection for greenness. Now, if such a green female beetle meets a red male from the other group, her behaviour will ensure that there is no reproduction between them. Effectively, new species of beetles are being generated. Q U E S T I O N S ? 1. What factors could lead to the rise of a new species? 2. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of a self- pollinating plant species? Why or why not? 3. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in the speciation of an organism that reproduces asexually? Why or why not? 9.5 EV 9.5 EV 9.5 EV 9.5 EV 9.5 EVOLUTION AND CL OLUTION AND CL OLUTION AND CL OLUTION AND CL OLUTION AND CLASSIFIC ASSIFIC ASSIFIC ASSIFIC ASSIFICAAAAATION TION TION TION TION Based on these principles, we can work out the evolutionary relationships of the species we see around us. It is a sort of going backwards in time. We can do this by identifying hierarchies of characteristics between species. In order to understand this process, let us think back to our discussion on the classification of organisms in Class IX. Similarities among organisms will allow us to group them and then study the groups. For this, which characteristics decide more fundamental differences among organisms, and which ones decide less basic differences? What is meant by characteristics, anyway? Characteristics are details of appearance or behaviour in other words, a particular form or a particular function. That we have four limbs is thus a characteristic. That plants can do photosynthesis is also a characteristic. 2019-20 | [
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] |
CHAPTER 8 QUADRILATERALS 8.1 Introduction You have studied many properties of a triangle in Chapters 6 and 7 and you know that on joining three non-collinear points in pairs, the figure so obtained is a triangle. Now, let us mark four points and see what we obtain on joining them in pairs in some order. Fig. 8.1 Note that if all the points are collinear (in the same line), we obtain a line segment see Fig. 8.1 (i), if three out of four points are collinear, we get a triangle see Fig. 8.1 (ii), and if no three points out of four are collinear, we obtain a closed figure with four sides see Fig. 8.1 (iii) and (iv). Such a figure formed by joining four points in an order is called a quadrilateral. In this book, we will consider only quadrilaterals of the type given in Fig. 8.1 (iii) but not as given in Fig. 8.1 (iv). A quadrilateral has four sides, four angles and four vertices see Fig. 8.2 (i). Fig. 8.2 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 110 south Kenya and north Tanzania. The Maasai lost about 60 per cent of their pre-colonial lands. They were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures. From the late nineteenth century, the British colonial government in east Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. In pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. By the end of colonial rule the situation had reversed. Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves they could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas. Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds. The Serengeti National Park, for instance, was created over 14,760 km. of Maasai grazing land. Fig.14 Without grass, livestock (cattle, goats and sheep) are malnourished, which means less food available for families and their children. The areas hardest hit by drought and food shortage are in the vicinity of Amboseli National Park, which last year generated approximately 240 million Kenyan Shillings (estimated 3.5 million US) from tourism. In addition, the Kilimanjaro Water Project cuts through the communities of this area but the villagers are barred from using the water for irrigation or for livestock.Courtesy The Massai Association. 2019-2020 | [
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77 The Making of a Global World 4.4 End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of Globalisation Despite years of stable and rapid growth, not all was well in this post-war world. From the 1960s the rising costs of its overseas involvements weakened the USs finances and competitive strength. The US dollar now no longer commanded confidence as the worlds principal currency. It could not maintain its value in relation to gold. This eventually led to the collapse of the system of fixed exchange rates and the introduction of a system of floating exchange rates. From the mid-1970s the international financial system also changed in important ways. Earlier, developing countries could turn to international institutions for loans and development assistance. But now they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks and private lending institutions. This led to periodic debt crises in the developing world, and lower incomes and increased poverty, especially in Africa and Latin America. The industrial world was also hit by unemployment that began rising from the mid-1970s and remained high until the early 1990s. From the late 1970s MNCs also began to shift production operations to low-wage Asian countries. China had been cut off from the post-war world economy since its revolution in 1949. But new economic policies in China and the collapse of the Soviet Union and Soviet-style communism in Eastern Europe brought many countries back into the fold of the world economy. Wages were relatively low in countries like China. Thus they became attractive destinations for investment by foreign MNCs competing to capture world markets. Have you noticed that most of the TVs, mobile phones, and toys we see in the shops seem to be made in China? This is because of the low-cost structure of the Chinese economy, most importantly its low wages. The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world trade and capital flows. In the last two decades the worlds economic geography has been transformed as countries such as India, China and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation. New words Exchange rates They link national currencies for purposes of international trade. There are broadly two kinds of exchange rates fixed exchange rate and floating exchange rate Fixed exchange rates When exchange rates are fixed and governments intervene to prevent movements in them Flexible or floating exchange rates These rates fluctuate depending on demand and supply of currencies in foreign exchange markets, in principle without interference by governments 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 78 1.1 Silk Routes Link the World The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world. The name silk routes points to the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes along this route. Historians have identified several silk routes, over land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of Asia, and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa. They are known to have existed since before the Christian Era and thrived almost till the fifteenth century. But Chinese pottery also travelled the same route, as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia. In return, precious metals gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia. Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Early Christian missionaries almost certainly travelled this route to Asia, as did early Muslim preachers a few centuries later. Much before all this, Buddhism emerged from eastern India and spread in several directions through intersecting points on the silk routes. 1.2 Food Travels Spaghetti and Potato Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. Traders and travellers introduced new crops to the lands they travelled. Even ready foodstuff in distant parts of the world might share common origins. Take spaghetti and noodles. It is believed that noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti. Or, perhaps Arab traders took pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island now in Italy. Similar foods were also known in India and Japan, so the truth about their origins may never be known. Yet such guesswork suggests the possibilities of long-distance cultural contact even in the pre-modern world. Many of our common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to our ancestors until about five centuries ago. These foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered the vast continent that would later become known as the Americas. Fig. 3 Merchants from Venice and the Orient exchanging goods, from Marco Polo, Book of Marvels, fifteenth century. Fig. 2 Silk route trade as depicted in a Chinese cave painting, eighth century, Cave 217, Mogao Grottoes, Gansu, China. 2018-19 | [
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in about 625 districts of India. It is called Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (MGNREGA 2005). Under MGNREGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of, work in rural areas are guaranteed 100 days of employment in a year by the government. If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment allowances to the people. The types of work that would in future help to increase the production from land will be given preference under the Act. working as child labourers. If these children are to attend schools, we will require more buildings, more teachers and other staff. A study conducted by the erstwhile Planning Commission (now known as NITI Aayog) estimates that nearly 20 lakh jobs can be created in the education sector alone. Similarly, if we are to improve the health situation, we need many more doctors, nurses, health workers etc. to work in rural areas. These are some ways by which jobs would be created and we would also be able to address the important aspects of development talked about in Chapter 1. Every state or region has potential for increasing the income and employment for people in that area. It could be tourism, or regional craft industry, or new services like IT. Some of these would require proper planning and support from the government. For example, the same study by the Planning Commission says that if tourism as a sector is improved, every year we can give additional employment to more than 35 lakh people. We must realise that some of the suggestions discussed above would take a long time to implement. For the short-term, we need some quick measures. Recognising this, the central government in India made a law implementing the Right to Work 1. Why do you think MGNREGA 2005 is referred to as Right to work ? 2. Imagine that you are the village head. In that capacity suggest some activities that you think should be taken up under this Act that would also increase the income of people? Discuss. 3. How would income and employment increase if farmers were provided with irrigation and marketing facilities? 4. In what ways can employment be increased in urban areas? LETS WORK THESE OUT 2019-20 | [
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Sources of Energy The Sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy at the present rate for nearly 5 billion years and will continue radiating at that rate for about 5 billion years more. Only a small part of solar energy reaches the outer layer of the earths atmosphere. Nearly half of it is absorbed while passing through the atmosphere and the rest reaches the earths surface. India is lucky to receive solar energy for greater part of the year. It is estimated that during a year India receives the energy equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion kWh. Under clear (cloudless) sky conditions, the daily average varies from 4 to 7 kWhm2. The solar energy reaching unit area at outer edge of the earths atmosphere exposed perpendicularly to the rays of the Sun at the average distance between the Sun and earth is known as the solar constant. It is estimated to be approximately 1.4 kJ per second per square metre or 1.4 kWm2. Take two conical flasks and paint one white and the other black. Fill both with water. Place the conical flasks in direct sunlight for half an hour to one hour. Touch the conical flasks. Which one is hotter? You could also measure the temperature of the water in the two conical flasks with a thermometer. Can you think of ways in which this finding could be used in your daily life? A black surface absorbs more heat as compared to a white or a reflecting surface under identical conditions. Solar cookers (Fig. 14.6) and solar water heaters use this property in their working. Some solar cookers achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors to focus the rays of the Sun. Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate. Recall what we have learnt about the green-house effect. Does this explain why a glass plate is used? Study the structure and working of a solar cooker andor a solar water-heater, particularly with regard to how it is insulated and maximum heat absorption is ensured. Figure 14.6 Figure 14.6 Figure 14.6 Figure 14.6 Figure 14.6 A solar cooker 2019-20 | [
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Science What does 10H2O signify? Does it make Na2CO3 wet? We will address this question in the next section. Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate are useful chemicals for many industrial processes as well. Uses of washing soda (i) Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries. (ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax. (iii) Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes. (iv) It is used for removing permanent hardness of water. Heat a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry boiling tube. What is the colour of the copper sulphate after heating? Do you notice water droplets in the boiling tube? Where have these come from? Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample of copper sulphate obtained after heating. What do you observe? Is the blue colour of copper sulphate restored? Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.9 Removing water of crystallisation Copper sulphate crystals which seem to be dry contain water of crystallisation. When we heat the crystals, this water is removed and the salt turns white. If you moisten the crystals again with water, you will find that blue colour of the crystals reappears. Water of crystallisation is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt. Five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper sulphate. Chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is Cu SO4. 5H2O. Now you would be able to answer the question whether the molecule of Na2CO3.10H2O is wet. One other salt, which possesses water of crystallisation is gypsum. It has two water molecules as water of cyrstallisation. It has the chemical formula CaSO4.2H2O. Let us look into the use of this salt. Plaster of Paris On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate ( 4 2 1 CaSO . H O 2 ). This is called Plaster of 2019-20 | [
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88 MATHEMATICS EXERCISE 5.2 1. How would you rewrite Euclids fifth postulate so that it would be easier to understand? 2. Does Euclids fifth postulate imply the existence of parallel lines? Explain. 5.4 Summary In this chapter, you have studied the following points 1. Though Euclid defined a point, a line, and a plane, the definitions are not accepted by mathematicians. Therefore, these terms are now taken as undefined. 2. Axioms or postulates are the assumptions which are obvious universal truths. They are not proved. 3. Theorems are statements which are proved, using definitions, axioms, previously proved statements and deductive reasoning. 4. Some of Euclids axioms were (1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another. (2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal. (3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. (4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another. (5) The whole is greater than the part. (6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another. (7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another. 5. Euclids postulates were Postulate 1 A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point. Postulate 2 A terminated line can be produced indefinitely. Postulate 3 A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius. Postulate 4 All right angles are equal to one another. Postulate 5 If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of angles is less than two right angles. 6. Two equivalent versions of Euclids fifth postulate are (i) For every line l and for every point P not lying on l, there exists a unique line m passing through P and parallel to l. (ii) Two distinct intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line. 7. All the attempts to prove Euclids fifth postulate using the first 4 postulates failed. But they led to the discovery of several other geometries, called non-Euclidean geometries. 2019-2020 | [
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208 MATHEMATICS Activity 2 On a paper, draw a circle and a secant PQ of the circle. Draw various lines parallel to the secant on both sides of it. You will find that after some steps, the length of the chord cut by the lines will gradually decrease, i.e., the two points of intersection of the line and the circle are coming closer and closer see Fig. 10.3(ii). In one case, it becomes zero on one side of the secant and in another case, it becomes zero on the other side of the secant. See the positions PQ and PQ of the secant in Fig. 10.3 (ii). These are the tangents to the circle parallel to the given secant PQ. This also helps you to see that there cannot be more than two tangents parallel to a given secant. This activity also establishes, what you must have observed, while doing Activity 1, namely, a tangent is the secant when both of the end points of the corresponding chord coincide. The common point of the tangent and the circle is called the point of contact the point A in Fig. 10.1 (iii)and the tangent is said to touch the circle at the common point. Now look around you. Have you seen a bicycle or a cart moving? Look at its wheels. All the spokes of a wheel are along its radii. Now note the position of the wheel with respect to its movement on the ground. Do you see any tangent anywhere? (See Fig. 10.4). In fact, the wheel moves along a line which is a tangent to the circle representing the wheel. Also, notice that in all positions, the radius through the point of contact with the ground appears to be at right angles to the tangent (see Fig. 10.4). We shall now prove this property of the tangent. Theorem 10.1 The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact. Proof We are given a circle with centre O and a tangent XY to the circle at a point P. We need to prove that OP is perpendicular to XY. Fig. 10.4 Fig. 10.3 (ii) 2019-20 | [
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MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 343 3. A T.V. can be purchased for 24000 cash or for 8000 cashdown payment and six monthly instalments of 2800 each. Ali goes to market to buy a T.V., and he has 8000 with him. He has now two options. One is to buy TV under instalment scheme or to make cash payment by taking loan from some financial society. The society charges simple interest at the rate of 18 per annum simple interest. Which option is better for Ali? A2.4 Why is Mathematical Modelling Important? As we have seen in the examples, mathematical modelling is an interdisciplinary subject. Mathematicians and specialists in other fields share their knowledge and expertise to improve existing products, develop better ones, or predict the behaviour of certain products. There are, of course, many specific reasons for the importance of modelling, but most are related in some ways to the following To gain understanding. If we have a mathematical model which reflects the essential behaviour of a real-world system of interest, we can understand that system better through an analysis of the model. Furthermore, in the process of building the model we find out which factors are most important in the system, and how the different aspects of the system are related. To predict, or forecast, or simulate. Very often, we wish to know what a real- world system will do in the future, but it is expensive, impractical or impossible to experiment directly with the system. For example, in weather prediction, to study drug efficacy in humans, finding an optimum design of a nuclear reactor, and so on. Forecasting is very important in many types of organisations, since predictions of future events have to be incorporated into the decision-making process. For example In marketing departments, reliable forecasts of demand help in planning of the sale strategies. A school board needs to able to forecast the increase in the number of school going children in various districts so as to decide where and when to start new schools. Most often, forecasters use the past data to predict the future. They first analyse the data in order to identify a pattern that can describe it. Then this data and pattern is extended into the future in order to prepare a forecast. This basic strategy is employed in most forecasting techniques, and is based on the assumption that the pattern that has been identified will continue in the future also. 2019-20 | [
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268 MATHEMATICS Example 15 Consider a small unit of a factory where there are 5 employees a supervisor and four labourers. The labourers draw a salary of 5,000 per month each while the supervisor gets 15,000 per month. Calculate the mean, median and mode of the salaries of this unit of the factory. Solution Mean 5000 5000 5000 5000 15000 5 35000 5 7000 So, the mean salary is 7000 per month. To obtain the median, we arrange the salaries in ascending order 5000, 5000, 5000, 5000, 15000 Since the number of employees in the factory is 5, the median is given by the 5 1 2 6 2 th th 3rd observation. Therefore, the median is 5000 per month. To find the mode of the salaries, i.e., the modal salary, we see that 5000 occurs the maximum number of times in the data 5000, 5000, 5000, 5000, 15000. So, the modal salary is 5000 per month. Now compare the three measures of central tendency for the given data in the example above. You can see that the mean salary of 7000 does not give even an approximate estimate of any one of their wages, while the medial and modal salaries of 5000 represents the data more effectively. Extreme values in the data affect the mean. This is one of the weaknesses of the mean. So, if the data has a few points which are very far from most of the other points, (like 1,7,8,9,9) then the mean is not a good representative of this data. Since the median and mode are not affected by extreme values present in the data, they give a better estimate of the average in such a situation. Again let us go back to the situation of Hari and Mary, and compare the three measures of central tendency. Measures Hari Mary of central tendency Mean 8.2 8.4 Median 10 8 Mode 10 8 This comparison helps us in stating that these measures of central tendency are not sufficient for concluding which student is better. We require some more information to conclude this, which you will study about in the higher classes. 2019-2020 | [
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Periodic Classification of Elements You will see that the atomic size increases down the group. This is because new shells are being added as we go down the group. This increases the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus so that the atomic size increases in spite of the increase in nuclear charge. Metallic and Non-metallic Properties Study the variation in the atomic radii of first group elements given below and arrange them in an increasing order. Group 1 Elements Na Li Rb Cs K Atomic Radius (pm) 186 152 244 262 231 Name the elements which have the smallest and the largest atoms. How does the atomic size vary as you go down a group? Examine elements of the third period and classify them as metals and non-metals. On which side of the Periodic Table do you find the metals? On which side of the Periodic Table do you find the non-metals? As we can see, the metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-hand side of the Periodic Table while the non-metals like sulphur and chlorine are found on the right-hand side. In the middle, we have silicon, which is classified as a semi-metal or metalloid because it exhibits some properties of both metals and non-metals. In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals. The borderline elements boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium are intermediate in properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals. As you have seen in Chapter 3, metals tend to lose electrons while forming bonds, that is, they are electropositive in nature. You will see that the atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period. This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of the atom. How do you think the tendency to lose electrons changes in a group? How will this tendency change in a period? As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period, the tendency to lose electrons will decrease. Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence 2019-20 | [
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129 Work, Life and Leisure Fig. 1 The growth of London, a map showing its population in four different eras. New words Philanthropist Someone who works for social upliftment and charity, donating time and money for the purpose The city of London was a powerful magnet for migrant populations, even though it did not have large factories. Nineteenth century London, says the historian Gareth Stedman Jones, was a city of clerks and shopkeepers, of small masters and skilled artisans, of a growing number of semi skilled and sweated outworkers, of soldiers and servants, of casual labourers, street sellers, and beggars. Apart from the London dockyards, five major types of industries employed large numbers clothing and footwear, wood and furniture, metals and engineering, printing and stationery, and precision products such as surgical instruments, watches, and objects of precious metal. During the First World War (1914-18) London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods, and the number of large factories increased until they accounted for nearly one-third of all jobs in the city. 1.2 Marginal Groups As London grew, crime flourished. We are told that 20,000 criminals were living in London in the 1870s. We know a great deal about criminal activities in this period, for crime became an object of widespread concern. The police were worried about law and order, philanthropists were anxious about public morality, and industrialists wanted a hard-working and orderly labour force. So the population of criminals was counted, their activities were watched, and their ways of life were investigated. In the mid-nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew wrote several volumes on the London labour, and compiled long lists of those who made a living from crime. Many of whom he listed as criminals were in fact poor people who lived by stealing lead from roofs, food from shops, lumps of coal, and clothes drying on hedges. There were others who were more skilled at their trade, expert at their jobs. They were the cheats and tricksters, pickpockets and petty thieves crowding the streets of London. In an attempt to discipline the population, the authorities imposed high penalties for crime and offered work to those who were considered the deserving poor. Factories employed large numbers of women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. With technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs, and were forced to work within households. The 1861 census recorded a quarter of a million domestic servants in London, of whom the vast majority were 1784 1862 1914 1980 River Thames Population 2018-19 | [
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Science Magnification The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as the ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object. Magnification is represented by the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h is the height of the image given by a lens, then the magnification produced by the lens is given by, m Height of the Image Height of the object h h (10.9) Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the image-distance v. This relationship is given by Magnification (m ) hh vu (10.10) Example 10.3 A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At what distance should the object from the lens be placed so that it forms an image at 10 cm from the lens? Also, find the magnification produced by the lens. Solution A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect image on the same side of the object. Image-distance v 10 cm Focal length f 15 cm Object-distance u ? Since 1 1 1 v u f or, 1 1 1 u v f ( ) 1 1 1 1 1 10 15 10 15 u 1 3 2 1 30 30 u or, u 30 cm Thus, the object-distance is 30 cm. Magnification m vu m 10cm 30cm 1 3 0.33 The positive sign shows that the image is erect and virtual. The image is one-third of the size of the object. Example 10.4 A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 15 cm. Find the nature, position and size of the image. Also find its magnification. 2019-20 | [
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SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 245 7. A tent is in the shape of a cylinder surmounted by a conical top. If the height and diameter of the cylindrical part are 2.1 m and 4 m respectively, and the slant height of the top is 2.8 m, find the area of the canvas used for making the tent. Also, find the cost of the canvas of the tent at the rate of 500 per m2. (Note that the base of the tent will not be covered with canvas.) 8. From a solid cylinder whose height is 2.4 cm and diameter 1.4 cm, a conical cavity of the same height and same diameter is hollowed out. Find the total surface area of the remaining solid to the nearest cm2. 9. A wooden article was made by scooping out a hemisphere from each end of a solid cylinder, as shown in Fig. 13.11. If the height of the cylinder is 10 cm, and its base is of radius 3.5 cm, find the total surface area of the article. 13.3 Volume of a Combination of Solids In the previous section, we have discussed how to find the surface area of solids made up of a combination of two basic solids. Here, we shall see how to calculate their volumes. It may be noted that in calculating the surface area, we have not added the surface areas of the two constituents, because some part of the surface area disappeared in the process of joining them. However, this will not be the case when we calculate the volume. The volume of the solid formed by joining two basic solids will actually be the sum of the volumes of the constituents, as we see in the examples below. Example 5 Shanta runs an industry in a shed which is in the shape of a cuboid surmounted by a half cylinder (see Fig. 13.12). If the base of the shed is of dimension 7 m 15 m, and the height of the cuboidal portion is 8 m, find the volume of air that the shed can hold. Further, suppose the machinery in the shed occupies a total space of 300 m3, and there are 20 workers, each of whom occupy about 0.08 m3 space on an average. Then, how much air is in the shed? (Take 22 7 ) Fig. 13.12 Fig. 13.11 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 10 2.1 France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. Fig. 7 explains how the new political system worked. The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourers wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers. Fig.7 The Political sytstem under the Constitution of 1791. Judiciary Executive Legislature Judge King National Assembly (745 members) Electors (50,000 men) Ministers Active citizens entitled to vote. About 4 million of a population of 28 million Passive citizens no voting rights. About 3 million men Women, children and youth below 25. V O T E VOTE VOTE VETO CONTROL CONTROL 2019-2020 | [
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189 Novels, Society and History their own cultural identity. The world of colonial modernity seems to be both frightening and irresistible to the characters. The novel tries to teach the reader the right way to live and expects all sensible men to be worldly-wise and practical, to remain rooted in the values of their own tradition and culture, and to live with dignity and honour. In the novel we see the characters attempting to bridge two different worlds through their actions they take to new agricultural technology, modernise trading practices, change the use of Indian languages, making them capable of transmitting both Western sciences and Indian wisdom. The young are urged to cultivate the healthy habit of reading the newspapers. But the novel emphasises that all this must be achieved without sacrificing the traditional values of the middle-class household. With all its good intentions, Pariksha- Guru could not win many readers, as it was perhaps too moralising in its style. The writings of Devaki Nandan Khatri created a novel-reading public in Hindi. His best-seller, Chandrakanta a romance with dazzling elements of fantasy is believed to have contributed immensely in popularising the Hindi language and the Nagari script among the educated classes of those times. Although it was apparently written purely for the pleasure of reading, this novel also gives some interesting insights into the fears and desires of its reading public. It was with the writing of Premchand that the Hindi novel achieved excellence. He began writing in Urdu and then shifted to Hindi, remaining an immensely influential writer in both languages. He drew on the traditional art of kissa-goi (storytelling). Many critics think that his novel Sewasadan (The Abode of Service), published in 1916, lifted the Hindi novel from the realm of fantasy, moralising and simple entertainment to a serious reflection on the lives of ordinary people and social issues. Sewasadan deals mainly with the poor condition of women in society. Issues like child marriage and dowry are woven into the story of the novel. It also tells us about the ways in which the Indian upper classes used whatever little opportunities they got from colonial authorities to govern themselves. 2.3 Novels in Bengal In the nineteenth century, the early Bengali novels lived in two worlds. Many of these novels were located in the past, their characters, events Write about two important characteristics of the early Hindi novel. Discuss He was a doyen of modern Assamese literature. Burhi Aair Sadhu (Grandmas Tales) is among his notable works. He penned the popular song of Assam, O Mor Apunar Desh (O my beloved land). Fig. 16a Lakshminath Bezbaruah (18681938) The novel in Assam The first novels in Assam were written by missionaries. Two of them were translations of Bengali including Phulmoni and Karuna. In 1888, Assamese students in Kolkata formed the Asamya Bhasar Unnatisadhan that brought out a journal called Jonaki. This journal opened up the opportunities for new authors to develop the novel. Rajanikanta Bardoloi wrote the first major historical novel in Assam called Manomati (1900). It is set in the Burmese invasion, stories of which the author had probably heard from old soldiers who had fought in the 1819 campaign. It is a tale of two lovers belonging to two hostile families who are separated by the war and finally reunited. Box 4 2018-19 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 38 3 Towards Civil Disobedience In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He felt the movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before they would be ready for mass struggles. Within the Congress, some leaders were by now tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils that had been set up by the Government of India Act of 1919. They felt that it was important to oppose British policies within the councils, argue for reform and also demonstrate that these councils were not truly democratic. C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics. But younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full independence. In such a situation of internal debate and dissension two factors again shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s. The first was the effect of the worldwide economic depression. Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930. As the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue. By 1930, the countryside was in turmoil. Against this background the new Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. Set up in response to the nationalist movement, the commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. The problem was that the commission did not have a single Indian member. They were all British. When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan Go back Simon. All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations. In an effort to win them over, the viceroy, Lord Irwin, announced in October 1929, a vague offer of dominion status for India in an unspecified future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution. This did not satisfy the Congress leaders. The radicals within the Congress, led by Fig. 6 Meeting of Congress leaders at Allahabad, 1931. Apart from Mahatma Gandhi, you can see Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (extreme left), Jawaharlal Nehru (extreme right) and Subhas Chandra Bose (fifth from right). Lala Lajpat Rai was assaulted by the British police during a peaceful demonstration against the Simon Commission. He succumbed to injuries that were inflicted on him during the demonstration. 2019-20 | [
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5 Nationalism in Europe 1 The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation. The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe to become nations. When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad. Fig. 2 The cover of a German almanac designed by the journalist Andreas Rebmann in 1798. The image of the French Bastille being stormed by the revolutionary crowd has been placed next to a similar fortress meant to represent the bastion of despotic rule in the German province of Kassel. Accompanying the illustration is the slogan The people must seize their own freedom! Rebmann lived in the city of Mainz and was a member of a German Jacobin group. 2019-20 | [
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276 MATHEMATICS 4. The following distribution gives the state-wise teacher-student ratio in higher secondary schools of India. Find the mode and mean of this data. Interpret the two measures. Number of students per teacher Number of states U.T. 15 - 20 3 20 - 25 8 25 - 30 9 30 - 35 10 35 - 40 3 40 - 45 0 45 - 50 0 50 - 55 2 5. The given distribution shows the number of runs scored by some top batsmen of the world in one-day international cricket matches. Runs scored Number of batsmen 3000 - 4000 4 4000 - 5000 18 5000 - 6000 9 6000 - 7000 7 7000 - 8000 6 8000 - 9000 3 9000 - 10000 1 10000 - 11000 1 Find the mode of the data. 6. A student noted the number of cars passing through a spot on a road for 100 periods each of 3 minutes and summarised it in the table given below. Find the mode of the data Number of cars 0 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 80 Frequency 7 14 13 12 20 11 15 8 2019-20 | [
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SCIENCE 134 From Eq. (10.4), the force exerted by the earth on the moon is G 2 M m F d 11 2 -2 24 22 8 2 6.7 10 N m kg 6 10 kg 7.4 10 kg (3.84 10 m) 2.02 1020 N. Thus, the force exerted by the earth on the moon is 2.02 1020 N. uestions 1. State the universal law of gravitation. 2. Write the formula to find the magnitude of the gravitational force between the earth and an object on the surface of the earth. 10.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to be unconnected (i) the force that binds us to the earth (ii) the motion of the moon around the earth (iii) the motion of planets around the Sun and (iv) the tides due to the moon and the Sun. 10.2 Free Fall Let us try to understand the meaning of free fall by performing this activity. Activity 10.2 Take a stone. Throw it upwards. It reaches a certain height and then it starts falling down. We have learnt that the earth attracts objects towards it. This is due to the gravitational force. Whenever objects fall towards the earth under this force alone, we say that the objects are in free fall. Is there any or 2 G F d M m (10.5) The SI unit of G can be obtained by substituting the units of force, distance and mass in Eq. (10.5) as N m2 kg2. The value of G was found out by Henry Cavendish (1731 1810) by using a sensitive balance. The accepted value of G is 6.673 1011 N m2 kg2. We know that there exists a force of attraction between any two objects. Compute the value of this force between you and your friend sitting closeby. Conclude how you do not experience this force! The law is universal in the sense that it is applicable to all bodies, whether the bodies are big or small, whether they are celestial or terrestrial. Inverse-square Saying that F is inversely proportional to the square of d means, for example, that if d gets bigger by a factor of 6, F becomes 1 36 times smaller. Example 10.1 The mass of the earth is 6 1024 kg and that of the moon is 7.4 1022 kg. If the distance between the earth and the moon is 3.84105 km, calculate the force exerted by the earth on the moon. (Take G 6.7 1011 N m2 kg-2) Solution The mass of the earth, M 6 1024 kg The mass of the moon, m 7.4 1022 kg The distance between the earth and the moon, d 3.84 105 km 3.84 105 1000 m 3.84 108 m G 6.7 1011 N m2 kg2 More to know Q 2019-2020 | [
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Popular Struggles and Movements 61 Does it mean that whichever side manages to mobilise a bigger crowd gets away with whatever it wants? Are we saying that Might is Right in a democracy? it is possible that the conflict is resolved by using the existing institutions like the parliament or the judiciary. But when there is a deep dispute, very often these institutions themselves get involved in the dispute. The resolution has to come from outside, from the people. l These conflicts and mobilisations are based on new political organisations. True, there is an element of spontaneity in all such historic moments. But the spontaneous public participation becomes effective with the help of organised politics. There can be many agencies of organised politics. These include political parties, pressure groups and movement groups. In 1984, the Karnataka government set up a company called Karnataka Pulpwood Limited. About 30,000 hectares of land was given virtually free to this company for 40 years. Much of this land was used by local farmers as grazing land for their cattle. However the company began to plant eucalyptus trees on this land, which could be used for making paper pulp. In 1987, a movement called Kittiko-Hachchiko (meaning, pluck and plant) started a non-violent protest, where people plucked the eucalyptus plants and planted saplings of trees that were useful to the people. Suppose you belong to any of the following groups, what arguments would you put forward to defend your side a local farmer, an environmental activist, a government official working in this company or just a consumer of paper. Mobilisation and organisations Let us go back to our two examples and look at the organisations that made these struggles successful. We noted that the call for indefinite strike was given by the SPA or the Seven Party Alliance in Nepal. This alliance included some big parties that had some members in the Parliament. But the SPA was not the only organisation behind this mass upsurge. The protest was joined by the Nepalese Communist Party (Maoist) which did not believe in parliamentary democracy. This party was involved in an armed struggle against the Nepali government and had established its control over large parts of Nepal. The struggle involved many organisations other than political parties. All the major labour unions and their federations joined this movement. Many other organisations like the organisation of the indigenous people, teachers, lawyers and human rights groups extended support to the movement. 2018-19 | [
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PROBABILITY 297 For another example of equally likely outcomes, suppose we throw a die once. For us, a die will always mean a fair die. What are the possible outcomes? They are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Each number has the same possibility of showing up. So the equally likely outcomes of throwing a die are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Are the outcomes of every experiment equally likely? Let us see. Suppose that a bag contains 4 red balls and 1 blue ball, and you draw a ball without looking into the bag. What are the outcomes? Are the outcomes a red ball and a blue ball equally likely? Since there are 4 red balls and only one blue ball, you would agree that you are more likely to get a red ball than a blue ball. So, the outcomes (a red ball or a blue ball) are not equally likely. However, the outcome of drawing a ball of any colour from the bag is equally likely. So, all experiments do not necessarily have equally likely outcomes. However, in this chapter, from now on, we will assume that all the experiments have equally likely outcomes. In Class IX, we defined the experimental or empirical probability P(E) of an event E as P(E) Number of trials in which the event happened Total number of trials The empirical interpretation of probability can be applied to every event associated with an experiment which can be repeated a large number of times. The requirement of repeating an experiment has some limitations, as it may be very expensive or unfeasible in many situations. Of course, it worked well in coin tossing or die throwing experiments. But how about repeating the experiment of launching a satellite in order to compute the empirical probability of its failure during launching, or the repetition of the phenomenon of an earthquake to compute the empirical probability of a multi- storeyed building getting destroyed in an earthquake? In experiments where we are prepared to make certain assumptions, the repetition of an experiment can be avoided, as the assumptions help in directly calculating the exact (theoretical) probability. The assumption of equally likely outcomes (which is valid in many experiments, as in the two examples above, of a coin and of a die) is one such assumption that leads us to the following definition of probability of an event. The theoretical probability (also called classical probability) of an event E, written as P(E), is defined as P(E) Number of outcomes favourable to E Number of all possible outcomes of the experiment , 2019-20 | [
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T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n 17 Fig.11 The revolutionary government sought to mobilise the loyalty of its subjects through various means one of them was the staging of festivals like this one. Symbols from civilisations of ancient Greece and Rome were used to convey the aura of a hallowed history. The pavilion on the raised platform in the middle carried by classical columns was made of perishable material that could be dismantled. Describe the groups of people, their clothes, their roles and actions. What impression of a revolutionary festival does this image convey? 3.2 A Directory Rules France The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society. It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins. However, the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. Through all these changes in the form of government, the ideals of freedom, of equality before the law and of fraternity remained inspiring ideals that motivated political movements in France and the rest of Europe during the following century. 2019-2020 | [
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Isnt it surprising that a small country in our neighbourhood, Sri Lanka, is much ahead of India in every respect and a big country like ours has such a low rank in the world? Table 1.6 also shows that though Nepal and Bangladesh have low per capita income than that of India, yet they are better than India in life expectancy. Many improvements have been suggested in calculating HDI and Suppose for the present that a particular country is quite developed. We would certainly like this level of development to go up further or at least be maintained for future generations. This is obviously desirable. However, since the second half of the twentieth century, a number of scientists have been warning that the present type, and levels, of development are not sustainable. Recent evidence suggests that the groundwater is under serious threat of overuse in many parts of the country. About 300 districts have reported a water level decline of over 4 metres during the past 20 years. Nearly one-third of the country is overusing their groundwater reserves. In another 25 years, 60 per cent of the country would be doing the same if the present way of using this resource continues. Groundwater overuse is particularly found in the agriculturally prosperous regions of Punjab and Western U.P., hard rock plateau areas of central and south India, some coastal areas and the rapidly growing urban settlements. (a) Why ground water is overused? (b) Can there be development without overuse? many new components have been added to the Human Development Report but, by pre-fixing Human to Development, it has made it very clear that what is important in development is what is happening to citizens of a country. It is people, their health, their well being, that is most important. Do you think there are certain other aspects that should be considered in measuring human development? We have not inherited the world from our forefathers we have borrowed it from our children. 2019-20 | [
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Periodic Classification of Elements As we can see, the Modern Periodic Table takes care of three limitations of Mendlevs Periodic Table. The anomalous position of hydrogen can be discussed after we see what are the bases on which the position of an element in the Modern Periodic Table depends. The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as groups and 7 horizontal rows known as periods. Let us see what decides the placing of an element in a certain group and period. Look at the group 1 of the Modern Periodic Table, and name the elements present in it. Write down the electronic configuration of the first three elements of group 1. What similarity do you find in their electronic configurations? How many valence electrons are present in these three elements? If you look at the Modern Periodic Table (5.6), you will find that the elements Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne are present in the second period. Write down their electronic configurations. Do these elements also contain the same number of valence electrons? Do they contain the same number of shells? You will find that all these elements contain the same number of valence electrons. Similarly, you will find that the elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons. For example, elements fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), belong to group 17, how many electrons do fluorine and chlorine have in their outermost shells? Hence, we can say that groups in the Periodic Table signify an identical outer- shell electronic configuration. On the other hand, the number of shells increases as we go down the group. There is an anomaly when it comes to the position of hydrogen because it can be placed either in group 1 or group 17 in the first period. Can you say why? You will find that these elements of second period do not have the same number of valence electrons, but they contain the same number of shells. You also observe that the number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit, as the atomic number increases by one unit on moving from left to right in a period. Or we can say that atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied shells are placed in the same period. Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar belong to the third period of the Modern Periodic Table, since the electrons in the atoms of these elements are filled in K, L and M shells. Write the electronic configuration of these elements and confirm the above statement. Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled. 2019-20 | [
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Carbon and its Compounds unit? Do you see any relation between the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in these compounds? The general formula for alkenes can be written as CnH2n, where n 2, 3, 4. Can you similarly generate the general formula for alkanes and alkynes? As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical properties is seen. This is because the melting and boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass. Other physical properties such as solubility in a particular solvent also show a similar gradation. But the chemical properties, which are determined solely by the functional group, remain similar in a homologous series. The names of compounds in a homologous series are based on the name of the basic carbon chain modified by a prefix phrase before or suffix phrase after indicating the nature of the functional group. For example, the names of the alcohols taken in Activity 4.2 are methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol. Naming a carbon compound can be done by the following method (i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound. A compound having three carbon atoms would have the name propane. (ii) In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the compound with either a prefix or a suffix (as given in Table 4.4). (iii) If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, and the suffix of the functional group begins with a vowel a, e, i, o, u, then the name of the carbon chain is modified by deleting the final e and adding the appropriate suffix. For example, a three-carbon chain with a ketone group would be named in the following manner Propane e propan one propanone. (iv) If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ane in the name of the carbon chain is substituted by ene or yne as given in Table 4.4. For example, a three-carbon chain with a double bond would be called propene and if it has a triple bond, it would be called propyne. Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses for (a) CH3OH and C2H5OH (b) C2H5OH and C3H7OH, and (c) C3H7OH and C4H9OH. Is there any similarity in these three? Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to get a family. Can we call this family a homologous series? Generate the homologous series for compounds containing up to four carbons for the other functional groups given in Table 4.3. 2019-20 | [
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SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 213 EXERCISE 13.1 1. A plastic box 1.5 m long, 1.25 m wide and 65 cm deep is to be made. It is opened at the top. Ignoring the thickness of the plastic sheet, determine (i) The area of the sheet required for making the box. (ii) The cost of sheet for it, if a sheet measuring 1m2 costs 20. 2. The length, breadth and height of a room are 5 m, 4 m and 3 m respectively. Find the cost of white washing the walls of the room and the ceiling at the rate of 7.50 per m2. 3. The floor of a rectangular hall has a perimeter 250 m. If the cost of painting the four walls at the rate of 10 per m2 is 15000, find the height of the hall. Hint Area of the four walls Lateral surface area. 4. The paint in a certain container is sufficient to paint an area equal to 9.375 m2. How many bricks of dimensions 22.5 cm 10 cm 7.5 cm can be painted out of this container? 5. A cubical box has each edge 10 cm and another cuboidal box is 12.5 cm long, 10 cm wide and 8 cm high. (i) Which box has the greater lateral surface area and by how much? (ii) Which box has the smaller total surface area and by how much? 6. A small indoor greenhouse (herbarium) is made entirely of glass panes (including base) held together with tape. It is 30 cm long, 25 cm wide and 25 cm high. (i) What is the area of the glass? (ii) How much of tape is needed for all the 12 edges? 7. Shanti Sweets Stall was placing an order for making cardboard boxes for packing their sweets. Two sizes of boxes were required. The bigger of dimensions 25 cm 20 cm 5 cm and the smaller of dimensions 15 cm 12 cm 5 cm. For all the overlaps, 5 of the total surface area is required extra. If the cost of the cardboard is 4 for 1000 cm2, find the cost of cardboard required for supplying 250 boxes of each kind. 8. Parveen wanted to make a temporary shelter for her car, by making a box-like structure with tarpaulin that covers all the four sides and the top of the car (with the front face as a flap which can be rolled up). Assuming that the stitching margins are very small, and therefore negligible, how much tarpaulin would be required to make the shelter of height 2.5 m, with base dimensions 4 m 3 m? 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 114 To administer the affairs of the Maasai, the British introduced a series of measures that had important implications. They appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai, who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. Consequently, the traditional authority of both elders and warriors was adversely affected. The chiefs appointed by the colonial government often accumulated wealth over time. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods and land. They lent money to poor neighbours who needed cash to pay taxes. Many of them began living in towns, and became involved in trade. Their wives and children stayed back in the villages to look after the animals. These chiefs managed to survive the devastations of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non-pastoral income, and could buy animals when their stock was depleted. But the life history of the poor pastoralists who depended only on their livestock was different. Most often, they did not have the resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famine, they lost nearly everything. They had to go looking for work in the towns. Some eked out a living as charcoal burners, others did odd jobs. The lucky could get more regular work in road or building construction. The social changes in Maasai society occurred at two levels. First, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders Fig.17 - Even today, young men go through an elaborate ritual before they become warriors, although actually it is no longer common. They must travel throughout the sections region for about four months, ending with an event where they run to the homestead and enter with an attitude of a raider. During the ceremony, boys dress in loose clothing and dance non-stop throughout the day. This ceremony is the transition into a new age. Girls are not required to go through such a ritual. Courtesy The Massai Association. 2019-2020 | [
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Nazism and the Rise of Hitler 65 Jews from Jewish houses, concentration camps and ghettos from different parts of Europe were brought to death factories by goods trains. In Poland and elsewhere in the east, most notably Belzek, Auschwitz, Sobibor, Treblinka, Chelmno and Majdanek, they were charred in gas chambers. Mass killings took place within minutes with scientific precision. Fig.18 Killed while trying to escape. The concentration camps were enclosed with live wires. Fig.19 Piles of clothes outside the gas chamber. Fig.21 A concentration camp. A camera can make a death camp look beautiful. Stage 3 Annihilation 1941 onwards YOU HAVE NO RIGHT TO LIVE Fig.22 Shoes taken away from prisoners before the Final Solution. Fig.20 A Concentration Camp. 2019-2020 | [
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Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s 81 Leninism. Supports socialism, secularism and democracy and opposes imperialism and communalism. Accepts democratic elections as a useful and helpful means for securing the objective of socio- economic justice in India. Enjoys strong support in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially among the poor, factory workers, farmers, agricultural labourers and the intelligentsia. Critical of the new economic policies that allow free flow of foreign capital and goods into the country. Was in power in West Bengal without a break for 34 years. In the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, it won about 3 per cent of votes and 9 seats. Indian National Congress (INC) Popularly known as the Congress Party. One of the oldest parties of the world. Founded in 1885 and has experienced many splits. Played a dominant role in Indian politics at the national and state level for several decades after Indias Independence. Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the party sought to build a modern secular democratic republic in India. Ruling party at the centre till 1977 and then from 1980 to 1989. After 1989, its support declined, but it continues to be present throughout the country, cutting across social divisions. A centrist party (neither rightist nor leftist) in its ideological orientation, the party espouses secularism and welfare of weaker sections and minorities. Supports new economic reforms but with a human face. Leader of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government from 2004 to 2014. Currently it is the principal opposition party in the Lok Sabha. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party. Espouses democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism. Wants that high offices in government be confined to natural born citizens of the country. A major party in Maharashtra and has a significant presence in Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam. A coalition partner in the state of Maharashtra in alliance with the Congress. Since 2004, a member of the United Progressive Alliance. State parties Other than these seven parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the Election Commission as State parties. These are commonly referred to as regional parties. Yet these parties need not be regional in their ideology or outlook. Some of these parties are all India parties that happen to have succeeded only in some states. Parties like the Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have national level political organi- sation with units in several states. Some of these parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front, Mizo National Front and Telangana Rashtra Samithi are conscious about their State identity. Over the last three decades, the number and strength of these parties has expanded. This made the Parliament of India politically more and more diverse. No one national party is able to secure on its own a majority in the Lok Sabha, until 2014. As a result, the national parties are compelled to form alliances with State parties. Since 1996, nearly every one of the State parties has got an opportunity to be a part of one or the other national level coalition government. This has contributed to the strengthening of federalism and democracy in our country. (See the map on the next page for details of these parties). 2018-19 | [
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] |
SCIENCE 10 What happens when you pour some acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm? The particles gain energy from your palm or surroundings and evaporate causing the palm to feel cool. After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because the large latent heat of vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface. Can you cite some more examples from daily life where we can feel the effect of cooling due to evaporation? Why should we wear cotton clothes in summer? During summer, we perspire more because of the mechanism of our body which keeps us cool. We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the surroundings or body surface and change into vapour. The heat energy equal to the latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed from the body leaving the body cool. Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation. Why do we see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water? Let us take some ice-cold water in a tumbler. Soon we will see water droplets on the outer surface of the tumbler. The water vapour present in air, on coming in contact with the cold glass of water, loses energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets. uestions 1. Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day? 2. How does the water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summer? 3. Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on it? 4. Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup? 5. What type of clothes should we wear in summer? More to know Now scientists are talking of five states of matter Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma and Bose- Einstein Condensate. Plasma The state consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of ionised gases. The fluorescent tube and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma. Inside a neon sign bulb there is neon gas and inside a fluorescent tube there is helium gas or some other gas. The gas gets ionised, that is, gets charged when electrical energy flows through it. This charging up creates a plasma glowing inside the tube or bulb. The plasma glows with a special colour depending on the nature of gas. The Sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature. Bose-Einstein Condensate In 1920, Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had done some calculations for a fifth state of matter. Building on his calculations, Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter the Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC). In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the Nobel prize in physics for achieving Bose-Einstein condensation. The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures. You can log on to www.chem4kids.com to get more information on these fourth and fifth states of matter. Q S.N. Bose (1894-1974) Albert Einstein (1879-1955) 2019-2020 | [
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CLIMATE 27 Why most of the worlds deserts are located in the western margins of continents in the subtropics? Finally, relief too plays a major role in determining the climate of a place. High mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of mountains remains relatively dry. FACTORS AFFECTING INDIAS CLIMATE Latitude The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the west to Mizoram in the east. Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics. Therefore, Indias climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates. Altitude India has mountains to the north, which have an average height of about 6,000 metres. India also has a vast coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30 metres. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia. Pressure and Winds The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by the following atmospheric conditions Pressure and surface winds Upper air circulation and Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones. India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern coast gets a large portion of its rain during October and November. In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions. Seasonal contrasts are more in the interior of the country. There is decrease in rainfall generally from east to west in the Northern Plains. These variations have given rise to variety in lives of people in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear and also the kind of houses they live in. Why the houses in Rajasthan have thick walls and flat roofs? Why is it that the houses in the Tarai region and in Goa and Mangalore have sloping roofs? Why houses in Assam are built on stilts? CLIMATIC CONTROLS There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features. Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles. As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers. The pressure and wind system of any area depend on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern. The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the people experience extreme weather conditions. This condition is known as continentality (i.e. very hot during summers and very cold during winters). Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas, For example, any coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it, will be warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore. 2019-20 | [
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Science The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and disposal of spent or used fuels the uranium still decaying into harmful subatomic particles (radiations). Improper nuclear-waste storage and disposal result in environmental contamination. Further, there is a risk of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation. The high cost of installation of a nuclear power plant, high risk of environmental contamination and limited availability of uranium makes large-scale use of nuclear energy prohibitive. Nuclear energy was first used for destructive purposes before nuclear power stations were designed. The fundamental physics of the fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon is similar to the physics of a controlled nuclear reactor, but the two types of device are engineered quite differently. Discuss in class the question of what is the ultimate source of energy for bio-mass, wind and ocean thermal energy. Is geothermal energy and nuclear energy different in this respect? Why? Where would you place hydro electricity and wave energy? Nuclear power reactors located at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP), Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka) have the installed capacity of less than 3 of the total electricity generation capacity of our country. However, many industrialised countries are meeting more than 30 of their electrical power needs from nuclear reactors. Nuclear fusion Currently all commercial nuclear reactors are based on nuclear fission. But there is another possibility of nuclear energy generation by a safer process called nuclear fusion. Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most commonly hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium, such as 2H 2H 3He ( n) It releases a tremendous amount of energy, according to the Einstein equation, as the mass of the product is little less than the sum of the masses of the original individual nuclei. Such nuclear fusion reactions are the source of energy in the Sun and other stars. It takes considerable energy to force the nuclei to fuse. The conditions needed for this process are extreme millions of degrees of temperature and millions of pascals of pressure. The hydrogen bomb is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based on the fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb. This nuclear bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium. When the nuclear bomb (based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this substance is raised to 107 K in a few microseconds. The high temperature generates sufficient energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a devastating amount of energy is released. 2019-20 | [
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] |
SCIENCE 126 Example 9.8 Two hockey players of opposite teams, while trying to hit a hockey ball on the ground collide and immediately become entangled. One has a mass of 60 kg and was moving with a velocity 5.0 m s1 while the other has a mass of 55 kg and was moving faster with a velocity 6.0 m s1 towards the first player. In which direction and with what velocity will they move after they become entangled? Assume that the frictional force acting between the feet of the two players and ground is negligible. Solution If v is the velocity of the two entangled players after the collision, the total momentum then (m1 m2) v (60 55) kg v m s1 115 v kg m s1. Equating the momenta of the system before and after collision, in accordance with the law of conservation of momentum, we get v 30115 0.26 m s1. Thus, the two entangled players would move with velocity 0.26 m s1 from right to left, that is, in the direction the second player was moving before the collision. Fig. 9.19 A collision of two hockey players (a) before collision and (b) after collision. Let the first player be moving from left to right. By convention left to right is taken as the positive direction and thus right to left is the negative direction (Fig. 9.19). If symbols m and u represent the mass and initial velocity of the two players, respectively. Subscripts 1 and 2 in these physical quantities refer to the two hockey players. Thus, m1 60 kg u1 5 m s-1 and m2 55 kg u2 6 m s-1. The total momentum of the two players before the collision 60 kg ( 5 m s-1) 55 kg ( 6 m s-1) 30 kg m s-1 uestions 1. If action is always equal to the reaction, explain how a horse can pull a cart. 2. Explain, why is it difficult for a fireman to hold a hose, which ejects large amounts of water at a high velocity. 3. From a rifle of mass 4 kg, a bullet of mass 50 g is fired with an initial velocity of 35 m s 1. Calculate the initial recoil velocity of the rifle. Q | [
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] |
India and the Contemporary World 70 trouble in the years after the war, the US economy resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s. One important feature of the US economy of the 1920s was mass production. The move towards mass production had begun in the late nineteenth century, but in the 1920s it became a characteristic feature of industrial production in the US. A well-known pioneer of mass production was the car manufacturer Henry Ford. He adapted the assembly line of a Chicago slaughterhouse (in which slaughtered animals were picked apart by butchers as they came down a conveyor belt) to his new car plant in Detroit. He realised that the assembly line method would allow a faster and cheaper way of producing vehicles. The assembly line forced workers to repeat a single task mechanically and continuously such as fitting a particular part to the car at a pace dictated by the conveyor belt. This was a way of increasing the output per worker by speeding up the pace of work. Standing in front of a conveyor belt no worker could afford to delay the motions, take a break, or even have a friendly word with a workmate. As a result, Henry Fords cars came off the assembly line at three-minute intervals, a speed much faster than that achieved by previous methods. The T- Model Ford was the worlds first mass-produced car. At first workers at the Ford factory were unable to cope with the stress of working on assembly lines in which they could not control the pace of work. So they quit in large numbers. In desperation Ford doubled the daily wage to 5 in January 1914. At the same time he banned trade unions from operating in his plants. Henry Ford recovered the high wage by repeatedly speeding up the production line and forcing workers to work ever harder. So much so, he would soon describe his decision to double the daily wage as the best cost-cutting decision he had ever made. Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US. They were also widely copied in Europe in the 1920s. Mass production lowered costs and prices of engineered goods. Thanks to higher wages, more workers could now afford to purchase durable consumer goods such as cars. Car production in the US rose from 2 million in 1919 to more than 5 million in 1929. Similarly, there was a spurt in the purchase of refrigerators, washing machines, radios, gramophone players, all through a system of hire purchase (i.e., on Fig. 21 T-Model automobiles lined up outside the factory. 2019-20 | [
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62 MATHEMATICS So, we need 12 k 3 3 k k k or, 12 k 3 k which gives k2 36, i.e., k 6. Also, 3 k 3 k k gives 3k k2 3k, i.e., 6k k2, which means k 0 or k 6. Therefore, the value of k, that satisfies both the conditions, is k 6. For this value, the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. EXERCISE 3.5 1. Which of the following pairs of linear equations has unique solution, no solution, or infinitely many solutions. In case there is a unique solution, find it by using cross multiplication method. (i) x 3y 3 0 (ii) 2x y 5 3x 9y 2 0 3x 2y 8 (iii) 3x 5y 20 (iv) x 3y 7 0 6x 10y 40 3x 3y 15 0 2. (i) For which values of a and b does the following pair of linear equations have an infinite number of solutions? 2x 3y 7 (a b) x (a b) y 3a b 2 (ii) For which value of k will the following pair of linear equations have no solution? 3x y 1 (2k 1) x (k 1) y 2k 1 3. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution and cross-multiplication methods 8x 5y 9 3x 2y 4 4. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems and find their solutions (if they exist) by any algebraic method 2019-20 | [
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SCIENCE 124 Activity 9.6 Take a test tube of good quality glass material and put a small amount of water in it. Place a stop cork at the mouth of it. Now suspend the test tube horizontally by two strings or wires as shown in Fig. 9.16. Heat the test tube with a burner until water vaporises and the cork blows out. Observe that the test tube recoils in the direction opposite to the direction of the cork. and the force FBA exerted by the ball B on ball A must be equal and opposite to each other. Therefore, FAB FBA (9.6) or ( ) A A A v u m t ( ) B B B v u m t . This gives, mAuA mBuB mAvA mBvB (9.7) Since (mAuA mBuB) is the total momentum of the two balls A and B before the collision and (mAvA mBvB) is their total momentum after the collision, from Eq. (9.7) we observe that the total momentum of the two balls remains unchanged or conserved provided no other external force acts. As a result of this ideal collision experiment, we say that the sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of momenta after the collision provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on them. This is known as the law of conservation of momentum. This statement can alternatively be given as the total momentum of the two objects is unchanged or conserved by the collision. Activity 9.5 Take a big rubber balloon and inflate it fully. Tie its neck using a thread. Also using adhesive tape, fix a straw on the surface of this balloon. Pass a thread through the straw and hold one end of the thread in your hand or fix it on the wall. Ask your friend to hold the other end of the thread or fix it on a wall at some distance. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 9.15. Now remove the thread tied on the neck of balloon. Let the air escape from the mouth of the balloon. Observe the direction in which the straw moves. Fig. 9.15 Fig. 9.16 Also, observe the difference in the velocity the cork appears to have and that of the recoiling test tube. Example 9.6 A bullet of mass 20 g is horizontally fired with a velocity 150 m s-1 from a pistol of mass 2 kg. What is the recoil velocity of the pistol? Solution We have the mass of bullet, m1 20 g ( 0.02 kg) and the mass of the pistol, m2 2 kg initial velocities of the bullet (u1) and pistol (u2) 0, respectively. The final velocity of the bullet, v1 150 m s-1. The direction of bullet is taken from left to right (positive, by convention, Fig. 9.17). Let v be the recoil velocity of the pistol. | [
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26 MATHEMATICS We see from the table above that 2, 0 and 2 are zeroes of the cubic polynomial x3 4x. Observe that 2, 0 and 2 are, in fact, the x-coordinates of the only points where the graph of y x3 4x intersects the x-axis. Since the curve meets the x-axis in only these 3 points, their x-coordinates are the only zeroes of the polynomial. Let us take a few more examples. Consider the cubic polynomials x3 and x3 x2. We draw the graphs of y x3 and y x3 x2 in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8 respectively. Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.6 2019-20 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 94 Source G introduction of a forest service. In 1882, 280,000 sleepers were exported from Java alone. However, all this required labour to cut the trees, transport the logs and prepare the sleepers. The Dutch first imposed rents on land being cultivated in the forest and then exempted some villages from these rents if they worked collectively to provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This was known as the blandongdiensten system. Later, instead of rent exemption, forest villagers were given small wages, but their right to cultivate forest land was restricted. 4.3 Samins Challenge Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, began questioning state ownership of the forest. He argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it. Soon a widespread movement developed. Amongst those who helped organise it were Samins sons-in-law. By 1907, 3,000 families were following his ideas. Some of the Saminists protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it, while others refused to pay taxes or fines or perform labour. Dirk van Hogendorp, an official of the United East India Company in colonial Java said Batavians! Be amazed! Hear with wonder what I have to communicate. Our fleets are destroyed, our trade languishes, our navigation is going to ruin we purchase with immense treasures, timber and other materials for ship-building from the northern powers, and on Java we leave warlike and mercantile squadrons with their roots in the ground. Yes, the forests of Java have timber enough to build a respectable navy in a short time, besides as many merchant ships as we require In spite of all (the cutting) the forests of Java grow as fast as they are cut, and would be inexhaustible under good care and management. Dirk van Hogendorp, cited in Peluso, Rich Forests, Poor People, 1992. Fig.22 Most of Indonesias forests are located in islands like Sumatra, Kalimantan and West Irian. However, Java is where the Dutch began their scientific forestry. The island, which is now famous for rice production, was once richly covered with teak. 2019-2020 | [
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SCIENCE 188 4. A baby is not able to tell herhis caretakers that shehe is sick. What would help us to find out (a) that the baby is sick? (b) what is the sickness? 5. Under which of the following conditions is a person most likely to fall sick? (a) when she is recovering from malaria. (b) when she has recovered from malaria and is taking care of someone suffering from chicken-pox. (c) when she is on a four-day fast after recovering from malaria and is taking care of someone suffering from chicken-pox. Why? 6. Under which of the following conditions are you most likely to fall sick? (a) when you are taking examinations. (b) when you have travelled by bus and train for two days. (c) when your friend is suffering from measles. Why? 2019-2020 | [
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69 4.4 THE JUDICIARY A C T I V I T Y Follow the news about any major court case in a High Court or the Supreme Court. What was the original verdict? Did the High Court or the Supreme Court change it? What was the reason? This is why an independent and powerful judiciary is considered essential for democracies. All the courts at different levels in a country put together are called the judiciary. The Indian judiciary consists of a Supreme Court for the entire nation, High Courts in the states, District Courts and the courts at local level. India has an integrated judiciary. It means the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country. Its decisions are binding on all other courts of the country. It can take up any dispute Between citizens of the country Between citizens and government Between two or more state governments and Between governments at the union and state level. It is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases. It can hear appeals against the decisions of the High Courts. Independence of the judiciary means that it is not under the control of the legislature or the executive. The judges do not act on the direction of the government or according to the wishes of the party in power. That is why all modern democracies have courts that are independent of the legislature and the executive. India has achieved this. The judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister and in WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS Let us return, one final time, to the story of Office Memorandum that we started with. This time let us not recall the story, but imagine how different the story could have been. Remember, the story came to a satisfactory end because the Supreme Court gave a verdict that was accepted by everyone. Imagine what would have happened in the following situations If there was nothing like a Supreme Court in the country. Even if there was a Supreme Court, if it had no power to judge actions of the government. Even if it had the power, if no one trusted the Supreme Court to give a fair verdict. Even if it gave a fair judgement, if those who appealed against the Government Order did not accept the judgement. It is quite common in the US for judges to be nominated on the basis of well-known political opinions and affiliations. This fictitious advertisement appeared in the US in 2005 when President Bush was considering various candidates for nomination to the US supreme court. What does this cartoon say about the independence of the judiciary? Why do such cartoons not appear in our country? Does this demonstrate the independence of our judiciary? M.E. Cohen, National, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 2019-20 | [
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POLYNOMIALS 31 Example 4 Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are 3 and 2, respectively. Solution Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 bx c, and its zeroes be and . We have 3 b a , and 2 c a . If a 1, then b 3 and c 2. So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 3x 2. You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions will be of the form k(x2 3x 2), where k is real. Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients? Let us consider p(x) 2x3 5x2 14x 8. You can check that p(x) 0 for x 4, 2, 1 2 Since p(x) can have atmost three zeroes, these are the zeores of 2x3 5x2 14x 8. Now, sum of the zeroes 2 3 1 5 ( 5) (Coefficient of ) 4 ( 2) 2 2 2 Coefficient of x x , product of the zeroes 3 1 8 Constant term 4 ( 2) 4 2 2 Coefficient of x . However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products of the zeroes taken two at a time. We have 1 1 4 ( 2) ( 2) 4 2 2 14 8 1 2 7 2 3 Coefficient of Coefficient of x x . In general, it can be proved that if , , are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 bx2 cx d, then 2019-20 | [
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Science The electron dot structure for ethene is given in Fig. 4.7. Yet another compound of hydrogen and carbon has the formula C2H2 and is called ethyne. Can you draw the electron dot structure for ethyne? How many bonds are necessary between the two carbon atoms in order to satisfy their valencies? Such compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between the carbon atoms are known as unsaturated carbon compounds and they are more reactive than the saturated carbon compounds. In the earlier section, we mentioned the carbon compounds methane, ethane and propane, containing respectively 1, 2 and 3 carbon atoms. Such chains of carbon atoms can contain many more carbon atoms. The names and structures of six of these are given in Table 4.2. Figure 4.7 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.7 Structure of ethene Table 4.2 Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen No. of C Name Formula Structure atoms 1 Methane CH4 2 Ethane C2H6 3 Propane C3H8 4 Butane C4H10 5 Pentane C5H12 6 Hexane C6H14 2019-20 | [
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A large number of transactions in our day-to-day activities involve credit in some form or the other. Credit (loan) refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise of future payment. Let us see how credit works through the following two examples. It is festival season two months from now and the shoe manufacturer, Salim, has received an order from a large trader in town for 3,000 pairs of shoes to be delivered in a month time. To complete production on time, Salim has to hire a few more workers for stitching and pasting work. He has to purchase the raw materials. To meet these expenses, Salim obtains loans from two sources. First, he asks the leather supplier to supply leather now and promises to pay him later. Second, he obtains loan in cash from the large trader as advance payment for 1000 pairs of shoes with a promise to deliver the whole order by the end of the month. At the end of the month, Salim is able to deliver the order, make a good profit, and repay the money that he had borrowed. In this case, Salim obtains credit to meet the working capital needs of production. The credit helps him to meet the ongoing expenses of production, complete production on time, and thereby increase his earnings. Credit therefore plays a vital and positive role in this situation. Swapna, a small farmer, grows groundnut on her three acres of land. She takes a loan from the moneylender to meet the expenses of cultivation, hoping that her harvest would help repay the loan. Midway through the season the crop is hit by pests and the crop fails. Though Swapna sprays her crops with expensive pesticides, it makes little difference. She is unable to repay the moneylender and the debt grows over the year into a large amount. Next year, Swapna takes a fresh loan for cultivation. It is a normal crop this year. But the earnings are not enough to cover the old loan. She is caught in debt. She has to sell a part of the land to pay off the debt. 2019-20 | [
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121 The Age of Industrialisation Fig. 22 The first office of the Madras Chamber of Commerce. By the late nineteenth century merchants in different regions began meeting and forming Chambers of Commerce to regulate business and decide on issues of collective concern. 5 The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth European Managing Agencies, which dominated industrial production in India, were interested in certain kinds of products. They established tea and coffee plantations, acquiring land at cheap rates from the colonial government and they invested in mining, indigo and jute. Most of these were products required primarily for export trade and not for sale in India. When Indian businessmen began setting up industries in the late nineteenth century, they avoided competing with Manchester goods in the Indian market. Since yarn was not an important part of British imports into India, the early cotton mills in India produced coarse cotton yarn (thread) rather than fabric. When yarn was imported it was only of the superior variety. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to China. By the first decade of the twentieth century a series of changes affected the pattern of industrialisation. As the swadeshi movement gathered momentum, nationalists mobilised people to boycott foreign cloth. Industrial groups organised themselves to protect their collective interests, pressurising the government to increase tariff protection and grant other concessions. From 1906, moreover, the export of Indian yarn to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market. So industrialists in India began shifting from yarn to cloth production. Cotton piece- goods production in India doubled between 1900 and 1912. Yet, till the First World War, industrial growth was slow. The war created a dramatically new situation. With British mills busy with war production to meet the needs of the army, Manchester imports into India declined. Suddenly, Indian mills had a vast home market to supply. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. New factories were set up and old 2018-19 | [
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186 India and the Contemporary World 1.6 Colonialism and After The novel originated in Europe at a time when it was colonising the rest of the world. The early novel contributed to colonialism by making the readers feel they were part of a superior community of fellow colonialists. The hero of Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe (1719) is an adventurer and slave trader. Shipwrecked on an island, Crusoe treats coloured people not as human beings equal to him, but as inferior creatures. He rescues a native and makes him his slave. He does not ask for his name but arrogantly gives him the name Friday. But at the time, Crusoes behaviour was not seen as unacceptable or odd, for most writers of the time saw colonialism as natural. Colonised people were seen as primitive and barbaric, less than human and colonial rule was considered necessary to civilise them, to make them fully human. It was only later, in the twentieth century, that writers like Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) wrote novels that showed the darker side of colonial occupation. The colonised, however, believed that the novel allowed them to explore their own identities and problems, their own national concerns. Let us see how the novel became popular in India and what significance it had for society. 2018-19 | [
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190 MATHEMATICS 6. If A, B and C are interior angles of a triangle ABC, then show that B C sin 2 A cos 2 7. Express sin 67 cos 75 in terms of trigonometric ratios of angles between 0 and 45. 8.5 Trigonometric Identities You may recall that an equation is called an identity when it is true for all values of the variables involved. Similarly, an equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a trigonometric identity, if it is true for all values of the angle(s) involved. In this section, we will prove one trigonometric identity, and use it further to prove other useful trigonometric identities. In ABC, right-angled at B (see Fig. 8.22), we have AB2 BC2 AC2 (1) Dividing each term of (1) by AC2, we get 2 2 2 2 AB BC AC AC 2 2 AC AC i.e., 2 2 AB BC AC AC 2 AC AC i.e., (cos A)2 (sin A)2 1 i.e., cos2 A sin2 A 1 (2) This is true for all A such that 0 A 90. So, this is a trigonometric identity. Let us now divide (1) by AB2. We get 2 2 2 2 AB BC AB AB 2 2 AC AB or, 2 2 AB BC AB AB 2 AC AB i.e., 1 tan2 A sec2 A (3) Fig. 8.22 2019-20 | [
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Chinese manufacturers learn of an opportunity to export toys to India, where toys are sold at a high price. They start exporting plastic toys to India. Buyers in India now have the option of choosing between Indian and the Chinese toys. Because of the cheaper prices and new designs, Chinese toys become more popular in the Indian markets. Within a year, 70 to 80 per cent of the toy shops have replaced Indian toys with Chinese toys. Toys are now cheaper in the Indian markets than earlier. Let us see the effect of foreign trade through the example of Chinese toys in the Indian markets. What is happening here? As a result of trade, Chinese toys come into the Indian markets. In the competition between Indian and Chinese toys, Chinese toys prove better. Indian buyers have a greater choice of toys and at lower prices. For the Chinese toy makers, this provides an opportunity to expand business. The opposite is true for Indian toy makers. They face losses, as their toys are selling much less. 2019-20 | [
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220 MATHEMATICS 2. Construct a triangle of sides 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm and then a triangle similar to it whose sides are 2 3 of the corresponding sides of the first triangle. 3. Construct a triangle with sides 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm and then another triangle whose sides are 7 5 of the corresponding sides of the first triangle. 4. Construct an isosceles triangle whose base is 8 cm and altitude 4 cm and then another triangle whose sides are 1 12 times the corresponding sides of the isosceles triangle. 5. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC 6 cm, AB 5 cm and ABC 60. Then construct a triangle whose sides are 3 4 of the corresponding sides of the triangle ABC. 6. Draw a triangle ABC with side BC 7 cm, B 45, A 105. Then, construct a triangle whose sides are 4 3 times the corresponding sides of ABC. 7. Draw a right triangle in which the sides (other than hypotenuse) are of lengths 4 cm and 3 cm. Then construct another triangle whose sides are 5 3 times the corresponding sides of the given triangle. 11.3 Construction of Tangents to a Circle You have already studied in the previous chapter that if a point lies inside a circle, there cannot be a tangent to the circle through this point. However, if a point lies on the circle, then there is only one tangent to the circle at this point and it is perpendicular to the radius through this point. Therefore, if you want to draw a tangent at a point of a circle, simply draw the radius through this point and draw a line perpendicular to this radius through this point and this will be the required tangent at the point. You have also seen that if the point lies outside the circle, there will be two tangents to the circle from this point. We shall now see how to draw these tangents. Construction 11.3 To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it. We are given a circle with centre O and a point P outside it. We have to construct the two tangents from P to the circle. 2019-20 | [
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ANSWERSHINTS 359 EXERCISE 13.3 1. 2.74 cm 2. 12 cm 3. 2.5 m 4. 1.125 m 5. 10 6. 400 7. 36cm 12 13cm 8. 562500 m2 or 56.25 hectares. 9. 100 minutes EXERCISE 13.4 1. 3 2 102 cm 3 2. 48 cm2 3. 2 2 710 cm 7 4. Cost of milk is 209 and cost of metal sheet is 156.75. 5. 7964.4 m EXERCISE 13.5 (Optional) 1. 1256 cm 788g (approx) 2. 30.14 cm3 52.75 cm2 3. 1792 5. 2 4 782 cm 7 EXERCISE 14.1 1. 8.1 plants. We have used direct method because numerical values of xi and fi are small. 2. 545.20 3. f 20 4. 75.9 5. 57.19 6. 211 7. 0.099 ppm 8. 12.48 days 9. 69.43 EXERCISE 14.2 1. Mode 36.8 years, Mean 35.37 years. Maximum number of patients admitted in the hospital are of the age 36.8 years (approx.), while on an average the age of a patient admitted to the hospital is 35.37 years. 2. 65.625 hours 3. Modal monthly expenditure 1847.83, Mean monthly expenditure 2662.5. 4. Mode 30.6, Mean 29.2. Most statesU.T. have a student teacher ratio of 30.6 and on an average, this ratio is 29.2. 5. Mode 4608.7 runs 6. Mode 44.7 cars EXERCISE 14.3 1. Median 137 units, Mean 137.05 units, Mode 135.76 units. The three measures are approximately the same in this case. 2019-20 | [
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For Extended Learning You may access the following chapters through QR Code. Peasants and Farmers History and Sport The Story of Cricket Clothing A Social History These Chapters were printed in the previous textbook the same are being provided in digital mode for extended learning. 2019-2020 | [
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More to know dissolved in water. Compare the colour of the solutions of the two groups. Though both the groups have obtained copper sulphate solution but the intensity of colour of the solutions is different. This shows that a homogeneous mixture can have a variable composition. Groups C and D have obtained mixtures, which contain physically distinct parts and have non-uniform compositions. Such mixtures are called heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron filings, salt and sulphur, and oil and water are examples of heterogeneous mixtures. Activity 2.2 Let us again divide the class into four groups A, B, C and D. Distribute the following samples to each group Few crystals of copper sulphate to group A. One spatula full of copper sulphate to group B. Chalk powder or wheat flour to group C. Few drops of milk or ink to group D. Each group should add the given sample in water and stir properly using a glass rod. Are the particles in the mixture visible? Direct a beam of light from a torch through the beaker containing the mixture and observe from the front. Was the path of the beam of light visible? Leave the mixtures undisturbed for a few minutes (and set up the filtration apparatus in the meantime). Is the mixture stable or do the particles begin to settle after some time? Filter the mixture. Is there any residue on the filter paper? Discuss the results and form an opinion. Groups A and B have got a solution. Group C has got a suspension. Group D has got a colloidal solution. Now, we shall learn about solutions, suspensions and colloidal solutions in the following sections. uestions 1. What is meant by a substance? 2. List the points of differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. 2.2 What is a Solution? A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. You come across various types of solutions in your daily life. Lemonade, soda water etc. are all examples of solutions. Usually we think of a solution as a liquid that contains either a solid, liquid or a gas dissolved in it. But, we can also have solid solutions (alloys) and gaseous solutions (air). In a solution there is homogeneity at the particle level. For example, lemonade tastes the same throughout. This shows that particles of sugar or salt are evenly distributed in the solution. Q Fig. 2.2 Filtration Alloys Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal and cannot be separated into their components by physical methods. But still, an alloy is considered as a mixture because it shows the properties of its constituents and can have variable composition. For example, brass is a mixture of approximately 30 zinc and 70 copper. IS MATTER AROUND US PURE? 15 2019-2020 | [
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SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES 211 Recall that a cuboid, whose length, breadth and height are all equal, is called a cube. If each edge of the cube is a, then the surface area of this cube would be 2(a a a a a a), i.e., 6a2 (see Fig. 13.3), giving us Surface Area of a Cube 6a2 where a is the edge of the cube. Fig. 13.3 Suppose, out of the six faces of a cuboid, we only find the area of the four faces, leaving the bottom and top faces. In such a case, the area of these four faces is called the lateral surface area of the cuboid. So, lateral surface area of a cuboid of length l, breadth b and height h is equal to 2lh 2bh or 2(l b)h. Similarly, lateral surface area of a cube of side a is equal to 4a2. Keeping in view of the above, the surface area of a cuboid (or a cube) is sometimes also referred to as the total surface area. Let us now solve some examples. Example 1 Mary wants to decorate her Christmas tree. She wants to place the tree on a wooden box covered with coloured paper with picture of Santa Claus on it (see Fig. 13.4). She must know the exact quantity of paper to buy for this purpose. If the box has length, breadth and height as 80 cm, 40 cm and 20 cm respectively how many square sheets of paper of side 40 cm would she require? Solution Since Mary wants to paste the paper on the outer surface of the box the quantity of paper required would be equal to the surface area of the box which is of the shape of a cuboid. The dimensions of the box are Fig. 13.4 2019-2020 | [
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5 Nationalism in Europe 1 The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch. The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation. The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe to become nations. When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad. Fig. 2 The cover of a German almanac designed by the journalist Andreas Rebmann in 1798. The image of the French Bastille being stormed by the revolutionary crowd has been placed next to a similar fortress meant to represent the bastion of despotic rule in the German province of Kassel. Accompanying the illustration is the slogan The people must seize their own freedom! Rebmann lived in the city of Mainz and was a member of a German Jacobin group. 2018-19 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 162 4 The Reading Mania Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries literacy rates went up in most parts of Europe. Churches of different denominations set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to peasants and artisans. By the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 per cent. As literacy and schools spread in European countries, there was a virtual reading mania. People wanted books to read and printers produced books in ever- increasing numbers. New forms of popular literature appeared in print, targeting new audiences. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around villages, carrying little books for sale. There were almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales. But other forms of reading matter, largely for entertainment, began to reach ordinary readers as well. In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars known as chapmen, and sold for a penny, so that even the poor could buy them. In France, were the Biliotheque Bleue, which were low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and bound in cheap blue covers. Then there were the romances, printed on four to six pages, and the more substantial histories which were stories about the past. Books were of various sizes, serving many different purposes and interests. The periodical press developed from the early eighteenth century, combining information about current affairs with entertainment. Newspapers and journals carried information about wars and trade, as well as news of developments in other places. Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to publish their discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle of scientifically minded readers. The writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality found their way into popular literature. New words Denominations Sub groups within a religion Almanac An annual publication giving astronomical data, information about the movements of the sun and moon, timing of full tides and eclipses, and much else that was of importance in the everyday life of people Chapbook A term used to describe pocket- size books that are sold by travelling pedlars called chapmen. These became popular from the time of the sixteenth-century print revolution Box 2 In 1791, a London publisher, James Lackington, wrote in his diary The sale of books in general has increased prodigiously within the last twenty years. The poorer sort of farmers and even the poor country people in general who before that period spent their winter evenings in relating stories of witches, ghosts, hobgoblins now shorten the winter night by hearing their sons and daughters read them tales, romances, etc. If John goes to town with a load of hay, he is charged to be sure not to forget to bring home Peregrine Pickles Adventure and when Dolly is sent to sell her eggs, she is commissioned to purchase The History of Joseph Andrews. 2018-19 | [
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Let us examine another way of classifying activities in the economy. This looks at the way people are employed. What are their conditions of work? Are there any rules and regulations that are followed as regards their employment? organised because it has some formal processes and procedures. Some of these people may not be employed by anyone but may work on their own but they too have to register themselves with the government and follow the rules and regulations. Workers in the organised sector enjoy security of employment. They are expected to work only a fixed number of hours. If they work more, they have to be paid overtime by the employer. They also get several other benefits from the employers. What are Kanta works in the organised sector. Organised sector covers those enterprises or places of work where the terms of employment are regular and therefore, people have assured work. They are registered by the government and have to follow its rules and regulations which are given in various laws such as the Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops and Establishments Act etc. It is called Kanta works in an office. She attends her office from 9.30 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. She gets her salary regularly at the end of every month. In addition to the salary, she also gets provident fund as per the rules laid down by the government. She also gets medical and other allowances. Kanta does not go to office on Sundays. This is a paid holiday. When she joined work, she was given an appointment letter stating all the terms and conditions of work. Kamal is Kantas neighbour. He is a daily wage labourer in a nearby grocery shop. He goes to the shop at 730 in the morning and works till 800 p.m. in the evening. He gets no other allowances apart from his wages. He is not paid for the days he does not work. He has therefore no leave or paid holidays. Nor was he given any formal letter saying that he has been employed in the shop. He can be asked to leave anytime by his employer. Do you see the differences in the conditions of work between Kanta and Kamal? 2019-20 | [
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SOUND 163 waves. In these waves the individual particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of the disturbance. The particles do not move from one place to another but they simply oscillate back and forth about their position of rest. This is exactly how a sound wave propagates, hence sound waves are longitudinal waves. There is also another type of wave, called a transverse wave. In a transverse wave particles do not oscillate along the direction of wave propagation but oscillate up and down about their mean position as the wave travels. Thus, a transverse wave is the one in which the individual particles of the medium move about their mean positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. When we drop a pebble in a pond, the waves you see on the water surface is an example of transverse wave. Light is a transverse wave but for light, the oscillations are not of the medium particles or their pressure or density it is not a mechanical wave. You will come to know more about transverse waves in higher classes. 12.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOUND WAVE We can describe a sound wave by its frequency amplitude and speed. A sound wave in graphic form is shown in Fig. 12.8(c), which represents how density and pressure change when the sound wave moves in the medium. The density as well as the pressure of the medium at a given time varies with distance, above and below the average value of density and pressure. Fig. 12.8(a) and Fig. 12.8(b) represent the density and pressure variations, respectively, as a sound wave propagates in the medium. Compressions are the regions where particles are crowded together and represented by the upper portion of the curve in Fig. 12.8(c). The peak represents the region of maximum compression. Thus, compressions are regions where density as uestions 1. Explain how sound is produced by your school bell. 2. Why are sound waves called mechanical waves? 3. Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound produced by your friend? 12.2.2 SOUND WAVES ARE LONGITUDINAL WAVES Activity 12.4 Take a slinky. Ask your friend to hold one end. You hold the other end. Now stretch the slinky as shown in Fig. 12.7 (a). Then give it a sharp push towards your friend. What do you notice? If you move your hand pushing and pulling the slinky alternatively, what will you observe? If you mark a dot on the slinky, you will observe that the dot on the slinky will move back and forth parallel to the direction of the propagation of the disturbance. Fig. 12.7 Longitudinal wave in a slinky. The regions where the coils become closer are called compressions (C) and the regions where the coils are further apart are called rarefactions (R). As we already know, sound propagates in the medium as a series of compressions and rarefactions. Now, we can compare the propagation of disturbance in a slinky with the sound propagation in the medium. These waves are called longitudinal Q (a) (b) 2019-2020 | [
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234 MATHEMATICS 13.9 Volume of a Sphere Now, let us see how to go about measuring the volume of a sphere. First, take two or three spheres of different radii, and a container big enough to be able to put each of the spheres into it, one at a time. Also, take a large trough in which you can place the container. Then, fill the container up to the brim with water see Fig. 13.30(a). Now, carefully place one of the spheres in the container. Some of the water from the container will over flow into the trough in which it is kept see Fig. 13.30(b). Carefully pour out the water from the trough into a measuring cylinder (i.e., a graduated cylindrical jar) and measure the water over flowed see Fig. 13.30(c). Suppose the radius of the immersed sphere is r (you can find the radius by measuring the diameter of the sphere). Then evaluate 4 3 r3. Do you find this value almost equal to the measure of the volume over flowed? Fig. 13.30 Once again repeat the procedure done just now, with a different size of sphere. Find the radius R of this sphere and then calculate the value of 3 4 R . 3 Once again this value is nearly equal to the measure of the volume of the water displaced (over flowed) by the sphere. What does this tell us? We know that the volume of the sphere is the same as the measure of the volume of the water displaced by it. By doing this experiment repeatedly with spheres of varying radii, we are getting the same result, namely, the volume of a sphere is equal to 4 3 times the cube of its radius. This gives us the idea that Volume of a Sphere 3 4 3 r where r is the radius of the sphere. Later, in higher classes it can be proved also. But at this stage, we will just take it as true. 2019-2020 | [
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SCIENCE 48 Fig. 4.2 Scattering of -particles by a gold foil But, the -particle scattering experiment gave totally unexpected results (Fig. 4.2). The following observations were made (i) Most of the fast moving -particles passed straight through the gold foil. (ii) Some of the -particles were deflected by the foil by small angles. (iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound. In the words of Rutherford, This result was almost as incredible as if you fire a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it comes back and hits you. hear a sound when each stone strikes the wall. If he repeats this ten times, he will hear the sound ten times. But if a blind-folded child were to throw stones at a barbed-wire fence, most of the stones would not hit the fencing and no sound would be heard. This is because there are lots of gaps in the fence which allow the stone to pass through them. Following a similar reasoning, Rutherford concluded from the -particle scattering experiment that (i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the -particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected. (ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies very little space. (iii) A very small fraction of -particles were deflected by 1800, indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom. From the data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less than the radius of the atom. On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom, which had the following features (i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus. (ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths. (iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom. Drawbacks of Rutherfords model of the atom The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we know. We know that atoms are quite stable. E. Rutherford (1871-1937) was born at Spring Grove on 30 August 1871. He was known as the Father of nuclear physics. He is famous for his work on radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus of an atom with the gold foil experiment. He got the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908. Let us think of an activity in an open field to understand the implications of this experiment. Let a child stand in front of a wall with his eyes closed. Let him throw stones at the wall from a distance. He will 2019-2020 | [
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58 MATHEMATICS Fig. 3.11 Solution (i) Since the distance of the point B from the y - axis is 4 units, the x - coordinate or abscissa of the point B is 4. The distance of the point B from the x - axis is 3 units therefore, the y - coordinate, i.e., the ordinate, of the point B is 3. Hence, the coordinates of the point B are (4, 3). As in (i) above (ii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point M are 3 and 4, respectively. Hence, the coordinates of the point M are (3, 4). (iii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point L are 5 and 4, respectively. Hence, the coordinates of the point L are (5, 4). (iv) The x - coordinate and the y- coordinate of the point S are 3 and 4, respectively. Hence, the coordinates of the point S are (3, 4). 2019-2020 | [
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32 MATHEMATICS b a , c a , d a . Let us consider an example. Example 5 Verify that 3, 1, 1 3 are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial p(x) 3x3 5x2 11x 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients. Solution Comparing the given polynomial with ax3 bx2 cx d, we get a 3, b 5, c 11, d 3. Further p(3) 3 33 (5 32) (11 3) 3 81 45 33 3 0, p(1) 3 (1)3 5 (1)2 11 (1) 3 3 5 11 3 0, 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 5 11 3 3 3 3 3 p , 1 5 11 2 2 3 0 9 9 3 3 3 Therefore, 3, 1 and 1 3 are the zeroes of 3x3 5x2 11x 3. So, we take 3, 1 and 1 3 Now, 1 1 5 ( 5) 3 ( 1) 2 3 3 3 3 b a , 1 1 1 11 3 ( 1) ( 1) 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 c a , 1 ( 3) 3 ( 1) 1 3 3 d a . Not from the examination point of view. 2019-20 | [
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46 MATHEMATICS x2 2xy y2 2xz 2yz z2 (Using Identity I) x2 y2 z2 2xy 2yz 2zx (Rearranging the terms) So, we get the following identity Identity V (x y z)2 x2 y2 z2 2xy 2yz 2zx Remark We call the right hand side expression the expanded form of the left hand side expression. Note that the expansion of (x y z)2 consists of three square terms and three product terms. Example 19 Write (3a 4b 5c)2 in expanded form. Solution Comparing the given expression with (x y z)2, we find that x 3a, y 4b and z 5c. Therefore, using Identity V, we have (3a 4b 5c)2 (3a)2 (4b)2 (5c)2 2(3a)(4b) 2(4b)(5c) 2(5c)(3a) 9a2 16b2 25c2 24ab 40bc 30ac Example 20 Expand (4a 2b 3c)2. Solution Using Identity V, we have (4a 2b 3c)2 4a (2b) (3c)2 (4a)2 (2b)2 (3c)2 2(4a)(2b) 2(2b)(3c) 2(3c)(4a) 16a2 4b2 9c2 16ab 12bc 24ac Example 21 Factorise 4x2 y2 z2 4xy 2yz 4xz. Solution We have 4x2 y2 z2 4xy 2yz 4xz (2x)2 (y)2 (z)2 2(2x)(y) 2(y)(z) 2(2x)(z) 2x (y) z2 (Using Identity V) (2x y z)2 (2x y z)(2x y z) So far, we have dealt with identities involving second degree terms. Now let us extend Identity I to compute (x y)3. We have (x y)3 (x y) (x y)2 (x y)(x2 2xy y2) x(x2 2xy y2) y(x2 2xy y2) x3 2x2y xy2 x2y 2xy2 y3 x3 3x2y 3xy2 y3 x3 y3 3xy(x y) 2019-2020 | [
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PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS 303 Since x and y are even, they are divisible by 2 and can be expressed in the form x 2m, for some natural number m and y 2n, for some natural number n. Then xy 4 mn. Since 4 mn is divisible by 2, so is xy. Therefore, xy is even. Theorem A1.3 The product of any three consecutive even natural numbers is divisible by 16. Proof Any three consecutive even numbers will be of the form 2n, 2n 2 and 2n 4, for some natural number n. We need to prove that their product 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) is divisible by 16. Now, 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) 2n 2(n 1) 2(n 2) 2 2 2n(n 1)(n 2) 8n(n 1)(n 2). Now we have two cases. Either n is even or odd. Let us examine each case. Suppose n is even Then we can write n 2m, for some natural number m. And, then 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) 8n(n 1)(n 2) 16m(2m 1)(2m 2). Therefore, 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) is divisible by 16. Next, suppose n is odd. Then n 1 is even and we can write n 1 2r, for some natural number r. We then have 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) 8n(n 1)(n 2) 8(2r 1) 2r (2r 1) 16r(2r 1)(2r 1) Therefore, 2n(2n 2)(2n 4) is divisible by 16. So, in both cases we have shown that the product of any three consecutive even numbers is divisible by 16. We conclude this chapter with a few remarks on the difference between how mathematicians discover results and how formal rigorous proofs are written down. As mentioned above, each proof has a key intuitive idea (sometimes more than one). Intuition is central to a mathematicians way of thinking and discovering results. Very often the proof of a theorem comes to a mathematician all jumbled up. A mathematician will often experiment with several routes of thought, and logic, and examples, before shehe can hit upon the correct solution or proof. It is only after the creative phase subsides that all the arguments are gathered together to form a proper proof. It is worth mentioning here that the great Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan used very high levels of intuition to arrive at many of his statements, which 2019-2020 | [
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] |
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 97 Similarly, when a 7, d 2, the AP is 7, 9, 11, 13, . . . a 1.0, d 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . . a 0, d 1 1 2 , the AP is 0, 1 1 2 , 3, 4 1 2 , 6, . . . a 2, d 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . . So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP. What about the other way round? That is, if you are given a list of numbers can you say that it is an AP and then find a and d? Since a is the first term, it can easily be written. We know that in an AP, every succeeding term is obtained by adding d to the preceding term. So, d found by subtracting any term from its succeeding term, i.e., the term which immediately follows it should be same for an AP. For example, for the list of numbers 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . , We have a2 a1 9 6 3, a3 a2 12 9 3, a4 a3 15 12 3 Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the given list is an AP whose first term a is 6 and common difference d is 3. For the list of numbers 6, 3, 0, 3, . . ., a2 a1 3 6 3 a3 a2 0 3 3 a4 a3 3 0 3 Similarly this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference is 3. In general, for an AP a1, a2, . . ., an, we have d ak 1 ak where ak 1 and ak are the ( k 1)th and the kth terms respectively. To obtain d in a given AP, we need not find all of a2 a1, a3 a2, a4 a3, . . . . It is enough to find only one of them. Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP. 2019-20 | [
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45 Nationalism in India Jinnah, one of the leaders of the Muslim League, was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab). Negotiations over the question of representation continued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise. When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities. Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle. Many Muslim leaders and intellectuals expressed their concern about the status of Muslims as a minority within India. They feared that the culture and identity of minorities would be submerged under the domination of a Hindu majority. In 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, as president of the Muslim League, reiterated the importance of separate electorates for the Muslims as an important safeguard for their minority political interests. His statement is supposed to have provided the intellectual justification for the Pakistan demand that came up in subsequent years. This is what he said I have no hesitation in declaring that if the principle that the Indian Muslim is entitled to full and free development on the lines of his own culture and tradition in his own Indian home-lands is recognised as the basis of a permanent communal settlement, he will be ready to stake his all for the freedom of India. The principle that each group is entitled to free development on its own lines is not inspired by any feeling of narrow communalism A community which is inspired by feelings of ill-will towards other communities is low and ignoble. I entertain the highest respect for the customs, laws, religions and social institutions of other communities. Nay, it is my duty according to the teachings of the Quran, even to defend their places of worship, if need be. Yet I love the communal group which is the source of life and behaviour and which has formed me what I am by giving me its religion, its literature, its thought, its culture and thereby its whole past as a living operative factor in my present consciousness Communalism in its higher aspect, then, is indispensable to the formation of a harmonious whole in a country like India. The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries The principle of European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognising the fact of communal groups. The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India within India is, therefore, perfectly justified The Hindu thinks that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit of true nationalism, because he understands the word nation to mean a kind of universal amalgamation in which no communal entity ought to retain its private individuality. Such a state of things, however, does not exist. India is a land of racial and religious variety. Add to this the general economic inferiority of the Muslims, their enormous debt, especially in the Punjab, and their insufficient majorities in some of the provinces, as at present constituted and you will begin to see clearly the meaning of our anxiety to retain separate electorates. Source D Source Read the Source D carefully. Do you agree with Iqbals idea of communalism? Can you define communalism in a different way? Discuss 2019-20 | [
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PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 51 Step 2 Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get 7(3 2y) 15y 2 i.e., 21 14y 15y 2 i.e., 29y 19 Therefore, y 19 29 Step 3 Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get x 3 19 2 29 49 29 Therefore, the solution is x 49 29 , y 19 29 . Verification Substituting x 49 29 and y 19 29 , you can verify that both the Equations (1) and (2) are satisfied. To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise Step 1 Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from either equation, whichever is convenient. Step 2 Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in one variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and 10 below, you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent. Step 3 Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable. Remark We have substituted the value of one variable by expressing it in terms of the other variable to solve the pair of linear equations. That is why the method is known as the substitution method. Example 8 Solve Q.1 of Exercise 3.1 by the method of substitution. Solution Let s and t be the ages (in years) of Aftab and his daughter, respectively. Then, the pair of linear equations that represent the situation is s 7 7 (t 7), i.e., s 7t 42 0 (1) and s 3 3 (t 3), i.e., s 3t 6 (2) 2019-20 | [
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57 Nationalism in India New words Boycott The refusal to deal and associate with people, or participate in activities, or buy and use things usually a form of protest Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come. How could non-cooperation become a movement? Gandhiji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched. Through the summer of 1920 Mahatma Gandhi and Shaukat Ali toured extensively, mobilising popular support for the movement. Many within the Congress were, however, concerned about the proposals. They were reluctant to boycott the council elections scheduled for November 1920, and they feared that the movement might lead to popular violence. In the months between September and December there was an intense tussle within the Congress. For a while there seemed no meeting point between the supporters and the opponents of the movement. Finally, at the Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, a compromise was worked out and the Non-Cooperation programme was adopted. How did the movement unfold? Who participated in it? How did different social groups conceive of the idea of Non-Cooperation? Fig. 4 The boycott of foreign cloth, July 1922. Foreign cloth was seen as the symbol of Western economic and cultural domination. 2018-19 | [
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168 MATHEMATICS 7.4 Area of a Triangle In your earlier classes, you have studied how to calculate the area of a triangle when its base and corresponding height (altitude) are given. You have used the formula Area of a triangle 1 2 base altitude In Class IX, you have also studied Herons formula to find the area of a triangle. Now, if the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are given, can you find its area? Well, you could find the lengths of the three sides using the distance formula and then use Herons formula. But this could be tedious, particularly if the lengths of the sides are irrational numbers. Let us see if there is an easier way out. Let ABC be any triangle whose vertices are A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3). Draw AP, BQ and CR perpendiculars from A, B and C, respectively, to the x-axis. Clearly ABQP, APRC and BQRC are all trapezia (see Fig. 7.13). Now, from Fig. 7.13, it is clear that area of ABC area of trapezium ABQP area of trapezium APRC area of trapezium BQRC. You also know that the area of a trapezium 1 2 (sum of parallel sides)(distance between them) Therefore, Area of ABC 1 2 (BQ AP) QP 1 2 (AP CR) PR 1 2 (BQ CR) QR 2 1 1 2 1 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 1 ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 2 2 2 y y x x y y x x y y x x 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 x y y x y y x y y Thus, the area of ABC is the numerical value of the expression ( ) 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 ( ) ( 2 x y y x y y x y y Let us consider a few examples in which we make use of this formula. Fig. 7.13 2019-20 | [
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52 MATHEMATICS Using Equation (2), we get s 3t 6. Putting this value of s in Equation (1), we get (3t 6) 7t 42 0, i.e., 4t 48, which gives t 12. Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get s 3 (12) 6 42 So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively. Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems. Example 9 Let us consider Example 2 in Section 3.3, i.e., the cost of 2 pencils and 3 erasers is 9 and the cost of 4 pencils and 6 erasers is 18. Find the cost of each pencil and each eraser. Solution The pair of linear equations formed were 2x 3y 9 (1) 4x 6y 18 (2) We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x 3y 9, to get x 9 3 2 y (3) Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get 4(9 3 ) 2 y 6y 18 i.e., 18 6y 6y 18 i.e., 18 18 This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific value of y as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This situation has arisen because both the given equations are the same. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions. Observe that we have obtained the same solution graphically also. (Refer to Fig. 3.3, Section 3.2.) We cannot find a unique cost of a pencil and an eraser, because there are many common solutions, to the given situation. Example 10 Let us consider the Example 3 of Section 3.2. Will the rails cross each other? 2019-20 | [
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SCIENCE 128 Exercises 1. An object experiences a net zero external unbalanced force. Is it possible for the object to be travelling with a non-zero velocity? If yes, state the conditions that must be placed on the magnitude and direction of the velocity. If no, provide a reason. 2. When a carpet is beaten with a stick, dust comes out of it. Explain. 3. Why is it advised to tie any luggage kept on the roof of a bus with a rope? 4. A batsman hits a cricket ball which then rolls on a level ground. After covering a short distance, the ball comes to rest. The ball slows to a stop because (a) the batsman did not hit the ball hard enough. (b) velocity is proportional to the force exerted on the ball. (c) there is a force on the ball opposing the motion. (d) there is no unbalanced force on the ball, so the ball would want to come to rest. 5. A truck starts from rest and rolls down a hill with a constant acceleration. It travels a distance of 400 m in 20 s. Find its acceleration. Find the force acting on it if its mass is 7 tonnes (Hint 1 tonne 1000 kg.) 6. A stone of 1 kg is thrown with a velocity of 20 m s1 across the frozen surface of a lake and comes to rest after travelling a distance of 50 m. What is the force of friction between the stone and the ice? 7. A 8000 kg engine pulls a train of 5 wagons, each of 2000 kg, along a horizontal track. If the engine exerts a force of 40000 N and the track offers a friction force of 5000 N, then calculate (a) the net accelerating force and (b) the acceleration of the train. 8. An automobile vehicle has a mass of 1500 kg. What must be the force between the vehicle and road if the vehicle is to be stopped with a negative acceleration of 1.7 m s2? 9. What is the momentum of an object of mass m, moving with a velocity v? (a) (mv)2 (b) mv2 (c) mv2 (d) mv 10. Using a horizontal force of 200 N, we intend to move a wooden cabinet across a floor at a constant velocity. What is the friction force that will be exerted on the cabinet? 11. Two objects, each of mass 1.5 kg, are moving in the same straight line but in opposite directions. The velocity of each object is 2.5 m s-1 before the collision during which they | [
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India and the Contemporary World 24 Box 2 Activities Questions ? 1. Find out more about any one of the revolutionary figures you have read about in this chapter. Write a short biography of this person. 2. The French Revolution saw the rise of newspapers describing the events of each day and week. Collect information and pictures on any one event and write a newspaper article. You could also conduct an imaginary interview with important personages such as Mirabeau, Olympe de Gouges or Robespierre. Work in groups of two or three. Each group could then put up their articles on a board to produce a wallpaper on the French Revolution. 1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France. 2. Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution? 3. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. 4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution. 5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain. 6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon? were abolished. Colonised peoples reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation state. Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy are two examples of individuals who responded to the ideas coming from revolutionary France. Activities Raja Rammohan Roy was one of those who was inspired by new ideas that were spreading through Europe at that time. The French Revolution and later, the July Revolution excited his imagination. He could think and talk of nothing else when he heard of the July Revolution in France in 1830. On his way to England at Cape Town he insisted on visiting frigates (warships) flying the revolutionary tri-colour flag though he had been temporarily lamed by an accident. Susobhan Sarkar, Notes on the Bengal Renaissance 1946. 2019-2020 | [
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REAL NUMBERS 17 We are now ready to move on to the rational numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating and recurring. Once again, let us look at an example to see what is going on. We refer to Example 5, Chapter 1, from your Class IX textbook, namely, 1 7 . Here, remainders are 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1, . . . and divisor is 7. Notice that the denominator here, i.e., 7 is clearly not of the form 2n5m. Therefore, from Theorems 1.5 and 1.6, we know that 1 7 will not have a terminating decimal expansion. Hence, 0 will not show up as a remainder (Why?), and the remainders will start repeating after a certain stage. So, we will have a block of digits, namely, 142857, repeating in the quotient of 1 7 . What we have seen, in the case of 1 7 , is true for any rational number not covered by Theorems 1.5 and 1.6. For such numbers we have Theorem 1.7 Let x p q , where p and q are coprimes, be a rational number, such that the prime factorisation of q is not of the form 2n5m, where n, m are non-negative integers. Then, x has a decimal expansion which is non-terminating repeating (recurring). From the discussion above, we can conclude that the decimal expansion of every rational number is either terminating or non-terminating repeating. EXERCISE 1.4 1. Without actually performing the long division, state whether the following rational numbers will have a terminating decimal expansion or a non-terminating repeating decimal expansion (i) 13 3125 (ii) 17 8 (iii) 64 455 (iv) 15 1600 (v) 29 343 (vi) 3 2 23 2 5 (vii) 2 7 5 129 2 5 7 (viii) 6 15 (ix) 35 50 (x) 77 210 7 10 7 3 0 28 2 0 14 6 0 56 4 0 35 5 0 49 1 0 7 3 0 0.1428571 2019-20 | [
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WORK AND ENERGY 151 Let us now express the kinetic energy of an object in the form of an equation. Consider an object of mass, m moving with a uniform velocity, u. Let it now be displaced through a distance s when a constant force, F acts on it in the direction of its displacement. From Eq. (11.1), the work done, W is F s. The work done on the object will cause a change in its velocity. Let its velocity change from u to v. Let a be the acceleration produced. In section 8.5, we studied three equations of motion. The relation connecting the initial velocity (u) and final velocity (v) of an object moving with a uniform acceleration a, and the displacement, s is v2 u2 2a s (8.7) This gives 2 2 v u s 2a (11.2) From section 9.4, we know F m a. Thus, using (Eq. 11.2) in Eq. (11.1), we can write the work done by the force, F as 2 2 v - u W m a 2a or ( ) 1 2 2 2 W m v u (11.3) If the object is starting from its stationary position, that is, u 0, then 1 2 2 W m v (11.4) It is clear that the work done is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of an object. If u 0, the work done will be 1 2 2 m v . Thus, the kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass, m and moving with a uniform velocity, v is 1 2 2 k E m v (11.5) Example 11.3 An object of mass 15 kg is moving with a uniform velocity of 4 m s1. What is the kinetic energy possessed by the object? Solution Mass of the object, m 15 kg, velocity of the object, v 4 m s1. From Eq. (11.5), 1 2 2 k E m v 1 2 15 kg 4 m s1 4 m s1 120 J The kinetic energy of the object is 120 J. Example 11.4 What is the work to be done to increase the velocity of a car from 30 km h1 to 60 km h1 if the mass of the car is 1500 kg? Solution Mass of the car, m 1500 kg, initial velocity of car, u 30 km h1 30 1000m 60 60s 253 m s1. Similarly, the final velocity of the car, v 60 km h1 503 m s1. Therefore, the initial kinetic energy of the car, Eki 1 2 2 m u 1 2 1500 kg (253 m s1)2 1562503 J. The final kinetic energy of the car, Ekf 1 2 1500 kg (503 m s1)2 6250003 J. Thus, the work done Change in kinetic energy Ekf Eki 156250 J. 2019-2020 | [
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India and the Contemporary World 8 If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-century Europe you will find that there were no nation-states as we know them today. What we know today as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups. The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor. How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge? 2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs. 2 The Making of Nationalism in Europe Some important dates 1797 Napoleon invades Italy Napoleonic wars begin. 1814-1815 Fall of Napoleon the Vienna Peace Settlement. 1821 Greek struggle for independence begins. 1848 Revolutions in Europe artisans, industrial workers and peasants revolt against economic hardships middle classes demand constitutions and representative governments Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs, etc. demand nation-states. 1859-1870 Unification of Italy. 1866-1871 Unification of Germany. 1905 Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. 2019-20 | [
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Pastoralists in the Modern World 113 both their pastoral and trading activities. Earlier, pastoralists not only looked after animal herds but traded in various products. The restrictions under colonial rule did not entirely stop their trading activities but they were now subject to various restrictions. 3.3 When Pastures Dry Drought affects the life of pastoralists everywhere. When rains fail and pastures are dry, cattle are likely to starve unless they can be moved to areas where forage is available. That is why, traditionally, pastoralists are nomadic they move from place to place. This nomadism allows them to survive bad times and avoid crises. But from the colonial period, the Maasai were bound down to a fixed area, confined within a reserve, and prohibited from moving in search of pastures. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought. An enquiry in 1930 showed that the Maasai in Kenya possessed 720,000 cattle, 820,000 sheep and 171,000 donkeys. In just two years of severe drought, 1933 and 1934, over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve died. As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to a steady decline of the animal stock of the pastoralists. 3.4 Not All were Equally Affected In Maasailand, as elsewhere in Africa, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids. Raiding was important in a society where cattle was wealth. It is through raids that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted. Young men came to be recognised as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders. Fig.16 Note how the warriors wear traditional deep red shukas, brightly beaded Maasai jewelry and carry five-foot, steel tipped spears. Their long pleats of intricately plaited hair are tinted red with ochre. As per tradition they face East to honour the rising sun. Warriors are in charge of societys security while boys are responsible for herding livestock. During the drought season, both warriors and boys assume responsibility for herding livestock. Courtesy The Massai Association. 2019-2020 | [
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Science Electrical impulses are an excellent means for this. But there are limitations to the use of electrical impulses. Firstly, they will reach only those cells that are connected by nervous tissue, not each and every cell in the animal body. Secondly, once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will take some time to reset its mechanisms before it can generate and transmit a new impulse. In other words, cells cannot continually create and transmit electrical impulses. It is thus no wonder that most multicellular organisms use another means of communication between cells, namely, chemical communication. If, instead of generating an electrical impulse, stimulated cells release a chemical compound, this compound would diffuse all around the original cell. If other cells around have the means to detect this compound using special molecules on their surfaces, then they would be able to recognise information, and even transmit it. This will be slower, of course, but it can potentially reach all cells of the body, regardless of nervous connections, and it can be done steadily and persistently. These compounds, or hormones used by multicellular organisms for control and coordination show a great deal of diversity, as we would expect. Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the environment. They are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the area of action. Let us take an example that we have worked with earlier Activity 7.2. When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesised at the shoot tip, helps the cells to grow longer. When light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot. This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away from light. Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light. Another example of plant hormones are gibberellins which, like auxins, help in the growth of the stem. Cytokinins promote cell division, and it is natural then that they are present in greater concentration in areas of rapid cell division, such as in fruits and seeds. These are examples of plant hormones that help in promoting growth. But plants also need signals to stop growing. Abscisic acid is one example of a hormone which inhibits growth. Its effects include wilting of leaves. 1. What are plant hormones? 2. How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot towards light? 3. Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth. 4. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support? 5. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism. 2019-20 | [
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173 Print Culture the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes edited by women, became extremely popular. They discussed issues like womens education, widowhood, widow remarriage and the national movement. Some of them offered household and fashion lessons to women and brought entertainment through short stories and serialised novels. In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from the early twentieth century. Ram Chaddha published the fast-selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar message. Many of these were in the form of dialogues about the qualities of a good woman. In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta the Battala was devoted to the printing of popular books. Here you could buy cheap editions of religious tracts and scriptures, as well as literature that was considered obscene and scandalous. By the late nineteenth century, a lot of these books were being profusely illustrated with woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure time. Fig. 20 An Indian couple, black and white woodcut. The image shows the artists fear that the cultural impact of the West has turned the family upside down. Notice that the man is playing the veena while the woman is smoking a hookah. The move towards womens education in the late nineteenth century created anxiety about the breakdown of traditional family roles. Fig. 19 Ghor Kali (The End of the World), coloured woodcut, late nineteenth century. The artists vision of the destruction of proper family relations. Here the husband is totally dominated by his wife who is perched on his shoulder. He is cruel towards his mother, dragging her like an animal, by the noose. 2018-19 | [
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102 Democratic Politics Thinking about challenges Do you remember the first chapter of your Political Science textbook of Class IX? There we tracked the expansion of democracy all over the world in the last hundred years. Our reading thereafter has confirmed our initial impression democracy is the dominant form of government in the contemporary world. It does not face a serious challenger or rival. Yet our exploration of the various dimensions of democratic politics has shown us something else as well. The promise of democracy is far from realised anywhere in the world. Democracy does not have a challenger, but that does not mean that it does not face any challenges. At different points in this tour of democracy, we have noted the serious challenges that democracy faces all over the world. A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a challenge which are significant and which can be overcome. A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before. Different countries face different kinds of challenges. Can you recall the map of democratic governments in the year 2000 that was included in your textbook? At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. These countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state. Most of the established democracies face the challenge of expansion. This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge. This also means that less and less decisions should remain outside the arena of democratic control. Most countries including India and other democracies like the US face this challenge. The third challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by every democracy in one form or another. This involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy. This should happen in such a way that people can realise their expectations of democracy. But ordinary people have different expectations from democracy in different societies. Therefore, this challenge takes different meanings and paths in different parts of the world. In general terms, it usually means strengthening those institutions that help peoples participation and control. This requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people in making governmental decision. We have noted or hinted at these challenges in all the various examples and stories that we studied in our textbook of Class IX and in the earlier chapters of this book. Let us go back to all the major stops in our tour of democracy, refresh our memory and note down the challenges that democracy faces in each of these. 2018-19 | [
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