DarthJudie/biosetpart1 · Datasets at Hugging Face

title stringlengths 7 100	text stringlengths 1 16k
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And we're going to have fertilization is seen in the experimental aquarium.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	I want you to also follow up with that if you were to write that with no fertilization is seen in the control, OK, because we have to see if it's able to happen in the control tank without that invertebrate.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK. All right, debrief and summary.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, today's takeaway evolution is also driven by random occurrences, mutations, genetic drift, two types of genetic drift for bottleneck and founder effect.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	I hope you enjoyed learning about the great prairie chicken and polydactyly.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And I then the gene flow, I hope that you also could explain to someone else these random occurrences, and I hope you're really a whole lot better at stating a null hypothesis.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And predicting experimental results.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Common errors and misunderstandings, a prediction must compare the experimental group to the control group.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Why do we need the control to show that a result is not occurring without the treatment?
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	The difference between a negative control and a positive control.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And my kids had my classroom had the same question, but we had one particular lab that kind of made it all clear in a negative control.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	No response is expected.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	No treatment is added.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	The dependent variable results you are looking for will not occur.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, and a positive control will reflect a known result.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And a good example of this is when you're running gel electrophoresis, a positive control will tell you if a result is in fact negative because it's really negative and not just due to operator error.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	If the positive result was missing, then we know it's not really a negative result, but something else in your procedure probably went wrong.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	All right, we have some homework left.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	All right.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	So tonight, and this is another one of my favorite questions.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	In fact, I start my kids off at their very first day of school every year on day one.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	We do this.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	We learn how to use we learn how to graph and we learn how to place error bars and just get that right right from day one.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	So you have a table, you have a table, you have a table, you have a table, you have a you have bees involved in this.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, and you have caffeine and you're going to look at putting error bars plus or minus to standard error, the mean and you have 10 minutes and 24 hours.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, that they had an average probability.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	All right.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	So in flowering plants, pollination is a process that leads to fertilization of an egg and the production of seeds, some flowers attract pollinators such as bees, usual visual and chemical cues.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	When a bee visits a flower, in addition to transferring pollen, the bee can take nectar from the flower and use it to make honey for the colony.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Nectar contains sugar, but certain plants also produce caffeine in the nectar.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Caffeine is a bitter tasting compound that can be toxic to insects at high concentrations to investigate the role of caffeine and nectar.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	The group of researchers studied the effect of zero point one million mole caffeine on bee behavior.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	The results of an experiment to test the effect of caffeine on bees memory of a nectar source are shown in table one design and experiment using artificial flowers to investigate potential negative effects of increasing caffeine concentrations in nectar on the number of floral visits by the bees.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	I'm going to give you the road to not go down.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, I don't want you to talk about the bees overdosing on caffeine.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, I don't want them dying.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	I just want you to increase those caffeine concentrations and have a nice experimental design.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	All right.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Identify the null hypothesis and appropriate control treatment and the predicted results that could be used to reject the null hypothesis.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Now, I added this to this because we've got to get this.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	We got to get the skill down.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	I want you to make a graph also.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, and tomorrow night when this next lesson, when Miss Katei starts her lesson, it will start off with the answer to this homework.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	OK, enjoy that question.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	All right.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	On device and Internet access, we know that not all students have access to the Internet or a device.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	We're working on solutions to help students get what they need to show their best work.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	If you need mobile tools or connectivity or know someone who does, you can reach us directly to let us know.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	CB dot org backslash tech.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	And I want to give a shout out to Margaret from Alaska and to Mila.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Thank you for your questions this week.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Thanks for watching.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	We hope you'll join us again.
AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics	Be sure to complete the practice question and we'll review the answer in the next lesson.
AP Bio Genome Information	Welcome to a very short chapter 21 where we're going to talk a bit more about just genomes.
AP Bio Genome Information	So to start off with we've got genomics, which is the science where we're going to study the specific gene sequences of different species and different organisms and typically compare them to try to learn more about things such as evolution.
AP Bio Genome Information	We'll also talk about bioinformatics, and the whole purpose here is this goes hand in hand with genomics and all these different fields where we're getting so much biological info.
AP Bio Genome Information	So we need to do a bit like Google did to the web, where we need to organize it and make it accessible, so that studies that are done that have been peer reviewed and are high quality, all that information is accessible, so we're not just doing the same thing over and over again, wasting money, wasting time.
AP Bio Genome Information	We want to make sure that people can get as much information as possible at their fingertips, so they can continue to expand it.
AP Bio Genome Information	So they're trying to digitize and analyze and organize, lots of Isis here, all the data that we have thus far biologically so that we can use it.
AP Bio Genome Information	Now to that end, you have the NCBI database called GenBank, and this is one of the ones that's run by the government that stores most of the known sequences from a whole bunch of different organisms, so livestock, model organisms like mice, and some nematodes, and some fruit flies, and humans, and all that stuff.
AP Bio Genome Information	You also have most of the proteins that we've discovered, and their 3D structures are in different parts of this.
AP Bio Genome Information	So if they talk about BLAST and some other software, it allows for you to enter sequences that you may have found.
AP Bio Genome Information	You can do DNA, you can also do this with different versions that are the same once again for proteins and such, and it'll tell you what it's a match for.
AP Bio Genome Information	So you can kind of figure out, you know, is this an exact fit for an organism that we know of, that we've sequenced?
AP Bio Genome Information	How far apart is it if it's not?
AP Bio Genome Information	So this is really useful evolutionarily, as well as the database grows for basic identification in some instances, so we can figure out, you know, where did this gene come from, both literally like the sample, is this like a turkey's gene, and then from there, where did the turkey get its gene, who is it related to, you know, how is this gene kind of diverged from when it first was, I don't know, arose, we'll say, as time has passed and different organisms have had theirs mutate slightly to become more and more different.
AP Bio Genome Information	So this is very useful, especially as we look at the evolutionary aspects of things and try to trace stuff.
AP Bio Genome Information	Now, one of the other things that we can talk about is going to be the idea of trying to go through these sequences, because we'll sequence a whole genome, so we have tons of data, but we have to pour through there and find these specific sequences that might be genes.
AP Bio Genome Information	All right, so we're looking for sequences that have codes, that have regions that make us think, all right, this could be a protein coding gene.
AP Bio Genome Information	And then from there, we can try to compare it, whatever we found that we think might be new or might be a gene, we can compare that to known genes to see A, if it's something we already know, and B, if it's very similar in pattern, especially at like the beginning and end, to where there's a really likely case that this is a brand new gene that's functional, that it's not like some broken down gene, or it doesn't just happen to have a sequence that reminds us of a start codon, but there's none of the other stuff, no promoter, no tata box, no terminator, and so that'll be part of our job as we process things.
AP Bio Genome Information	There's also proteomics, which is where we're looking not just do we have genes, but once again, what proteins are made from these genes.
AP Bio Genome Information	So this can be a big deal because we have to worry about gene expression, do we use the gene, and beyond there, we have to worry about things like alternative splicing, like what protein do we ultimately make from this, and that goes back to gene expression with the gene chips, so that's the expression part, as we try to figure out what's different because we want to know what's being expressed and exactly how is it being expressed, you know, what protein is it making, so we can try and analyze what's going on with certain diseases and certain types of cancer so that we can try and attack those things.
AP Bio Genome Information	You know, maybe if they have a modified protein, we can try to attack or alter that modified protein to try and rid the person of the cancer or the disease in question.
AP Bio Genome Information	Now, as we kind of start to wrap up here, I want to make sure you guys understand that our genome, especially in mammals, because we're a mammal, we've said before that only 2% of our actual DNA codes for proteins.
AP Bio Genome Information	It's a very small amount, and mammals are known for having one of the lowest gene densities that there is, so I want you to realize that we have a lot of nitrogen bases, a lot of nucleotides that are part of our genome, so our genome size is quite large, but our gene number is not proportionately large, and so what we find is gene density varies by species and by overall group.
AP Bio Genome Information	You know, vertebrates tend to be lower than most, so don't just sit there and say, oh wow, we have a ton of nucleotides, so we must have a ton of genes.
AP Bio Genome Information	What we found is that wasn't true, and part of this is because in some cases we just have a lot of baggage.
AP Bio Genome Information	There's a good chance that we have some DNA that's just kind of accumulated, but there's also where we have alternative splicing, so we found that we need fewer genes in many cases, because a lot of vertebrates will have multiple different polypeptides made from a gene, and so that means that if each one, just magically we're going to say here, will definitely code for two polypeptides, that means I effectively have twice the genes that you would think of, because each gene is making two products, so it's the equivalent of having twice as many genes, and so these things all kind of get packed into mammals appearing to have very few genes relative to the amount of overall DNA that we possess.
AP Bio Genome Information	Building a genome, so if we're looking at genes, how did we get all these different genes?
AP Bio Genome Information	And the idea here is that as organisms evolved, they would undergo events such as duplication and polyploidy.
AP Bio Genome Information	Both of these now give us multiple copies of a gene.
AP Bio Genome Information	Now once we have multiple copies, we can have where one of those copies gets manipulated, altered, changed, and we still have one intact.
AP Bio Genome Information	So the organism should still be fine at that point, if it's already alive and okay, but now that second guy that's altered can now make something new, something novel, which can allow for speciation and evolution to occur.
AP Bio Genome Information	There's also certain parts of the DNA, these hot spots, where you can see they're more likely to have interesting stuff happen, they're more likely to have these screw-ups, these duplications, these mutations, and so there are certain parts in our genome that seem more prone to altering and allowing for speciation than others.
AP Bio Genome Information	Now the last thing we're going to discuss is these kind of oddballs called transposable elements.
AP Bio Genome Information	These guys really don't fit in with our normal idea of what genes are supposed to do.
AP Bio Genome Information	Some people call them jumping genes.
AP Bio Genome Information	Barbara McClintock is the female scientist that discovered these with Indian corn, and figuring out why some kernels were different than others.
AP Bio Genome Information	And what they found is some pieces of DNA can essentially remove themselves, and sometimes they copy themselves somewhere else, sometimes they cut themselves out and reinsert themselves, so the type kind of varies.
AP Bio Genome Information	Some go through RNA as an in-between, some just use DNA, so I'm not going to go into all the details, but I want you to realize the fact that some of these pieces of DNA, or some of these pieces of genetic information is probably more accurate, are able to move from one part to another allows us to get recombination, where elements of one chromosome can go to another.
AP Bio Genome Information	We can also get where they can alter what protein we get, because they can insert themselves into a gene, into an exon, and affect what protein we would get.
AP Bio Genome Information	They can also insert themselves in some cases into a regulatory sequence, so they can kind of crank it onto high gear, speed it up, the production of stuff, or they can slow it down.
AP Bio Genome Information	You can have where they can relocate genes or groups of genes, because sometimes when they cut themselves out, they bring baggage with them, and so they can move genes around within our genome, and they can also affect the way we splice things, so they can increase the types of splicing that we do, they can cause alternate splicing to give us more end products.
AP Bio Genome Information	So while a lot of times when these guys get up to mischief, a lot of times when there's an effect, it's not going to be a good one, but you will get, based upon the number of mishaps, you will get some new things, some modified things that are better.
AP Bio Genome Information	And so this is one of the engines, besides just straight up mutation, that can help affect evolution and getting new traits.
AP Bio Genome Information	Hope you guys enjoyed 21, that was it.
AP Bio Genome Information	Take it easy.
Plant Cells Crash Course Biology #6	So plants are freaking great because they have this magical wizard power that allows them to take carbon dioxide out of the air and convert it into wonderful, fresh, pure oxygen for us to breathe.
Plant Cells Crash Course Biology #6	They're also way cooler than us because, unlike us and every other animal on the planet, they don't require all kinds of hot pockets and fancy coffee drinks to keep them going.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And we're going to have fertilization is seen in the experimental aquarium.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

I want you to also follow up with that if you were to write that with no fertilization is seen in the control, OK, because we have to see if it's able to happen in the control tank without that invertebrate.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK. All right, debrief and summary.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, today's takeaway evolution is also driven by random occurrences, mutations, genetic drift, two types of genetic drift for bottleneck and founder effect.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

I hope you enjoyed learning about the great prairie chicken and polydactyly.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And I then the gene flow, I hope that you also could explain to someone else these random occurrences, and I hope you're really a whole lot better at stating a null hypothesis.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And predicting experimental results.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Common errors and misunderstandings, a prediction must compare the experimental group to the control group.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Why do we need the control to show that a result is not occurring without the treatment?

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

The difference between a negative control and a positive control.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And my kids had my classroom had the same question, but we had one particular lab that kind of made it all clear in a negative control.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

No response is expected.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

No treatment is added.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

The dependent variable results you are looking for will not occur.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, and a positive control will reflect a known result.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And a good example of this is when you're running gel electrophoresis, a positive control will tell you if a result is in fact negative because it's really negative and not just due to operator error.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

If the positive result was missing, then we know it's not really a negative result, but something else in your procedure probably went wrong.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

All right, we have some homework left.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

All right.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

So tonight, and this is another one of my favorite questions.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

In fact, I start my kids off at their very first day of school every year on day one.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

We do this.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

We learn how to use we learn how to graph and we learn how to place error bars and just get that right right from day one.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

So you have a table, you have a table, you have a table, you have a table, you have a you have bees involved in this.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, and you have caffeine and you're going to look at putting error bars plus or minus to standard error, the mean and you have 10 minutes and 24 hours.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, that they had an average probability.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

All right.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

So in flowering plants, pollination is a process that leads to fertilization of an egg and the production of seeds, some flowers attract pollinators such as bees, usual visual and chemical cues.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

When a bee visits a flower, in addition to transferring pollen, the bee can take nectar from the flower and use it to make honey for the colony.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Nectar contains sugar, but certain plants also produce caffeine in the nectar.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Caffeine is a bitter tasting compound that can be toxic to insects at high concentrations to investigate the role of caffeine and nectar.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

The group of researchers studied the effect of zero point one million mole caffeine on bee behavior.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

The results of an experiment to test the effect of caffeine on bees memory of a nectar source are shown in table one design and experiment using artificial flowers to investigate potential negative effects of increasing caffeine concentrations in nectar on the number of floral visits by the bees.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

I'm going to give you the road to not go down.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, I don't want you to talk about the bees overdosing on caffeine.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, I don't want them dying.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

I just want you to increase those caffeine concentrations and have a nice experimental design.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

All right.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Identify the null hypothesis and appropriate control treatment and the predicted results that could be used to reject the null hypothesis.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Now, I added this to this because we've got to get this.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

We got to get the skill down.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

I want you to make a graph also.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, and tomorrow night when this next lesson, when Miss Katei starts her lesson, it will start off with the answer to this homework.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

OK, enjoy that question.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

All right.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

On device and Internet access, we know that not all students have access to the Internet or a device.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

We're working on solutions to help students get what they need to show their best work.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

If you need mobile tools or connectivity or know someone who does, you can reach us directly to let us know.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

CB dot org backslash tech.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

And I want to give a shout out to Margaret from Alaska and to Mila.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Thank you for your questions this week.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Thanks for watching.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

We hope you'll join us again.

AP Biology 7.4 Population Genetics

Be sure to complete the practice question and we'll review the answer in the next lesson.

AP Bio Genome Information

Welcome to a very short chapter 21 where we're going to talk a bit more about just genomes.

AP Bio Genome Information

So to start off with we've got genomics, which is the science where we're going to study the specific gene sequences of different species and different organisms and typically compare them to try to learn more about things such as evolution.

AP Bio Genome Information

We'll also talk about bioinformatics, and the whole purpose here is this goes hand in hand with genomics and all these different fields where we're getting so much biological info.

AP Bio Genome Information

So we need to do a bit like Google did to the web, where we need to organize it and make it accessible, so that studies that are done that have been peer reviewed and are high quality, all that information is accessible, so we're not just doing the same thing over and over again, wasting money, wasting time.

AP Bio Genome Information

We want to make sure that people can get as much information as possible at their fingertips, so they can continue to expand it.

AP Bio Genome Information

So they're trying to digitize and analyze and organize, lots of Isis here, all the data that we have thus far biologically so that we can use it.

AP Bio Genome Information

Now to that end, you have the NCBI database called GenBank, and this is one of the ones that's run by the government that stores most of the known sequences from a whole bunch of different organisms, so livestock, model organisms like mice, and some nematodes, and some fruit flies, and humans, and all that stuff.

AP Bio Genome Information

You also have most of the proteins that we've discovered, and their 3D structures are in different parts of this.

AP Bio Genome Information

So if they talk about BLAST and some other software, it allows for you to enter sequences that you may have found.

AP Bio Genome Information

You can do DNA, you can also do this with different versions that are the same once again for proteins and such, and it'll tell you what it's a match for.

AP Bio Genome Information

So you can kind of figure out, you know, is this an exact fit for an organism that we know of, that we've sequenced?

AP Bio Genome Information

How far apart is it if it's not?

AP Bio Genome Information

So this is really useful evolutionarily, as well as the database grows for basic identification in some instances, so we can figure out, you know, where did this gene come from, both literally like the sample, is this like a turkey's gene, and then from there, where did the turkey get its gene, who is it related to, you know, how is this gene kind of diverged from when it first was, I don't know, arose, we'll say, as time has passed and different organisms have had theirs mutate slightly to become more and more different.

AP Bio Genome Information

So this is very useful, especially as we look at the evolutionary aspects of things and try to trace stuff.

AP Bio Genome Information

Now, one of the other things that we can talk about is going to be the idea of trying to go through these sequences, because we'll sequence a whole genome, so we have tons of data, but we have to pour through there and find these specific sequences that might be genes.

AP Bio Genome Information

All right, so we're looking for sequences that have codes, that have regions that make us think, all right, this could be a protein coding gene.

AP Bio Genome Information

And then from there, we can try to compare it, whatever we found that we think might be new or might be a gene, we can compare that to known genes to see A, if it's something we already know, and B, if it's very similar in pattern, especially at like the beginning and end, to where there's a really likely case that this is a brand new gene that's functional, that it's not like some broken down gene, or it doesn't just happen to have a sequence that reminds us of a start codon, but there's none of the other stuff, no promoter, no tata box, no terminator, and so that'll be part of our job as we process things.

AP Bio Genome Information

There's also proteomics, which is where we're looking not just do we have genes, but once again, what proteins are made from these genes.

AP Bio Genome Information

So this can be a big deal because we have to worry about gene expression, do we use the gene, and beyond there, we have to worry about things like alternative splicing, like what protein do we ultimately make from this, and that goes back to gene expression with the gene chips, so that's the expression part, as we try to figure out what's different because we want to know what's being expressed and exactly how is it being expressed, you know, what protein is it making, so we can try and analyze what's going on with certain diseases and certain types of cancer so that we can try and attack those things.

AP Bio Genome Information

You know, maybe if they have a modified protein, we can try to attack or alter that modified protein to try and rid the person of the cancer or the disease in question.

AP Bio Genome Information

Now, as we kind of start to wrap up here, I want to make sure you guys understand that our genome, especially in mammals, because we're a mammal, we've said before that only 2% of our actual DNA codes for proteins.

AP Bio Genome Information

It's a very small amount, and mammals are known for having one of the lowest gene densities that there is, so I want you to realize that we have a lot of nitrogen bases, a lot of nucleotides that are part of our genome, so our genome size is quite large, but our gene number is not proportionately large, and so what we find is gene density varies by species and by overall group.

AP Bio Genome Information

You know, vertebrates tend to be lower than most, so don't just sit there and say, oh wow, we have a ton of nucleotides, so we must have a ton of genes.

AP Bio Genome Information

What we found is that wasn't true, and part of this is because in some cases we just have a lot of baggage.

AP Bio Genome Information

There's a good chance that we have some DNA that's just kind of accumulated, but there's also where we have alternative splicing, so we found that we need fewer genes in many cases, because a lot of vertebrates will have multiple different polypeptides made from a gene, and so that means that if each one, just magically we're going to say here, will definitely code for two polypeptides, that means I effectively have twice the genes that you would think of, because each gene is making two products, so it's the equivalent of having twice as many genes, and so these things all kind of get packed into mammals appearing to have very few genes relative to the amount of overall DNA that we possess.

AP Bio Genome Information

Building a genome, so if we're looking at genes, how did we get all these different genes?

AP Bio Genome Information

And the idea here is that as organisms evolved, they would undergo events such as duplication and polyploidy.

AP Bio Genome Information

Both of these now give us multiple copies of a gene.

AP Bio Genome Information

Now once we have multiple copies, we can have where one of those copies gets manipulated, altered, changed, and we still have one intact.

AP Bio Genome Information

So the organism should still be fine at that point, if it's already alive and okay, but now that second guy that's altered can now make something new, something novel, which can allow for speciation and evolution to occur.

AP Bio Genome Information

There's also certain parts of the DNA, these hot spots, where you can see they're more likely to have interesting stuff happen, they're more likely to have these screw-ups, these duplications, these mutations, and so there are certain parts in our genome that seem more prone to altering and allowing for speciation than others.

AP Bio Genome Information

Now the last thing we're going to discuss is these kind of oddballs called transposable elements.

AP Bio Genome Information

These guys really don't fit in with our normal idea of what genes are supposed to do.

AP Bio Genome Information

Some people call them jumping genes.

AP Bio Genome Information

Barbara McClintock is the female scientist that discovered these with Indian corn, and figuring out why some kernels were different than others.

AP Bio Genome Information

And what they found is some pieces of DNA can essentially remove themselves, and sometimes they copy themselves somewhere else, sometimes they cut themselves out and reinsert themselves, so the type kind of varies.

AP Bio Genome Information

Some go through RNA as an in-between, some just use DNA, so I'm not going to go into all the details, but I want you to realize the fact that some of these pieces of DNA, or some of these pieces of genetic information is probably more accurate, are able to move from one part to another allows us to get recombination, where elements of one chromosome can go to another.

AP Bio Genome Information

We can also get where they can alter what protein we get, because they can insert themselves into a gene, into an exon, and affect what protein we would get.

AP Bio Genome Information

They can also insert themselves in some cases into a regulatory sequence, so they can kind of crank it onto high gear, speed it up, the production of stuff, or they can slow it down.

AP Bio Genome Information

You can have where they can relocate genes or groups of genes, because sometimes when they cut themselves out, they bring baggage with them, and so they can move genes around within our genome, and they can also affect the way we splice things, so they can increase the types of splicing that we do, they can cause alternate splicing to give us more end products.

AP Bio Genome Information

So while a lot of times when these guys get up to mischief, a lot of times when there's an effect, it's not going to be a good one, but you will get, based upon the number of mishaps, you will get some new things, some modified things that are better.

AP Bio Genome Information

And so this is one of the engines, besides just straight up mutation, that can help affect evolution and getting new traits.

AP Bio Genome Information

Hope you guys enjoyed 21, that was it.

AP Bio Genome Information

Take it easy.

Plant Cells Crash Course Biology #6

So plants are freaking great because they have this magical wizard power that allows them to take carbon dioxide out of the air and convert it into wonderful, fresh, pure oxygen for us to breathe.

Plant Cells Crash Course Biology #6

They're also way cooler than us because, unlike us and every other animal on the planet, they don't require all kinds of hot pockets and fancy coffee drinks to keep them going.