DarthJudie/biosetpart1 · Datasets at Hugging Face

title stringlengths 7 100	text stringlengths 1 16k
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Well, if you look at your second longest chromosome, human chromosome 2, and the chimpanzee chromosomes 12 and 13, it looks like somewhere back in the line before humans and chimps diverged, that ancestor had this thing going on, and their chromosome 12 and 13 actually fused, which can happen.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Chromosomes can fuse.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Usually that's bad, into what has become our chromosome number 2.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	What's interesting is, remember the word telomeres?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Telomeres were the ends of the chromosomes.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The middle of your chromosome number 2 has telomere-like sequences.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Like what?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	There's got to be a reason for that.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Maybe it's because your chromosome 2 is a product of chromosome 12 and 13 fusing in an ancestor.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	It's sort of like your centromeres, those are the places where the chromosomes attach, that there's two different places where there are centromere sequences, which if you look at the chimp chromosome, you can see how these two fused, you would get that.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Does this prove that humans and chimps have a common ancestor?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	By itself, no, but you don't get this by accident.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	There's a reason why your chromosome 2 looks like this.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	It's a very interesting clue.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	If you compare humans to mice, I forget how many chromosomes a mouse has, but mouse chromosomes 7, 8, 16, and 17, and again, we number chromosomes by their length.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The longest chromosome is 1, then 2, then 3, so it's just by how long they are.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Look at the genes on these four chromosomes and look at your chromosome 16.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	It seems like your chromosome 16 in a way early ancestor, before humans diverged from mice, which would be way before humans and chimps diverged, that those blocks of genes got collected on one chromosome, whereas the branch that became mice kept it separate.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Again, it doesn't prove anything, but again, evolution would explain why it is the way that it is.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	When Darwin first proposed evolution, he wasn't trying to be provocative or he wasn't trying to create some crazy idea.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	He was trying to create a theory that explained his observations.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Probably in the Galapagos, although it wasn't just the Galapagos.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Evolution explains this and evolution explains this.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is a good little note on science.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Science seeks to create theories to explain observations.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	If you have a better explanation for a series of observations, please propose it, but a theory, a good theory is the best explanation of observations that we have now.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Again, we discussed transposons, how transposons can create copies of genes.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	You could have unequal crossing over that could do this.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	You could have genes duplicate.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Those are mutations.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	All these things collectively can give you multiple copies of the same gene.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The human globin genes, we talked about how you get dates, like how we think these diverged 450 to 500 million years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	That's going to be a later chapter.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	It seems like there was one ancestral globin gene that evolved into the alpha and the beta versions maybe due to a transposon.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Then you got the alpha family.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Then you got the beta family that diverged from the alpha and the beta ancestors of the gene.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	There's ways of measuring mutation rates while we think this number is what it is.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is a later chapter.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This just shows a blast search looking at amino acid sequences between different...
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is the alpha, the alpha globin, like this one, and I forget what Greek letter that is.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Basically the more...
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The yellows are what's highlighted.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The more that are highlighted, the more you have in common, the closer you're related.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The more differences you have, the further back you diverged.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	These are all concepts we're going to get to later.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This chart we're going to talk about later.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is an example that I want to go through quickly.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Lysosyme is a molecule that's found in things like tears.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Lysosyme helps to break down bacteria and such.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Alpha-lactobumin, I forget the function of alpha-lactobumin.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Here it is.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Alpha-lactobumin is a non-insimidated protein that plays a role in milk production.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Lysosyme helps break down bacteria.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Alpha-lactobumin helps with milk production.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	They totally do way different things, but their structures are so similar that it seems ... Why would their structures be similar?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	I guess there could be many reasons for that, but maybe it's because they once were one gene, like one ancestor gene that did a transposon thing that formed two copies of that gene, and one of them is the ancestor of today's lysosyme, and one is the ancestor of today's alpha-lactobumin.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	But the fact that those two genes, which do way different things, but are very similar structurally, there has to be a reason for that, and evolution explains why that is.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	We've already discussed how transposable elements can contribute to evolution.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	They could be bad.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	If you insert a gene into another gene, that obviously would be bad, but maybe the copy of the transposon becomes something that's beneficial for people with this one.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The end of this chapter, we're going to get into evolution later.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	I want to skip that slide right there.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This shows a thing called a cladogram.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Actually, you know what, let me go back a second.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	If you want to compare species and you want to know how distantly they separated from one another or how far back their common ancestor is, like you and a chimp, your common ancestor is much more recent than you and a mouse.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	What you want to do is create these things called cladograms.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Notice the one on the top.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	For both these, the x-axis is time.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Here we are in billions of years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Here we are in, I think that bar to go away, millions of years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is showing bacteria and archaea and eukarya diverged, in this case three... Actually, let me say that again.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Bacteria diverged, eukarya and archaea 3.7 billion years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	When did eukarya and archaea diverge?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Three billion years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	These are called nodes.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Now, look at this one.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Here I'm taking this little part and zooming in on it.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	When did chimps and humans diverge?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This shows about five million years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	When did humans and mice diverge?
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Well, you have to go back to the most recent common ancestor for a human and a mouse, which goes back here, which would be about 65 million years ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	How you create these charts, they're called cladograms.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	This is chapter 20, which we'll talk about actually pretty soon.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The concept I want you to get it now is that if you want to compare species that are distinctly related, like human and bacteria, you have to use genes that are highly conserved.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	That means they're genes that haven't changed much over time.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Let me give you an example.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Glycolysis, going back to chapter seven.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Glycolysis is a process that pretty much all life does.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Find an enzyme in glycolysis that you have and that bacteria have.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	It's probably pretty similar because it's a similar process.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Those proteins would be coded for genes that are highly conserved because they haven't changed much.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Highly conserved genes are good for comparing things that diverged a long, long, long time ago.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Now, say you want to compare species that diverged more recently, like humans and chimps, you might want to compare genes that aren't as highly conserved.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	If I want to use, I might use hemoglobin, that gene to compare human and chimps because those bacteria don't have hemoglobin.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	That's more of a more recent protein on planet Earth.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Those would be genes that are not highly conserved, which means they're more recent.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Hopefully, that makes sense.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	I began the chapter by saying humans and chimps differ 1.2% as single base pairs, 2.7% because if you add in insertions and deletions, that's not a huge difference.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	The last thing I want to mention is just these two terms, SNPs and CNPs.
AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution	Single nucleotide polymorphisms is a mutation in just a single nucleotide.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Well, if you look at your second longest chromosome, human chromosome 2, and the chimpanzee chromosomes 12 and 13, it looks like somewhere back in the line before humans and chimps diverged, that ancestor had this thing going on, and their chromosome 12 and 13 actually fused, which can happen.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Chromosomes can fuse.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Usually that's bad, into what has become our chromosome number 2.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

What's interesting is, remember the word telomeres?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Telomeres were the ends of the chromosomes.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The middle of your chromosome number 2 has telomere-like sequences.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Like what?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

There's got to be a reason for that.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Maybe it's because your chromosome 2 is a product of chromosome 12 and 13 fusing in an ancestor.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

It's sort of like your centromeres, those are the places where the chromosomes attach, that there's two different places where there are centromere sequences, which if you look at the chimp chromosome, you can see how these two fused, you would get that.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Does this prove that humans and chimps have a common ancestor?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

By itself, no, but you don't get this by accident.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

There's a reason why your chromosome 2 looks like this.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

It's a very interesting clue.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

If you compare humans to mice, I forget how many chromosomes a mouse has, but mouse chromosomes 7, 8, 16, and 17, and again, we number chromosomes by their length.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The longest chromosome is 1, then 2, then 3, so it's just by how long they are.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Look at the genes on these four chromosomes and look at your chromosome 16.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

It seems like your chromosome 16 in a way early ancestor, before humans diverged from mice, which would be way before humans and chimps diverged, that those blocks of genes got collected on one chromosome, whereas the branch that became mice kept it separate.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Again, it doesn't prove anything, but again, evolution would explain why it is the way that it is.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

When Darwin first proposed evolution, he wasn't trying to be provocative or he wasn't trying to create some crazy idea.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

He was trying to create a theory that explained his observations.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Probably in the Galapagos, although it wasn't just the Galapagos.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Evolution explains this and evolution explains this.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is a good little note on science.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Science seeks to create theories to explain observations.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

If you have a better explanation for a series of observations, please propose it, but a theory, a good theory is the best explanation of observations that we have now.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Again, we discussed transposons, how transposons can create copies of genes.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

You could have unequal crossing over that could do this.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

You could have genes duplicate.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Those are mutations.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

All these things collectively can give you multiple copies of the same gene.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The human globin genes, we talked about how you get dates, like how we think these diverged 450 to 500 million years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

That's going to be a later chapter.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

It seems like there was one ancestral globin gene that evolved into the alpha and the beta versions maybe due to a transposon.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Then you got the alpha family.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Then you got the beta family that diverged from the alpha and the beta ancestors of the gene.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

There's ways of measuring mutation rates while we think this number is what it is.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is a later chapter.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This just shows a blast search looking at amino acid sequences between different...

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is the alpha, the alpha globin, like this one, and I forget what Greek letter that is.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Basically the more...

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The yellows are what's highlighted.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The more that are highlighted, the more you have in common, the closer you're related.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The more differences you have, the further back you diverged.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

These are all concepts we're going to get to later.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This chart we're going to talk about later.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is an example that I want to go through quickly.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Lysosyme is a molecule that's found in things like tears.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Lysosyme helps to break down bacteria and such.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Alpha-lactobumin, I forget the function of alpha-lactobumin.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Here it is.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Alpha-lactobumin is a non-insimidated protein that plays a role in milk production.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Lysosyme helps break down bacteria.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Alpha-lactobumin helps with milk production.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

They totally do way different things, but their structures are so similar that it seems ... Why would their structures be similar?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

I guess there could be many reasons for that, but maybe it's because they once were one gene, like one ancestor gene that did a transposon thing that formed two copies of that gene, and one of them is the ancestor of today's lysosyme, and one is the ancestor of today's alpha-lactobumin.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

But the fact that those two genes, which do way different things, but are very similar structurally, there has to be a reason for that, and evolution explains why that is.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

We've already discussed how transposable elements can contribute to evolution.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

They could be bad.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

If you insert a gene into another gene, that obviously would be bad, but maybe the copy of the transposon becomes something that's beneficial for people with this one.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The end of this chapter, we're going to get into evolution later.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

I want to skip that slide right there.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This shows a thing called a cladogram.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Actually, you know what, let me go back a second.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

If you want to compare species and you want to know how distantly they separated from one another or how far back their common ancestor is, like you and a chimp, your common ancestor is much more recent than you and a mouse.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

What you want to do is create these things called cladograms.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Notice the one on the top.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

For both these, the x-axis is time.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Here we are in billions of years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Here we are in, I think that bar to go away, millions of years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is showing bacteria and archaea and eukarya diverged, in this case three... Actually, let me say that again.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Bacteria diverged, eukarya and archaea 3.7 billion years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

When did eukarya and archaea diverge?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Three billion years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

These are called nodes.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Now, look at this one.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Here I'm taking this little part and zooming in on it.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

When did chimps and humans diverge?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This shows about five million years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

When did humans and mice diverge?

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Well, you have to go back to the most recent common ancestor for a human and a mouse, which goes back here, which would be about 65 million years ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

How you create these charts, they're called cladograms.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

This is chapter 20, which we'll talk about actually pretty soon.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The concept I want you to get it now is that if you want to compare species that are distinctly related, like human and bacteria, you have to use genes that are highly conserved.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

That means they're genes that haven't changed much over time.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Let me give you an example.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Glycolysis, going back to chapter seven.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Glycolysis is a process that pretty much all life does.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Find an enzyme in glycolysis that you have and that bacteria have.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

It's probably pretty similar because it's a similar process.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Those proteins would be coded for genes that are highly conserved because they haven't changed much.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Highly conserved genes are good for comparing things that diverged a long, long, long time ago.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Now, say you want to compare species that diverged more recently, like humans and chimps, you might want to compare genes that aren't as highly conserved.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

If I want to use, I might use hemoglobin, that gene to compare human and chimps because those bacteria don't have hemoglobin.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

That's more of a more recent protein on planet Earth.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Those would be genes that are not highly conserved, which means they're more recent.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Hopefully, that makes sense.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

I began the chapter by saying humans and chimps differ 1.2% as single base pairs, 2.7% because if you add in insertions and deletions, that's not a huge difference.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

The last thing I want to mention is just these two terms, SNPs and CNPs.

AP Biology Chapter 18 Genomes and Their Evolution

Single nucleotide polymorphisms is a mutation in just a single nucleotide.