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40 | where does most shrimp in the us come from | https://www.expertmarketresearch.com/articles/top-shrimp-companies-in-united-states | Explore Our Diverse Range Of Offerings
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Leading Companies in the United States Shrimp Market, Driven by Shift in Consumer Preference Towards Sustainably Sourced Seafood
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Aqua Star, Harbor Seafood, Eastern Fish Company, and Mazzetta Company, LLC, among others, are the major players in the United States shrimp market.
The United States shrimp market attained a volume of more than 807.67 KMT in the year 2023. The market is further expected to grow at a CAGR of 2.4% between 2024 and 2032 to attain a volume of almost 998.27 KMT by 2032. As per the analysis by Expert Market Research, the market is expected to be driven by the increasing popularity for convenient and value-added products.
Shrimp is considered the major seafood consumed in the United States, with 5.9 pounds of shrimp consumed per person in 2021. The consumption of shrimp accounts for 38% of the total annual seafood consumption in the country, which is more than canned tuna, tilapia, Alaska pollock, pangasius, cod, and crab combined.
The United States has an annual wild shrimp production of 150,000 mt. The common shrimps consumed, and domestic landings are White shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus), brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus aztecus) from the Gulf of Mexico, and ocean shrimp (Pandalus jordani) caught near Oregon. Shrimp imports are also a major contributor to the United States shrimp market development, with Mexican blue, white, and brown shrimp and Argentine red shrimp gaining popularity in US restaurants and supermarket chains respectively.
In February 2024, the United States imported 59,510 metric tons (MT), or 131 million pounds, of shrimp, an increase from the 52,889 MT, or 116.6 million pounds imported in February 2023. The major countries exporting shrimp to the US are India, Ecuador, Indonesia, Vietnam, Argentina, Mexico, Thailand etc. India exported 23,777 MT, or 52 million pounds, in February 2024, while Ecuador exported 16,911 MT, or 37 million pounds of shrimp to the U.S. during the same period.
Figure: United States Wild Shrimp Production (MT): 2023
Figure: U.S. States With the Most Aquaculture Production
As per the United States shrimp market analysis, the rising sustainability concerns contribute to the growth. The expansion of the shrimp sector in the United States using traditional practices is transitioning towards sustainable methods. Traditional practices are creating concerns about environmental pollution, disease transmission, and cost of production. New production technologies such as biosecure production technologies are developed to rear shrimp under super-intensive conditions with minimal water use. Such technologies enable shrimp farmers in the United States to cultivate shrimp at inland locations away from sensitive coastal areas, and also with lowered environmental footprint.
In April 2023, Homegrown Shrimp USA opened its new shrimp farming facility in the United States. The recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) of the company produces Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei).
Top 4 Shrimp Companies in the United States:
Aqua Star
Establishment:
1990
Website:
www.aquastar.com
Aqua Star is a leader in frozen speciality seafood products and among the largest retail frozen seafood brands in North America. Aqua star is a privately owned company operating in 17 countries across the globe. The products of the company include shrimp, fish, crab, and speciality seafood. The company offers over 10 varieties of fish available as marinated, seared, breaded, battered or raw fillets. Aqua star provides shrimps in raw, cooked, shell-on and shell-off variations.
Harbor Seafood
Establishment:
1975
Website:
harborseafood.com
Harbor Seafood provides high-quality seafood including fin-fish, shellfish, cephalopods, crab species and value added items. The company sources from a variety of locations such as Canada, South America, Asia, and Central America. The frozen or refrigerated seafood provided by the company include shrimps, clams, cold water lobster, mahi mahi, mussels, king crab, oysters, snow crab, squid, tuna, octopus, warm water lobster, etc.
Eastern Fish Company
Establishment:
1974
Website:
easternfish.com
Eastern Fish Company is a prominent importer and marketer of shrimp. The company has quality control offices in Thailand, Ecuador, China, and Mexico, as well as sales offices in California, Florida and Massachusetts. SAIL is a brand of Eastern Fish Company providing high-quality commodity seafood including shrimp, scallops, crab, lobster, tilapia, and squid. SAIL sources its products from over 14 locations around the globe under strict quality control.
Mazzetta Company, LLC
Establishment:
1987
Website:
www.mazzetta.com
Mazzetta is a family-owned company engaged in procurement, quality assurance, storage and distribution of frozen seafood products. The company’s entire seafood production spans more than 900 individual GTIN. Mazzetta has facilities including the wharf holding facility, Atwood Lobster, the processing plant, Beach Point Processing, and the cold storage facility that we distribute out of, Londonderry Freezer Warehouse. The company offers seafoods such as shrimp, finfish, Atlantic salmon, sea cucumbers, and lobster.
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40 | where does most shrimp in the us come from | https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/ | Market Insights
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Jun 22, 2023
This statistic illustrates the distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume from major exporters in 2019. In that year, Indonesia accounted for a share of 19 percent of shrimp imports to the United States.
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Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter
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NMFS. (June 4, 2021). Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved February 28, 2025, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/
NMFS. "Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter." Chart. June 4, 2021. Statista. Accessed February 28, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/
NMFS. (2021). Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter. Statista. Statista Inc.. Accessed: February 28, 2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/
NMFS. "Distribution Share of The U.S. Shrimp Import Volume in 2019, by Major Exporter." Statista, Statista Inc., 4 Jun 2021, https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/
NMFS, Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/ (last visited February 28, 2025)
Distribution share of the U.S. shrimp import volume in 2019, by major exporter [Graph], NMFS, June 4, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/197268/us-shrimp-imports-from-major-exporters-by-volume/
| 329 |
40 | where does most shrimp in the us come from | https://www.imarcgroup.com/united-states-shrimp-market | United States Shrimp Market Report by Environment (Farmed, Wild), Domestic Production and Imports (Domestic Production, Imports), Species (Penaeus Vannamei, Penaeus Monodon, Macrobrachium Rosenbergii, and Others), Product Categories (Peeled, Shell-on, Cooked, Breaded, and Others), Distribution Channel (Hypermarkets and Supermarkets, Convenience Stores, Hotels and Restaurants, Online Stores, and Others) 2025-2033
Report Format: PDF+Excel | Report ID: SR112025A1100
The United States (US) shrimp market size reached 983,000 Tons in 2024. Looking forward, IMARC Group expects the market to reach 1,280,000 Tons by 2033, exhibiting a growth rate (CAGR) of 3% during 2025-2033. The increasing demand for shrimp as a versatile seafood choice, the rising health consciousness among consumers, the inflating disposable incomes of the consumers, and the widespread availability of the product in various convenient forms are some of the factors propelling the market.
Report Attribute
Key Statistics
Base Year
3%
Shrimp, a highly sought-after seafood delicacy, has gained significant worldwide acclaim for its distinctive flavor profile and exceptional culinary adaptability. Belonging to the esteemed family Penaeidae, these crustaceans thrive in saltwater and freshwater environments, ensuring their widespread availability across the globe. It is popular for its sleek physique, delicate texture, and succulent taste. It has become an indispensable component of diverse culinary traditions, captivating the discerning palates of seafood connoisseurs. Whether expertly grilled, expertly fried, skillfully sautéed, or seamlessly incorporated into soups and stir-fries, shrimp infuse a delightful explosion of flavors into any dish. Their mild sweetness, intricately intertwined with subtle brininess, renders them an ideal ingredient that seamlessly complements an array of seasonings and spices. It also offers significant nutritional benefits, serving as a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, including selenium, vitamin B12, and iodine. It has a low caloric content and contains notable omega-3 fatty acids, renowned for their heart-healthy properties.
The market in the United States is primarily driven by increasing product consumption. In line with this, the rising popularity of seafood among individuals is significantly contributing to the market. Furthermore, the growing recognition of shrimp as a healthy protein source is positively influencing the market. Apart from this, the escalating health consciousness among consumers is catalyzing the market. Moreover, the increasing convenience of accessing shrimp products is propelling the market. Besides, the rising number of restaurants and their utilization of shrimp in their menus is offering numerous opportunities for the market. Additionally, the rapid advancements in aquaculture technology are creating a positive outlook for the market. These advancements have improved production efficiency, producing a steady supply of high-quality shrimp products. The growth of online retail channels and e-commerce platforms is further fueling the market.
United States Shrimp Market Trends/Drivers:
Increasing awareness of health benefits
The increasing awareness of product health benefits among consumers is strengthening the market. Shrimp is recognized as a nutritious seafood choice due to its high protein content and low levels of calories, fat, and cholesterol. This health-consciousness trend has led to a shift in consumer preferences toward healthier food options, including shrimp. Consumers are becoming more proactive in managing their diets and seeking healthier protein sources. Shrimp's nutritional profile aligns well with these demands, making it an attractive choice for health-conscious individuals. The high protein content in shrimp promotes muscle development, supports weight management, and aids in maintaining overall health. Additionally, shrimp contains essential vitamins and minerals, including selenium and omega-3 fatty acids, which benefit heart health and cognitive function. As consumers become more educated about the nutritional value of shrimp, they are actively incorporating it into their meal plans. This growing awareness has prompted increased consumption of shrimp and consequently catalyzes the growth of the shrimp market in the United States.
Rapid product innovation and diversification
Product innovation and diversification are stimulating the market. To cater to evolving consumer preferences and expand market reach, seafood companies continuously introduce new and innovative shrimp-based products. Value-added shrimp products, such as pre-seasoned and ready-to-eat shrimp meals, have gained popularity among busy consumers looking for convenient meal options. These products offer a hassle-free cooking experience and appeal to time-strapped individuals seeking quick and flavorful seafood choices. Furthermore, the introduction of shrimp-based snacks and appetizers has broadened the market for shrimp beyond traditional meal occasions. Shrimp crackers, shrimp chips, and shrimp-based dips have become popular choices for consumers seeking savory and indulgent snack options. Product diversification extends beyond the retail sector to the food service industry. Restaurants, hotels, and catering services innovatively incorporate shrimp into their menus. Shrimp is used in various cuisines, ranging from classic shrimp scampi to Asian-inspired stir-fries and Latin American ceviches, attracting a wide range of consumers with diverse culinary preferences. Companies tap into consumer demand for novelty and variety by introducing new and enticing shrimp products. This product innovation and diversification contribute to the growth of the shrimp market by expanding its appeal to a broader consumer base.
Rising trade agreements and global sourcing
Trade agreements and favorable import policies significantly impact the growth of the shrimp market in the United States. The ability to source shrimp globally ensures a steady supply and helps meet the increasing consumer demand. The United States imports a substantial amount of shrimp to supplement domestic production. Trade agreements facilitate the importation of shrimp from countries known for their shrimp production. These agreements reduce trade barriers, tariffs, and other restrictions, making it more cost-effective for businesses to import shrimp. Global sourcing also allows a diverse range of shrimp products to enter the US market. Different species, sizes, and shrimp preparations can be sourced from various regions, offering consumers a wide selection. This variety enhances market competitiveness and satisfies consumer preferences for specific types of shrimp. Furthermore, trade agreements promote fair trade practices, ensuring that imported shrimp meets quality and safety standards. This strengthens consumer confidence in the shrimp market by assuring product integrity.
United States Shrimp Industry Segmentation:
IMARC Group provides an analysis of the key trends in each segment of the United States shrimp market report, along with forecasts for the period 2025-2033. Our report has categorized the market based on environment, domestic production and imports, species, product categories and distribution channel.
Breakup by Environment:
Framed shrimps dominate the market
The report has provided a detailed breakup and analysis of the market based on the environment. This includes farmed and wild. According to the report, farmed represented the largest segment.
Farmed shrimp, or aquaculture shrimp, refers to shrimp raised in controlled environments such as ponds or tanks rather than caught in the wild. This method of shrimp production offers several advantages that contribute to its market dominance. It ensures a consistent and reliable supply throughout the year. Unlike wild-caught shrimp, which is subject to fluctuations in availability due to natural factors and fishing restrictions, farmed shrimp can be produced continuously. This steady supply meets the growing demand for shrimp and reduces dependence on unpredictable wild catches. Farmed shrimp allows for greater control over quality and size. Shrimp farmers can implement best practices to optimize the growth and health of their shrimp, resulting in consistently high-quality products. They can also manipulate environmental conditions to produce shrimp of desired sizes, catering to specific market preferences.
Additionally, farmed shrimp provides a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option. Overfishing and habitat destruction associated with wild shrimp harvesting have raised concerns about the depletion of shrimp populations and harm to ecosystems. When carried out responsibly, aquaculture practices can mitigate these environmental impacts and promote sustainable shrimp production. The dominance of farmed shrimp in the market addresses these concerns by providing a reliable, high-quality, and sustainable source of shrimp. This has increased consumer confidence and preference for farmed shrimp, driving its market growth. As the demand for shrimp continues to rise, the production capacity and efficiency of shrimp farming are expected to play a vital role in meeting market needs and fueling further growth in the shrimp industry.
Breakup by Domestic Production and Imports:
Domestic Production
Imports hold the largest share of the market
A detailed breakup and analysis of the market based on domestic production and imports have also been provided in the report. This includes domestic production and imports. According to the report, imports accounted for the largest market share.
The United States relies heavily on imported shrimp to meet consumer demand, making it a vital segment of the market. Imported shrimp contributes to market growth by ensuring a consistent and diverse supply of shrimp products. Shrimp from various countries, including major producers enter the US market, offering a wide range of species, sizes, and preparations. This variety caters to consumer preferences and expands available choices, stimulating market growth.
Moreover, imports play a crucial role in meeting the increasing demand for shrimp in the United States. As consumer awareness of shrimp's health benefits and culinary versatility grows, the demand for this seafood delicacy rises. Importing shrimp helps bridge the supply-demand gap, ensuring that the market can meet the needs of consumers. Additionally, imported shrimp often provides cost advantages compared to domestic production. Lower labor costs and favorable trade agreements can contribute to more competitive pricing for imported shrimp, making it an attractive option for businesses and consumers. This affordability enhances market accessibility and drives demand, further propelling the market growth.
Breakup by Species:
Penaeus Vannamei holds the largest share of the market
A detailed breakup and analysis of the market based on the species have also been provided in the report. This includes Penaeus vannamei, penaeus monodon, macrobrachium rosenbergii and others. According to the report, Penaeus vannamei accounted for the largest market share.
The dominance of Penaeus vannamei, a species of farmed shrimp, in the US market is a significant catalyst for the market growth. Penaeus vannamei, also known as whiteleg shrimp or Pacific white shrimp, holds the highest share in the shrimp market due to various factors. It is highly favored for its fast growth rate and adaptability to different farming environments. This species reaches market size relatively quickly compared to other shrimp species, allowing for more efficient production and shorter production cycles. The ability to produce large quantities of Penaeus vannamei shrimp efficiently meets the increasing product demand.
Moreover, Penaeus vannamei offers favorable economic advantages for producers. Its efficient growth and high survival rates contribute to cost-effectiveness in farming operations. The lower production costs make Penaeus vannamei shrimp more competitively priced in the market, attracting both businesses and consumers and fueling market growth. Penaeus vannamei's mild flavor, delicate texture, and versatility in cooking make it a popular choice among consumers. Its neutral taste profile allows for easy incorporation into various culinary dishes, further boosting its market share.
Breakup by Product Categories:
Peeled
Shell-on
Cooked
Breaded
Others
A detailed breakup and analysis of the market based on the product categories have also been provided in the report. This includes peeled, shell-on, cooked, breaded, and others.
The availability of different shrimp categories allows consumers to choose the specific form of shrimp that best suits their needs and culinary preferences. Peeled shrimp appeals to consumers seeking convenience and time-saving options, as they are already deveined and require minimal preparation. On the other hand, shell-on shrimp is favored by those who enjoy the interactive experience of peeling the shrimp themselves or prefer the added flavor that the shells provide during cooking.
Furthermore, cooked shrimp is another popular category that offers ready-to-eat options, appealing to consumers seeking convenience and immediate consumption. This category is particularly suitable for salads, sandwiches, or as a standalone appetizer. Moreover, breaded shrimp, where the shrimp is coated in breadcrumbs or batter, appeals to consumers looking for crispy and flavorful options. This category offers versatility in cooking methods, including frying, baking, or air-frying, providing a range of culinary possibilities.
Breakup by Distribution Channel:
Others
A detailed breakup and analysis of the market based on the distribution channel have also been provided in the report. This includes hypermarkets and supermarkets, convenience stores, hotels and restaurants, online stores, and others.
Hypermarkets and supermarkets play a crucial role in propelling market growth by offering a wide range of shrimp products to a large consumer base. These retail giants have extensive shelf space, allowing for the display of various shrimp categories and brands. Consumers can easily access a diverse selection of shrimp products during their routine grocery shopping, contributing to increased market demand.
Convenience stores also contribute to market growth by providing accessible and convenient options for consumers seeking quick and on-the-go purchases. These stores often stock pre-packaged shrimp products, including ready-to-eat options, catering to time-strapped individuals who desire a convenient seafood solution. Apart from this, including hotels and restaurants as a distribution channel is another driving force in the shrimp market. Shrimp is a popular ingredient in food service establishments, and the demand from the hospitality industry stimulates overall market growth. Hotels, restaurants, and catering services rely on the availability of high-quality shrimp to satisfy consumer demand for shrimp-based dishes.
Moreover, the rise of online stores has significantly impacted the shrimp market by offering convenience and a wide range of options for consumers. Online platforms provide the flexibility of ordering shrimp products from the comfort of one's home, offering a convenient solution for busy individuals. The growth of e-commerce has expanded market reach and increased accessibility to shrimp products, driving market growth.
Competitive Landscape:
Top shrimp companies are playing a pivotal role in catalyzing the growth of the shrimp market in the United States through their strategic initiatives and market dominance. These companies have established themselves as key players by capitalizing on consumer preferences, investing in sustainable practices, and innovating in product offerings. They have identified and responded to consumer demands for high-quality shrimp products. They focus on delivering fresh, premium, and sustainably sourced shrimp to meet the growing demand for quality seafood. Ensuring product integrity and meeting stringent quality standards enhances consumer trust and propels market growth. Furthermore, leading companies have embraced sustainable shrimp farming and sourcing practices. They prioritize responsible aquaculture methods, minimize environmental impact, and promote social responsibility. By emphasizing sustainability and transparency, they align with the increasing consumer preference for environmentally friendly and ethically sourced products. Moreover, these companies fuel market growth through product innovation and diversification. They introduce new shrimp-based products, including value-added options, ready-to-cook meals, and innovative flavors and seasonings. This continuous innovation appeals to consumer preferences for convenience, variety, and culinary experiences, contributing to market expansion. Besides, top shrimp companies leverage their distribution networks and partnerships to ensure a broad market presence. They collaborate with retailers, food service providers, and e-commerce platforms to maximize accessibility and meet the diverse needs of consumers. Their strong distribution channels enable them to reach a wide range of customers, stimulating the market.
The report has provided a comprehensive analysis of the competitive landscape in the United States shrimp market. Detailed profiles of all major companies have also been provided.
United States Shrimp Market Report Scope:
Report Features
2024
Environment
Domestic Production, Imports
Product Categories Covered
Distribution Channels Covered
Customization Scope
10-12 Weeks
Delivery Format
PDF and Excel through Email (We can also provide the editable version of the report in PPT/Word format on special request)
Key Benefits for Stakeholders:
IMARC’s report offers a comprehensive quantitative analysis of various market segments, historical and current market trends, market forecasts, and dynamics of the United States shrimp market from 2019-2033.
The research study provides the latest information on the market drivers, challenges, and opportunities in the United States shrimp market.
The study maps the leading, as well as the fastest-growing, regional markets.
Porter's five forces analysis assists stakeholders in assessing the impact of new entrants, competitive rivalry, supplier power, buyer power, and the threat of substitution. It helps stakeholders to analyze the level of competition within the United States shrimp industry and its attractiveness.
Competitive landscape allows stakeholders to understand their competitive environment and provides an insight into the current positions of key players in the market.
Key Questions Answered in This Report
1. What was the size of the United States shrimp market in 2024?
The United States shrimp market reached a volume of 983,000 Tons in 2024.
2. What is the expected growth rate of the United States shrimp market during 2025-2033?
We expect the United States shrimp market to exhibit a CAGR of 3% during 2025-2033.
3. What are the key factors driving the United States shrimp market?
The growing popularity of Ready-to-Eat and Ready-to-Serve shrimp products that are hygienically
prepared and attractively packed is primarily driving the United States shrimp market.
4. What has been the impact of COVID-19 on the United States shrimp market?
The sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the changing consumer inclination from
conventional brick-and-mortar distribution channels towards online retail platforms for the purchase
of shrimp and shrimp -based products in the United States.
5. What is the breakup of the United States shrimp market based on the environment?
Based on the environment, the United States shrimp market can be divided into farmed and wild.
Currently, farmed shrimps exhibit a clear dominance in the market.
6. What is the breakup of the United States shrimp market based on the domestic production and imports?
Based on the domestic production and imports, the United States shrimp market has been
segregated into domestic production and imports, where imports hold the majority of the total
market share.
7. What is the breakup of the United States shrimp market based on the species?
Based on the species, the United States shrimp market can be segmented into Penaeus Vannamei,
Penaeus Monodon, Macrobrachium Rosenbergii, and others. Among these, Penaeus Vannamei
represents the largest market share.
8. What is the breakup of the United States shrimp market based on the product categories?
Based on the product categories, the United States shrimp market has been categorized into peeled,
shell-on, cooked, breaded, and others. Currently, peeled product exhibits clear dominance in the
market.
9. What is the breakup of the United States shrimp market based on the distribution channel?
Based on the distribution channel, the United States shrimp market can be bifurcated into
hypermarkets and supermarkets, convenience stores, hotels and restaurants, online stores, and
others. Among these, hotels and restaurants account for the majority of the total market share.
10. Who are the key players/companies in the United States shrimp market?
Some of the major players in the United States shrimp market include Pacific Seafood, Chicken of the
sea, Pacific Coral Seafood, Sysco foods, Aqua Star, C.P. Food Products, Inc., etc.
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40 | where does most shrimp in the us come from | https://www.mashed.com/1288280/country-where-most-shrimp-comes-from/ | The Country Where Most Of Your Shrimp Comes From (If You Live In The US)
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If you're like many Americans, the most frequent seafood that ends up on your plate is the humble yet delicious shrimp. But how much do you know about where your shrimp actually comes from?
The first step to understanding the origin of your shrimp is to understand precisely how it ended up there – either caught wild or farmed in an aquaculture facility. According to the World Wildlife Fund , just over half (55%, to be exact) of all shrimp provided as food globally is farmed. China is the world's biggest shrimp-farming nation, followed by other Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Indonesia, India, and Vietnam. Brazil and Ecuador come out on top of the Western Hemisphere for farmed shrimp production.
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Hawaii and Florida are home to a good deal of the relatively small U.S. shrimp farming industry, though the limited habitat requirements allow production in more unusual places like Kentucky, as well. Of the remaining amount, the vast majority are caught in Indian and Pacific Ocean waters close to Southeast Asia. The United States imports around 90% of its shrimp, mainly coming from Central America and Southeast Asia.
America's jumbo appetite for shrimp
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It's safe to assume most of your shrimp comes from the Southeast Asian nations mentioned above unless you specifically seek out domestic varieties. They can be found frozen at most grocery stores or fresh for those lucky enough to live near the Gulf of Mexico. According to NOAA , three-quarters of wild-caught American shrimp are pulled from the warm waters of the Gulf.
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Regardless of the origin, it seems like we can't get enough shrimp. Recent data provided to SeafoodNews.com shows Americans eat, on average, five pounds of the crustacean per year, about double the closest seafood competition. This growing demand has led to similar expansions of shrimp farming, with sometimes unpleasant results.
Some have raised concerns about harmful environmental practices common in the seafood industry, particularly in developing countries with poor regulation or enforcement. These include releasing large amounts of organic waste, antibiotics, or chemicals into surrounding waterways, seriously impacting ecosystems. However, with a bit of education and diligence, it's easier than ever to find responsibly produced shrimp. Consumer Reports offers a guide to the various certifications available, as well as the terms buyers can safely ignore, like "natural," "organic," or "sustainable." It's also typically best to buy your shrimp frozen for maximum freshness. Keep these frozen shrimp tricks in mind.
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40 | where does most shrimp in the us come from | https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/foss/f?p=215:20 | ** Note ** Data can be sorted by clicking on the column's heading.
Shrimp Input Parameters
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41 | the first permanent european settlement on future united states soil was located where | https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/colonial-settlement-1600-1763/overview/ | Overview
When the London Company sent out its first expedition to begin colonizing Virginia on December 20, 1606, it was by no means the first European attempt to exploit North America. In 1564, for example, French Protestants (Huguenots) built a colony near what is now Jacksonville, Florida. This intrusion did not go unnoticed by the Spanish, who had previously claimed the region. The next year, the Spanish established a military post at St. Augustine; Spanish troops soon wiped out the French interlopers residing but 40 miles away.
Meanwhile, Basque, English, and French fishing fleets became regular visitors to the coasts from Newfoundland to Cape Cod. Some of these fishing fleets even set up semi-permanent camps on the coasts to dry their catches and to trade with local people, exchanging furs for manufactured goods. For the next two decades, Europeans' presence in North America was limited to these semi-permanent incursions. Then in the 1580s, the English tried to plant a permanent colony on Roanoke Island (on the outer banks of present-day North Carolina), but their effort was short-lived.
In the early 1600s, in rapid succession, the English began a colony (Jamestown) in Chesapeake Bay in 1607, the French built Quebec in 1608, and the Dutch began their interest in the region that became present-day New York. Within another generation, the Plymouth Company (1620), the Massachusetts Bay Company (1629), the Company of New France (1627), and the Dutch West India Company (1621) began to send thousands of colonists, including families, to North America. Successful colonization was not inevitable. Rather, interest in North America was a halting, yet global, contest among European powers to exploit these lands.
There is another very important point to keep in mind: European colonization and settlement of North America (and other areas of the so-called "new world") was an invasion of territory controlled and settled for centuries by Native Americans. To be sure, Native American control and settlement of that land looked different to European eyes. Nonetheless, Native American groups perceived the Europeans' arrival as an encroachment and they pursued any number of avenues to deal with that invasion. That the Native American were unsuccessful in the long run in resisting or in establishing a more favorable accommodation with the Europeans was as much the result of the impact of European diseases as superior force of arms. Moreover, to view the situation from Native American perspectives is essential in understanding the complex interaction of these very different peoples.
Finally, it is also important to keep in mind that yet a third group of people--in this case Africans--played an active role in the European invasion (or colonization) of the western hemisphere. From the very beginning, Europeans' attempts to establish colonies in the western hemisphere foundered on the lack of laborers to do the hard work of colony-building. The Spanish, for example, enslaved the Native American in regions under their control. The English struck upon the idea of indentured servitude to solve the labor problem in Virginia. Virtually all the European powers eventually turned to African slavery to provide labor on their islands in the West Indies. Slavery was eventually transferred to other colonies in both South and North America.
Because of the interactions of these very diverse peoples, the process of European colonization of the western hemisphere was a complex one, indeed. Individual members of each group confronted situations that were most often not of their own making or choosing. These individuals responded with the means available to them. For most, these means were not sufficient to prevail. Yet these people were not simply victims; they were active agents trying to shape their own destinies. That many of them failed should not detract from their efforts.
The Library of Congress offers classroom materials and professional development to help teachers effectively use primary sources from the Library's vast digital collections in their teaching.
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41 | the first permanent european settlement on future united states soil was located where | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas | 66 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Conquest of America" redirects here. For other uses, see Conquest of America (disambiguation) .
"Colonization of the Americas" redirects here. For the initial prehistoric migration from Asia, see Peopling of the Americas .
During the Age of Discovery , a large scale colonization of the Americas , involving a number of European countries, took place primarily between the late 15th century and the early 19th century. The Norse explored and colonized areas of Europe and the North Atlantic, colonizing Greenland and creating a short-term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland circa 1000 AD. However, due to its long duration and importance, the later colonization by the European powers involving the continents of North America and South America is more well-known. [2] [3] [4] [5]
Russia began colonizing the Pacific Northwest in the mid-18th century, seeking pelts for the fur trade. Many of the social structures—including religions , [7] [8] political boundaries , and linguae francae —which predominate in the Western Hemisphere in the 21st century are the descendants of those that were established during this period.
The rapid rate at which some European nations grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century because it had been preoccupied with internal wars and it was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the Black Death . [9] The Ottoman Empire 's domination of trade routes to Asia prompted Western European monarchs to search for alternatives, resulting in the voyages of Christopher Columbus and his accidental arrival at the New World .
With the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portugal and Spain agreed to divide the Earth in two, with Portugal having dominion over non- Christian lands in the world's eastern half, and Spain over those in the western half. Spanish claims essentially included all of the Americas ; however, the Treaty of Tordesillas granted the eastern tip of South America to Portugal, where it established Brazil in the early 1500s, and the East Indies to Spain, where It established the Philippines . The city of Santo Domingo , in the current-day Dominican Republic , founded in 1496 by Columbus, is credited as the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the Americas. [10]
By the 1530s, other Western European powers realized they too could benefit from voyages to the Americas, leading to British and French colonializations in the northeast tip of the Americas, including in the present-day United States . Within a century, the Swedish established New Sweden ; the Dutch established New Netherland ; and Denmark–Norway along with the Swedish and Dutch established colonization of parts of the Caribbean . By the 1700s, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland , and Russia began to explore and claim the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California .
Violent conflicts arose during the beginning of this period as indigenous peoples fought to preserve their territorial integrity from increasing European colonizers and from hostile indigenous neighbors who were equipped with Eurasian technology. Conflict between the various European empires and the indigenous peoples was a leading dynamic in the Americas into the 1800s, although some parts of the continent gained their independence from Europe by then, countries such as the United States continued to fight against Native Americans and practiced settler colonialism . The United States for example practiced a settler colonial policy of Manifest Destiny and the Trail of Tears .
Other regions, including California , Patagonia , the North Western Territory, and the northern Great Plains , experienced little to no colonization at all until the 1800s. European contact and colonization had disastrous effects on the indigenous peoples of the Americas and their societies. [2] [3] [4] [5]
Western European powers
Amerigo Vespucci wakes up "America" in Americae Retectio, engraving by the Flemish artist Jan Galle (circa 1615)
Systematic European colonization began in 1492. A Spanish expedition sailed west to find a new trade route to the Orient , the source of spices, silks, porcelains, and other rich trade goods. Ottoman control of the Silk Road , the traditional route for trade between Europe and Asia, forced European traders to look for alternative routes. The Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus led an expedition to find a route to East Asia, but instead landed in The Bahamas . [17] Columbus encountered the Lucayan people on the island Guanahani (possibly Cat Island ), which they had inhabited since the ninth century. In his reports, Columbus exaggerated the quantity of gold in the East Indies , which he called the " New World ". These claims, along with the slaves he brought back, convinced the monarchy to fund a second voyage. Word of Columbus's exploits spread quickly, sparking the Western European exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas.
Spanish explorers, conquerors, and settlers sought material wealth, prestige, and the spread of Christianity , often summed up in the phrase "gold, glory, and God". [18] The Spanish justified their claims to the New World based on the ideals of the Christian Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims, completed in 1492. [19] In the New World, military conquest to incorporate indigenous peoples into Christendom was considered the "spiritual conquest". In 1493, Pope Alexander VI , the first Spaniard to become Pope, issued a series of Papal Bulls that confirmed Spanish claims to the newly discovered lands. [20]
After the final Reconquista of Iberia , the Treaty of Tordesillas was ratified by the Pope, the two kingdoms of Castile (in a personal union with other kingdoms of Spain) and Portugal in 1494. The treaty divided the entire non-European world into two spheres of exploration and colonization. The longitudinal boundary cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present-day Brazil. The countries declared their rights to the land despite the fact that Indigenous populations had settled from pole to pole in the hemisphere and it was their homeland.
After European contact, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), due in part to Old World diseases carried to the New World. Smallpox was especially devastating, for it could be passed through touch, allowing native tribes to be wiped out, [21] and the conditions that colonization imposed on Indigenous populations, such as forced labor and removal from homelands and traditional medicines. [22] [6] [23] Some scholars have argued that this demographic collapse was the result of the first large-scale act of genocide in the modern era . [4] [24]
The silver mountain of Potosí , in what is now Bolivia. It was the source of vast amounts of silver that transformed the world economy .
For example, the labor and tribute of inhabitants of Hispaniola were granted in encomienda to Spaniards, a practice established in Spain for conquered Muslims. Although not technically slavery, it was coerced labor for the benefit of the Spanish grantees, called encomenderos . Spain had a legal tradition and devised a proclamation known as The Requerimento to be read to indigenous populations in Spanish, often far from the field of battle, stating that the indigenous were now subjects of the Spanish Crown and would be punished if they resisted. [25] When the news of this situation and the abuse of the institution reached Spain, the New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in the Americas, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, in 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance with traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery. [26] However, as historian Andrés Reséndez has noted, "this categorical prohibition did not stop generations of determined conquistadors and colonists from taking Native slaves on a planetary scale, ... The fact that this other slavery had to be carried out clandestinely made it even more insidious. It is a tale of good intentions gone badly astray." [27]
A major event in early Spanish colonization, which had so far yielded paltry returns, was the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521). It was led by Hernán Cortés and made possible by securing indigenous alliances with the Aztecs' enemies, mobilizing thousands of warriors against the Aztecs for their own political reasons. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan , became Mexico City , the chief city of the " New Spain ". More than an estimated 240,000 Aztecs died during the siege of Tenochtitlan , 100,000 in combat, [28] while 500–1,000 of the Spaniards engaged in the conquest died. The other great conquest was of the Inca Empire (1531–35), led by Francisco Pizarro .
Spanish historical and territorial presence in North America .
During the early period of exploration, conquest, and settlement, c. 1492–1550, the overseas possessions claimed by Spain were only loosely controlled by the crown. With the conquests of the Aztecs and the Incas, the New World now commanded the crown's attention. Both Mexico and Peru had dense, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could be incorporated and ruled. Even more importantly, both Mexico and Peru had large deposits of silver, which became the economic motor of the Spanish empire and transformed the world economy. In Peru, the singular, hugely rich silver mine of Potosí was worked by traditional forced indigenous labor drafts, known as the mit'a . In Mexico, silver was found outside the zone of dense indigenous settlement, so free laborers[ clarify ] migrated to the mines in Guanajuato and Zacatecas . The crown established the Council of the Indies in 1524, based in Seville, and issued laws of the Indies to assert its power against the early conquerors. The crown created the viceroyalty of New Spain and the viceroyalty of Peru to tighten crown control over these rich prizes of conquest.
Over this same time frame as Spain, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil . On behalf of both the Portuguese and Spanish crowns, cartographer Amerigo Vespucci explored the South American east coast and published his new book Mundus Novus (New World) in 1502–1503 which disproved the belief that the Americas were the easternmost part of Asia and confirmed that Columbus had reached a set of continents previously unheard of to any Europeans. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. In April 1500, Portuguese noble Pedro Álvares Cabral claimed the region of Brazil to Portugal; the effective colonization of Brazil began three decades later with the founding of São Vicente in 1532 and the establishment of the system of captaincies in 1534, which was later replaced by other systems. Others tried to colonize the eastern coasts of present-day Canada and the River Plate in South America. These explorers include João Vaz Corte-Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador , Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real and João Álvares Fagundes , in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520).
During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20% of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación ), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century silver from the Americas accounted for one-fifth of the combined total budget of Portugal and Spain. [29] In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered ports in the Americas. [30] [31]
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War , which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), France (blue), and Spain. (White border lines mark later Canadian Provinces and US States for reference)
France founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America (which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida ), a number of Caribbean islands (which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease), and small coastal parts of South America. Explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524; Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), and Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France . [32]
The first French colonial empire stretched to over 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi) at its peak in 1710, which was the second largest colonial empire in the world, after the Spanish Empire . [33] [34]
In the French colonial regions, the focus of the economy was on sugar plantations in the French West Indies . In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River . With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural, and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions. [35] [36]
The Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to purify the existing Church of England of its residual Catholic rites. The first of these people, known as the Pilgrims , landed on Plymouth Rock in November 1620. Continuous waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies . Later in the century, the new Province of Pennsylvania was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was established by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers, but others were welcomed. Baptists , German and Swiss Protestants , and Anabaptists also flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive. [39]
Mainly due to discrimination, there was often a separation between English colonial communities and indigenous communities. The Europeans viewed the natives as savages who were not worthy of participating in what they considered civilized society.[ citation needed ] The native people of North America did not die out nearly as rapidly nor as greatly as those in Central and South America due in part to their exclusion from British society. The indigenous people continued to be stripped of their native lands and were pushed further out west. [40] The English eventually went on to control much of Eastern North America , the Caribbean , and parts of South America. They also gained Florida and Quebec in the French and Indian War .
John Smith convinced the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter. The lack of food security leading to an extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland . Plantation agriculture was a primary aspect of the economies of the Southern Colonies and in the British West Indies . They heavily relied on African slave labor to sustain their economic pursuits.[ citation needed ]
From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for a new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake Colonies . Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they came of age. They were given food, clothing, and housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work, they could then start on their own in America. [41] Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years. [9]
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien scheme , an ill-fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease. [42] The failure of the Darien scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England , creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies. [43]
New Amsterdam on lower Manhattan island, was captured by the English in 1665, becoming New York .
The Netherlands had been part of the Spanish Empire , due to the inheritance of Charles V of Spain. Many Dutch people converted to Protestantism and sought their political independence from Spain. They were a seafaring nation and built a global empire in regions where the Portuguese had originally explored. In the Dutch Golden Age , it sought colonies. In the Americas, the Dutch conquered the northeast of Brazil in 1630, where the Portuguese had built sugar cane plantations worked by black slave labor from Africa. Prince Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen became the administrator of the colony (1637–43), building a capital city and royal palace, fully expecting the Dutch to retain control of this rich area. As the Dutch had in Europe, it tolerated the presence of Jews and other religious groups in the colony. After Maurits departed in 1643, the Dutch West India Company took over the colony until it was lost to the Portuguese in 1654. The Dutch retained some territory in Dutch Guiana , now Suriname . The Dutch also seized islands in the Caribbean that Spain had originally claimed but had largely abandoned, including Sint Maarten in 1618, Bonaire in 1634, Curaçao in 1634, Sint Eustatius in 1636, Aruba in 1637, some of which remain in Dutch hands and retain Dutch cultural traditions.
On the east coast of North America, the Dutch planted the colony of New Netherland on the lower end of the island of Manhattan , at New Amsterdam starting in 1624. The Dutch sought to protect their investments and purchased Manhattan from a band of Canarse from Brooklyn who occupied the bottom quarter of Manhattan, known then as the Manhattoes , for 60 guilders ' worth of trade goods. Minuit conducted the transaction with the Canarse chief Seyseys, who accepted valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by another indigenous group, the Weckquaesgeeks . [44] Dutch fur traders set up a network upstream on the Hudson River . There were Jewish settlers from 1654 onward, and they remained following the English capture of New Amsterdam in 1664. The naval capture was despite both nations being at peace with the other.
New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska ), the capital of Russian America, in 1837
Russia came to colonization late compared to Spain or Portugal, or even England. Siberia was added to the Russian Empire and Cossack explorers along rivers sought valuable furs of ermine , sable , and fox . Cossacks enlisted the aid of indigenous Siberians , who sought protection from nomadic peoples, and those peoples paid tribute in fur to the czar. Thus, prior to the eighteenth-century Russian expansion that pushed beyond the Bering Strait dividing Eurasia from North America, Russia had experience with northern indigenous peoples and accumulated wealth from the hunting of fur-bearing animals. Siberia had already attracted a core group of scientists, who sought to map and catalogue the flora, fauna, and other aspects of the natural world.
A major Russian expedition for exploration was mounted in 1742, contemporaneous with other eighteenth-century European state-sponsored ventures. It was not clear at the time whether Eurasia and North America were completely separate continents. The first voyages were made by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov , with settlement beginning after 1743. By the 1790s the first permanent settlements were established. Explorations continued down the Pacific coast of North America , and Russia established a settlement in the early nineteenth century at what is now called Fort Ross, California . [45] [46] [47] Russian fur traders forced indigenous Aleut men into seasonal labor. [48] Never very profitable, Russia sold its North American holdings to the United States in 1867, called at the time " Seward's Folly ".
During the Age of Discovery and the following centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires were the most active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to the Christian religion . [7] [8] Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull in May 1493 that confirmed the lands claimed by the Kingdom of Spain , and mandated in exchange that the Indigenous peoples be converted to Catholic Christianity . During Columbus 's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. With the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire , evangelization of the dense Indigenous populations was undertaken in what was called the "spiritual conquest". [50] Several mendicant orders were involved in the early campaign to convert the Indigenous peoples. Franciscans and Dominicans learned Indigenous languages of the Americas , such as Nahuatl , Mixtec , and Zapotec . [51] One of the first schools for Indigenous peoples in Mexico was founded by Pedro de Gante in 1523. The friars aimed at converting Indigenous leaders, with the hope and expectation that their communities would follow suit. [52] In densely populated regions, friars mobilized Indigenous communities to build churches, making the religious change visible; these churches and chapels were often in the same places as old temples, often using the same stones. "Native peoples exhibited a range of responses, from outright hostility to active embrace of the new religion." [53] In central and southern Mexico where there was an existing Indigenous tradition of creating written texts, the friars taught Indigenous scribes to write their own languages in Latin letters . There is a significant body of texts in Indigenous languages created by and for Indigenous peoples in their own communities for their own purposes. In frontier areas where there were no settled Indigenous populations, friars and Jesuits often created missions , bringing together dispersed Indigenous populations in communities supervised by the friars in order to more easily preach the gospel and ensure their adherence to the faith. These missions were established throughout Spanish America which extended from the southwestern portions of current-day United States through Mexico and to Argentina and Chile.
As slavery was prohibited between Christians and could only be imposed upon non-Christian prisoners of war and/or men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the early 16th century, when Spanish conquerors and settlers sought to mobilize Indigenous labor. Later, two Dominican friars, Bartolomé de Las Casas and the philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda , held the Valladolid debate , with the former arguing that Native Americans were endowed with souls like all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary to justify their enslavement. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.
When the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the sacred places dedicated to the Indigenous peoples' native religions . [54] However, in Pre-Columbian Mexico , burning the temple of a conquered group was standard practice, shown in Indigenous manuscripts, such as Codex Mendoza . Conquered Indigenous groups expected to take on the gods of their new overlords, adding them to the existing pantheon. They likely were unaware that their conversion to Christianity entailed the complete and irrevocable renunciation of their ancestral religious beliefs and practices. In 1539, Mexican bishop Juan de Zumárraga oversaw the trial and execution of the Indigenous nobleman Carlos of Texcoco for apostasy from Christianity . [55] Following that, the Catholic Church removed Indigenous converts from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition , since it had a chilling effect on evangelization. In creating a protected group of Christians, Indigenous men no longer could aspire to be ordained Christian priests. [56]
Throughout the Americas, the Jesuits were active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. They had considerable success on the frontiers in New France [57] and Portuguese Brazil , most famously with Antonio de Vieira, S.J; [58] and in Paraguay , almost an autonomous state within a state. [59]
Religion and colonization
Catholic cathedral in Mexico City
The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Mauritsstad (Recife) is the oldest synagogue in the Americas. An estimated number of 700 Jews lived in Dutch Brazil, about 4.7% of the total population. [60]
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of Portugal and Spain, and later, France in New France . No other religion was tolerated and there was a concerted effort to convert indigenous peoples and black slaves to Catholicism. The Catholic Church established three offices of the Spanish Inquisition , in Mexico City ; Lima, Peru ; and Cartagena de Indias in Colombia to maintain religious orthodoxy and practice. The Portuguese did not establish a permanent office of the Portuguese Inquisition in Brazil, but did send visitations of inquisitors in the seventeenth century. [61]
English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans , Dutch Calvinists , English Puritans and other nonconformists , English Catholics , Scottish Presbyterians , French Protestant Huguenots , German and Swedish Lutherans , as well as Jews , Quakers , Mennonites , Amish , and Moravians . [62] Jews fled to the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam when the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions cracked down on their presence. [63]
Disease, genocides, and indigenous population loss
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585) Nahua suffering from smallpox
The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl , from which many diseases originally stemmed. In contrast to the indigenous people, the Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies. [64] The large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced Eurasian germs to the indigenous people of the Americas .
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact, [65] [66] killing between 10 million and 100 million [67] people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of the Americas. [68] The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use. [69]
Such diseases yielded human mortality of unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.
Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned. [70]
According to scientists from University College London , the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so much of the indigenous population that it resulted in climate change and global cooling . [71] [72] [73] Some contemporary scholars also attribute significant indigenous population losses in the Caribbean to the widespread practice of slavery and deadly forced labor in gold and silver mines. [74] [75] [76] Historian Andrés Reséndez, supports this claim and argues that indigenous populations were smaller previous estimations and "a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria." [77]
According to the Cambridge World History , the Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, and the Cambridge World History of Genocide, colonial policies in some cases included the deliberate genocide of indigenous peoples in North America. [78] [79] [80] According to the Cambridge World History of Genocide, Spanish colonization of the Americas also included genocidal massacres. [81]
According to Adam Jones , genocidal methods included the following:
Genocidal massacres
Biological warfare, using pathogens (especially smallpox and plague) to which the indigenous peoples had no resistance
Spreading of disease via the 'reduction' of Indians to densely crowded and unhygienic settlements
Slavery and forced/indentured labor, especially, though not exclusively, in Latin America, in conditions often rivalling those of Nazi concentration camps
Mass population removals to barren 'reservations,' sometimes involving death marches en route, and generally leading to widespread mortality and population collapse upon arrival
Deliberate starvation and famine, exacerbated by destruction and occupation of the native land base and food resources
Forced education of indigenous children in White-run schools ... [82]
Triangular trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
African slaves 17th-century in a tobacco plantation, Virginia , 1670.
Indigenous population loss following European contact directly led to Spanish explorations beyond the Caribbean islands they initially claimed and settled in the 1490s, since they required a labor force to both produce food and to mine gold. Slavery was not unknown in Indigenous societies.[ citation needed ] With the arrival of European colonists, enslavement of Indigenous peoples "became commodified, expanded in unexpected ways, and came to resemble the kinds of human trafficking that are recognizable to us today". [83] While the disease was the main killer of indigenous peoples, the practice of slavery and forced labor was also a significant contributor to the indigenous death toll. [20] With the arrival of Europeans other than the Spanish, enslavement of native populations increased since there were no prohibitions against slavery until decades later. It is estimated that from Columbus's arrival to the end of the 19th century between 2.5 and 5 million Native Americans were forced into slavery. Indigenous men, women, and children were often forced into labor in sparsely populated frontier settings, in the household, or in the toxic gold and silver mines. [84] This practice was known as the encomienda system and granted free native labor to the Spaniards. Based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista , the Spanish Crown granted a number of native laborers to an encomendero, who was usually a conquistador or other prominent Spanish male. Under the grant, they were theoretically bound to both protect the natives and convert them to Christianity. In exchange for their forced conversion to Christianity , the natives paid tributes in the form of gold, agricultural products, and labor. The Spanish Crown tried to terminate the system through the Laws of Burgos (1512–13) and the New Laws of the Indies (1542). However, the encomenderos refused to comply with the new measures and the indigenous people continued to be exploited. Eventually, the encomienda system was replaced by the repartimiento system which was not abolished until the late 18th century. [85]
In the Caribbean, deposits of gold were quickly exhausted and the precipitous drop in the indigenous population meant a severe labor shortage. Spaniards sought a high-value, low-bulk export product to make their fortunes. Cane sugar was the answer. It had been cultivated on the Iberian Atlantic islands. It was a highly desirable, expensive foodstuff. The problem of a labor force was solved by the importation of African slaves, initiating the creation of sugar plantations worked by chattel slaves . Plantations required a significant workforce to be purchased, housed, and fed; capital investment in building sugar mills on-site, since once cane was cut, the sugar content rapidly declined. Plantation owners were linked to creditors and a network of merchants to sell processed sugar in Europe. The whole system was predicated on a huge, enslaved population. The Portuguese controlled the African slave trade, since the division of spheres with Spain in the Treaty of Tordesillas , they controlled the African coasts. Black slavery dominated the labor force in tropical zones , particularly where sugar was cultivated, in Portuguese Brazil, the English, French, and Dutch Caribbean islands. On the mainland of North America, the English southern colonies imported black slaves, starting in Virginia in 1619 , to cultivate other tropical or semi-tropical crops such as tobacco, rice, and cotton.
Although black slavery is most associated with agricultural production, in Spanish America enslaved and free blacks and mulattoes were found in numbers in cities, working as artisans. Most newly transported African slaves were not Christians, but their conversion was a priority. For the Catholic Church, black slavery was not incompatible with Christianity. The Jesuits created hugely profitable agricultural enterprises and held a significant black slave labor force. European whites often justified the practice through the belts of latitude theory, supported by Aristotle and Ptolemy . In this perspective, belts of latitude wrapped around the Earth and corresponded with specific human traits. The peoples from the "cold zone" in Northern Europe were "of lesser prudence", while those of the "hot zone" in sub-Sahara Africa were intelligent but "weaker and less spirited". [83] According to the theory, those of the " temperate zone " across the Mediterranean reflected an ideal balance of strength and prudence. Such ideas about latitude and character justified a natural human hierarchy. [83]
African slaves were a highly valuable commodity, enriching those involved in the trade. Africans were transported to slave ships to the Americas and were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the local native African tribes who captured them elsewhere in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures. The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch, and British Empires is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans. [86] [87] The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the United States, or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa. [88]
Colonization and race
Castas painting depicting Spaniard and mulatta spouse with their morisca daughter by Miguel Cabrera , 1763
Throughout the South American hemisphere, there were three large regional sources of populations: Native Americans, arriving Europeans, and forcibly transported Africans. The mixture of these cultures impacted the ethnic makeup that predominates in the hemisphere's largely independent states today. The term to describe someone of mixed European and indigenous ancestry is mestizo while the term to describe someone of mixed European and African ancestry is mulatto . The mestizo and mulatto population are specific to Iberian-influenced current-day Latin America because the conquistadors had (often forced) sexual relations with the indigenous and African women. [89] The social interaction of these three groups of people inspired the creation of a caste system based on skin tone. The hierarchy centered around those with the lightest skin tone and ordered from highest to lowest was the Peninsulares , Criollos , mestizos, indigenous, mulatto, then African. [20]
Unlike the Iberians, the British men came with families with whom they planned to permanently live in what is now North America. [38] They kept the natives on the margins of colonial society.
Because the British colonizers' wives were present, the British men rarely had sexual relations with the native women. While the mestizo and mulatto population make up the majority of people in Latin America today, there is only a small mestizo population in present-day North America (excluding Central America). [37]
Colonization and gender
Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development
Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of Western European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century, over 50 million people left Western Europe for the Americas. [92] The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian exchange , a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves ), ideas, and communicable disease between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus's voyages to the Americas.
Most scholars writing at the end of the 19th century estimated that the pre-Columbian population was as low as 10 million; by the end of the 20th century most scholars gravitated to a middle estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more. [93] A recent estimate is that there were about 60.5 million people living in the Americas immediately before depopulation , [94] of which 90 per cent, mostly in Central and South America, perished from wave after wave of disease, along with war and slavery playing their part. [95] [75]
Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu , Simon Johnson , and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production. [96] Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights , and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.
James Mahoney proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee -rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions. [97] Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador , for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica , conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture , and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.
List of European colonies in the Americas
Cumaná , Venezuela. Founded in 1510, it is the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the continental Americas.
There were at least a dozen European countries involved in the colonization of the Americas. The following list indicates those countries and the Western Hemisphere territories they worked to control. [98]
Mayflower, the ship that carried a colony of English Puritans to North America.
British and (before 1707) English
Suriname (1667–1954) (Remained within the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1975 as a constituent country)
Curaçao and Dependencies (1634–1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are still in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Bonaire; 1634–present)
Sint Eustatius and Dependencies (1636–1954) (Sint Maarten is still in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636–present)
Lower Louisiana
Upper Louisiana
Tapanahony (District of Sipaliwini ) (Controversial Franco-Dutch in favour of the Netherlands ) (25.8% of the current territory) (1814)
Present-day Guyana (1782–1784)
Dominica (1625–1763, 1778–1783)
Grenada (1650–1762, 1779–1783)
Saint Lucia (1650–1723, 1756–1778, 1784–1803)
Hispaniola (1493–1697); the island currently comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic , under Spanish rule in whole from 1492 to 1697; under the partial rule under the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo (1697–1821), then again as the Dominican Republic (1861–1865).
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artefacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artefacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Quebec City (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages. [100]
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^ Bloxham & Moses 2010 , p. 339: "The genocidal intent of California settlers and government officials was acted out in numerous battles and massacres (and aided by technological advances in weaponry, especially after the Civil War), in the abduction and sexual abuse of Indian women, and in the economic exploitation of Indian child labourers."
^ Blackhawk et al. 2023 , pp. 27, 38: "More than any other work, Wolfe’s seminal 2006 essay, 'Settler colonialism and the elimination of the Native' established the 'centrality of dispossession' to our understandings of Indigenous genocide in the context of settler colonialism. His definition of 'settler colonialism' spoke directly to Genocide Studies scholars"; "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"
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Blackhawk, Ned. (2023). The Rediscovery of America: Native Peoples and the Unmaking of U.S. History. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Butler, J. (2001). Becoming America: The Revolution Before 1776. Harvard University Press. ISBN
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Hinton, A.L. and Woolford, A. and Benvenuto, J. (2014). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press . ISBN
Jennings, F. (2010). The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest. University of North Carolina Press . ISBN
Laramie, M.G. (2012). The European Invasion of North America: Colonial Conflict Along the Hudson-Champlain Corridor, 1609-1760. ABC-CLIO . ISBN
Rushforth, B. and Mapp, P. (2016). Colonial North America and the Atlantic World: A History in Documents. Taylor & Francis . ISBN
Taylor, A. and Foner, E. (2002). American Colonies: The Settling of North America (The Penguin History of the United States, Volume 1). Penguin Books . ISBN
Taylor, A. (2013). Colonial America: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN
External links
| 334 |
41 | the first permanent european settlement on future united states soil was located where | https://www.history.com/news/st-augustine-first-american-settlement | Print Page
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Even before Jamestown or the Plymouth Colony , the oldest permanent European settlement in what is now the United States was founded in September 1565 by a Spanish soldier named Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in St. Augustine, Florida. Menéndez picked the colony’s name because he originally spotted the site on August 28, the feast day of St. Augustine.
History Lists: Explorers Not Named Columbus
Menéndez’s expedition wasn’t the first group of Spanish explorers who tried to start a colony in Florida, which Juan Ponce de León had claimed for Spain back in 1513. And unlike other colonizers, he wasn’t out to find gold or set up a trading network with the Native tribes.
Instead, Menéndez’s primary mission was simple: Get rid of French Huguenot colonists who were trying to usurp the Spanish claim. The previous year, the French had established an outpost at Fort Caroline, near present-day Jacksonville. A French base in Florida posed a potential threat not just to Spanish territorial claims, but also to the Spanish treasure fleet that sailed from South America and Mexico along the Florida coast before heading across the Atlantic to Spain. Spain’s King Philip II wanted the French threat eliminated, particularly because the settlers were Protestants and to Philip, a Catholic, that made them intolerable.
Spanish Colonists, Outnumbered, Get Lucky
Menéndez almost didn’t succeed. Philip wanted him to destroy the French colony before France could send military forces to Florida to protect it. But by the time Menéndez arrived in Florida in August 1565, he discovered that a force of French reinforcements had arrived before him, according to David Arbesú , an associate professor of Spanish at the University of South Florida and editor and translator of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés: A New Manuscript , an account of the expedition by Menéndez’s brother-in-law, Gonzalo Solís de Merás.
Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
The massacre of the French at Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River, Florida by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in September 1565.
“He went up to the fort, by ship, where he discovered that the French had a very large fleet,” Arbesú explains. “So he retreated to a place that he had discovered the week before and had called St. Augustine, and waited for the French to attack.”
Menéndez and his men were badly outnumbered and pretty much defenseless. But then nature dealt Menéndez a lucky break.
“The French fleet appears and is prepared to crush the Spaniards, when at that exact moment, a large storm or hurricane blows the French fleet to the south and sinks them, saving the Spaniards from disaster,” Arbesú explains.
Instead of being slaughtered, “all that Pedro Menéndez had to do in the next couple of days was to walk up to Fort Caroline, which now had very few soldiers inside, and conquer it without even shedding a drop of Spaniards' blood,” says. Arbesú.
“It appears the enemy did not perceive their approach until the very moment of the attack, as it was very early in the morning and had rained in torrents,” Francisco López de Mendoza Grajales , the expedition’s chaplain, later wrote. “The greater part of the soldiers of the fort were still in bed. Some arose in their shirts, and others, quite naked, begged for quarters, but, in spite of that, more than one hundred and forty were killed.”
The chaplain praised Menéndez for “the ardent desire which he has to serve our Lord in destroying the Lutheran heretics, the enemies of our holy Catholic religion.”
Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, 1519 – 1574.
Matanzas Inlet Named for Slaughter
When Menéndez got back to his encampment at St. Augustine, local Indians told him about seeing white men walking on the beach south of St. Augustine. “Pedro Menéndez realizes that these are the Frenchmen who had been blown away in the storm,” Arbesú explains.
Menéndez rushed to the location and found some shipwreck survivors, who had lost their weapons and food in the storm, according to an National Park Service account . Mendoza, the chaplain, asked for permission to offer the Frenchman a chance to survive if they converted to Catholicism. Sixteen of them accepted, and the other 111 were killed.
Two weeks later, French commander Jean Ribault and his surviving men showed up on the beach as well. The Spanish force offered them the chance to surrender, and the French accepted. Menéndez’s men then bound them, and stabbed Ribault to death before executing the rest of their captives by beating them to death with clubs and hacking them with axes, as Jacques le Moyne de Morgues , a French artist who heard about the killings from a sailor who had somehow escaped, later wrote. The inlet where the killings took place was named Matanzas, the Spanish word for “slaughters.”
“Had it not been for the hurricane, Pedro Menéndez's expedition would have probably failed, as all the others before him, and Florida would have been a French colony,” Arbesú says.
St. Augustine Becomes Center for Spanish Power in Florida
Corbis/Getty Images
Colonists lay out the streets of St. Augustine, Florida.
Instead, after the slaughter, the Spanish stayed in St. Augustine to establish a permanent colony to deter more French from settling. “Philip's support for the effort and successfully establishing a lasting settlement were in large part due to the French presence,” says Shane Mountjoy , provost of York College in Nebraska and author of St. Augustine , a 2007 history of the city.
The Spanish soon realized St. Augustine offered a valuable base for rescuers to help their trading ships when they were battered by tropical storms, as well as for warships needed to hunt pirates. As a result, the colony was heavily subsidized by the Spanish Crown. Another source of support was the Catholic church, which saw an opportunity to convert the native population, and sent missionaries to accompany the Spanish soldiers.
St. Augustine became a key center for Spanish power in Florida, which, in turn, made it a frequent target of attacks by the English and other enemies. In 1586, Sir Francis Drake raided and burned St. Augustine, but residents eventually came back and rebuilt it. In 1672, the Spanish erected Castillo de San Marcos —the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States—that still stands watch over the city.
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41 | the first permanent european settlement on future united states soil was located where | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia | Jamestown, Virginia
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Town and fort established in the Virginia Colony
Fort and Town
Fort (1607) and Town (1619)
The ruined tower of the 17th century Jamestown Church ; the nave was reconstructed in 1907 on its original foundations
Location of Jamestown in Virginia
Jamestown
Show map of Virginia
Coordinates:
Abandoned
The Jamestown [a] settlement in the Colony of Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in the Americas . It was located on the northeast bank of the James River , about 2.5 mi (4 km) southwest of present-day Williamsburg . [1] It was established by the London Company as "James Fort" on May 4, 1607 O.S. (May 14, 1607 N.S. ), [2] and considered permanent, after brief abandonment in 1610. It followed failed attempts, including the Roanoke Colony , established in 1585. Despite the dispatch of more supplies, only 60 of the original 214 settlers survived the 1609–1610 Starving Time . In mid-1610, the survivors abandoned Jamestown, though they returned after meeting a resupply convoy in the James River.
Jamestown served as the colonial capital from 1616 until 1699. In August 1619, the first recorded slaves from Africa to British North America arrived at present-day Old Point Comfort , near the Jamestown colony, on a British privateer ship flying a Dutch flag. The approximately 20 Africans from present-day Angola had been removed by the British crew from a Portuguese slave ship. [3] [4] They most likely worked in the tobacco fields, under a system of race-based indentured servitude . [5] [6] The modern conception of slavery in the British colonies was formalized in 1640, and fully entrenched in Virginia by 1660. [7]
In 1676, Jamestown was deliberately burned during Bacon's Rebellion , though it was rebuilt. In 1699, the colonial capital was moved to present-day Williamsburg, Virginia . In the 18th century, Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement and remains as an archaeological site, Jamestown Rediscovery , which houses museums and historical sites, including the Jamestown Settlement and the American Revolution Museum in Yorktown. Jamestown is one of three locations composing the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia , along with Williamsburg and Yorktown. [8] Historic Jamestowne is the archaeological site on Jamestown Island and is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site and Preservation Virginia . Jamestown Settlement, a living history interpretive site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation, a state agency of the Commonwealth of Virginia.
Settlement
1607–1609: Arrival and beginning
Map of Jamestown Island , showing the terrain and location of the original 1607 fort
Salt marshes along Jamestown Island; the ample wetlands on the island proved to be a breeding ground for mosquitoes .
Names of those on the Second Supply – Page 445 (or Page 72) "The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles", by Capt. John Smith [9]
In 1606, English colonists set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World. The fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant , Discovery , and Godspeed , all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport . They made a particularly long voyage of four months, including a stop in the Canary Islands , [10] [11] in Spain , and subsequently Puerto Rico , and finally departed for the American mainland on April 10, 1607.
The expedition made landfall on April 26, 1607, at a place which they named Cape Henry . Under orders to select a more secure location, they set about exploring what is now Hampton Roads and an outlet to the Chesapeake Bay which they named the James River in honor of King James I of England . [12] Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25, 1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a large peninsula some 40 miles (64 km) inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. The river channel was a defensible strategic point due to a curve in the river, and it was close to the land, making it navigable and offering enough land for piers or wharves to be built in the future. [13] Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was uninhabited because the leaders of the nearby indigenous nations [14] considered the site too poor and remote for agriculture . [15] The island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking.
The Jamestown settlers arrived in Virginia during a severe drought, according to a research study conducted by the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment (JAA) team in the 1990s. The JAA analyzed information from a study conducted in 1985 by David Stahle and others, who obtained drawings of 800-year-old bald cypress trees along the Nottoway and Blackwater rivers. The lifespan of these trees is up to 1,000 years, and their rings offer a good indication of an area's annual amount of rainfall. The borings revealed that the worst drought in 700 years occurred between 1606 and 1612. This severe drought affected the Jamestown colonists and Powhatan tribe's ability to produce food and obtain a safe supply of water. [16]
The settlers also arrived too late in the year to get crops planted. [17] Many in the group were either gentlemen or their manservants, both equally unaccustomed to the hard labor demanded by the harsh task of carving out a viable colony. [17] One of these was Robert Hunt , a former vicar of Reculver , England, who celebrated the first known Anglican Eucharist in the territory of the future United States on June 21, 1607. [18]
Two-thirds of the settlers died before ships arrived in 1608 with supplies and German and Polish craftsmen , [19] [20] [21] who helped to establish the first manufactories in the colony. As a result, glassware became the foremost American products to be exported to Europe at the time. Clapboard had already been sent back to England beginning with the first returning ship.
The delivery of supplies in 1608 on the first and second supply missions of Captain Newport had also added to the number of hungry settlers. It seemed certain at that time that the colony at Jamestown would meet the same fate as earlier English attempts to settle in North America, specifically the Roanoke Colony (Lost Colony) and the Popham Colony , unless there was a major relief effort. The Germans who arrived with the second supply and a few others defected to the Powhatans, with weapons and equipment. [22] The Germans even planned to join a rumored Spanish attack on the colony and urged the Powhatans to join it. [23] The Spanish were driven off by the timely arrival in July 1609 of Captain Samuel Argall in Mary and John, a larger ship than the Spanish reconnaissance ship La Asunción de Cristo. [24] Argall's voyage also prevented the Spanish from gaining knowledge of the weakness of the colony. Don Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, was desperately seeking this information (in addition to spies) in order to get Philip III of Spain to authorize an attack on the colony. [25]
The investors of the Virginia Company of London expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments. With the second supply, they expressed their frustrations and made demands upon the leaders of Jamestown in written form. They specifically demanded that the colonists send commodities sufficient to pay the cost of the voyage, a lump of gold, assurance that they had found the South Sea, and one member of the lost Roanoke Colony. It fell to the third president of the council, Captain John Smith , to deliver a bold and much-needed wake-up call in response to the investors in London, demanding practical laborers and craftsmen who could help make the colony more self-sufficient. [26]
1609–1610: Starving Time and third supply
A mass grave at Jamestown beneath the foundations of the later capitol buildings, which was later discovered by archaeologists
After Smith was forced to return to England because of an explosion which gave him deep burn wounds during a trading expedition, [27] [ full citation needed ] the colony was led by George Percy , who proved incompetent in negotiating with the native tribes. There are indications that those in London comprehended and embraced Smith's message. The third supply mission of 1609 was by far the largest and best equipped. They also had a new purpose-built flagship, Sea Venture , constructed and placed in the most experienced of hands, Christopher Newport.
On June 2, 1609, Sea Venture set sail from Plymouth, England , as the flagship of a seven-ship fleet (towing two additional pinnaces ) destined for Jamestown as part of the third supply mission, carrying 214 settlers. [28] On July 24, the fleet ran into a strong storm, likely a hurricane , and the ships were separated. Although some of the ships did make it to Jamestown, the leaders and most of the supplies had been aboard Sea Venture, which fought the storm for three days before the Admiral of the company, Sir George Somers , deliberately drove it onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent its foundering. This allowed all aboard to be landed safely. [29] The survivors (including Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Gates , Captain Christopher Newport, Silvester Jourdain , Stephen Hopkins —later of Mayflower —and secretary William Strachey ) were stranded on Bermuda for approximately nine months. During that time, they built two new ships, the pinnaces Deliverance and Patience. The original plan was to build only one vessel, Deliverance, but it soon became evident that it would not be large enough to carry the settlers and all of the food (salted pork) that was being sourced on the islands. [30]
While the third supply was stranded in Bermuda, the colony at Jamestown was in even worse shape. The settlers faced rampant starvation for want of additional provisions. During this time, lack of food drove people to eat snakes and even boil the leather from shoes for sustenance. [31] Only 60 of the original 214 settlers at Jamestown survived. [28] There is historical and scientific evidence that the settlers at Jamestown had turned to cannibalism during the starving time. [32] [33] [34]
The ships from Bermuda arrived in Jamestown on May 23, 1610. [35] [36] [37] Many of the surviving colonists were near death, and Jamestown was judged to be unviable. Everyone was boarded onto Deliverance and Patience, which set sail for England. However, on June 10, 1610, the timely arrival of another relief fleet , bearing Governor Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr (who would eventually give his name to the colony of Delaware ), which met the two ships as they descended the James River, granted Jamestown a reprieve. The colonists called this The Day of Providence. The fleet brought supplies and additional settlers. [38] All the settlers returned to the colony, though there was still a critical shortage of food.
Relations between the colonists and the Powhatans quickly deteriorated after De La Warr's arrival, eventually leading to conflict. The Anglo-Powhatan War lasted until Samuel Argall captured Wahunsenacawh's daughter Matoaka, better known by her nickname Pocahontas , after which the chief accepted a treaty of peace.
1610–1624: Rising fortunes
Due to the aristocratic backgrounds of many of the colonists, a historic drought and the communal nature of their workload, progress through the first few years was inconsistent. By 1613, six years after Jamestown's founding, the organizers and shareholders of the Virginia Company were desperate to increase the efficiency and profitability of the struggling colony. Without stockholder consent the Governor, Sir Thomas Dale , assigned 3-acre (12,000 m2) plots to its " ancient planters " and smaller plots to the settlement's later arrivals. Measurable economic progress was made, and the settlers began expanding their planting to land belonging to local native tribes. That this turnaround coincided with the end of a drought that had begun the year before the English settlers' arrival probably indicates multiple factors were involved besides the colonists' ineptitude. [39]
Among the colonists who survived the Starving Time was John Rolfe , who carried with him a cache of untested tobacco seeds from Bermuda, which had grown wild there after being planted by shipwrecked Spaniards years before. [40] In 1614, Rolfe began to successfully harvest tobacco. [41] [ full citation needed ] Prosperous and wealthy, he married Pocahontas, bringing several years of peace between the English and natives. [42] However, at the end of a public relations trip to England, Pocahontas became sick and died on March 21, 1617. [43] The following year, her father also died. Powhatan's brother, a fierce warrior named Opechancanough , became head of the Powhatan Confederacy . As the English continued to appropriate more land for tobacco farming, relations with the natives worsened.
Because of the high cost of the trans-Atlantic voyage at this time, many English settlers came to Jamestown as indentured servants : in exchange for the passage, room, board, and the promise of land or money, these immigrants would agree to work for three to seven years. Immigrants from continental Europe, mainly Germans, were usually redemptioners —they purchased some portion of their voyage on credit and, upon arrival, borrowed or entered into a work contract to pay the remainder of their voyage costs. [44]
In 1619, the first representative assembly in America, the General Assembly, convened in the Jamestown Church , "to establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia" which would provide "just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting." Initially, only men of English origin were permitted to vote. On June 30, 1619, in what was the first recorded strike in Colonial America , the Polish artisans protested and refused to work if not allowed to vote. [45] [46] [47] On July 21, 1619, the court granted the Poles equal voting rights . [48] Afterwards, the labor strike was ended, and the artisans resumed their work. [47] [49] [50] [51] Individual land ownership was also instituted, and the colony was divided into four large "boroughs" or "incorporations" called "citties" by the colonists. Jamestown was located in James Cittie .
Of the first documented African slaves to arrive in English North America , on the frigate White Lion in August 1619, [4] were an African man and woman, later named Antoney and Isabella. Listed in the 1624 census in Virginia, they became the first African family recorded in Jamestown. [52] Their baby, named William Tucker, became the first documented African child baptized in British North America. Another of the early enslaved Africans to be purchased at the settlement was Angela , who worked for Captain William Peirce. [6]
After several years of strained coexistence, Chief Opechancanough and his Powhatan Confederacy attempted to eliminate the English colony once and for all. On the morning of March 22, 1622, they attacked outlying plantations and communities up and down the James River in what became known as the Indian massacre of 1622 . More than 300 settlers were killed in the attack, about a third of the colony's English-speaking population. [39] Dale's development at Henricus , which was to feature a college to educate the natives, and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin's Hundred , were both essentially wiped out. Jamestown was spared only through a timely warning by a Virginia Indian employee. There was not enough time to spread the word to the outposts.
Of the 6,000 people who came to the settlement between 1608 and 1624, only 3,400 survived. [39]
1624–1699: Later years
In 1624, King James revoked the Virginia Company's charter, and Virginia became a royal colony . Despite the setbacks, the colony continued to grow. Ten years later, in 1634, by order of King Charles I , the colony was divided into the original eight shires of Virginia , in a fashion similar to that practiced in England. Jamestown was located in James City Shire , soon renamed the "County of James City", better known in modern times as James City County, Virginia , the nation's oldest county.
Another large-scale "Indian attack" occurred in 1644. In 1646 Opechancanough was captured, and while he was in custody an English guard shot him in the back—against orders—and killed him. Subsequently, the Powhatan Confederacy began to decline. Opechancanough's successor signed the first peace treaties between the Powhatan Indians and the English. The treaties required the Powhatan to pay yearly tribute payment to the English and confined them to reservations. [53]
A generation later, during Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, Jamestown was burned and eventually rebuilt. During its recovery, the Virginia legislature met first at Governor William Berkeley 's nearby Green Spring Plantation , and later at Middle Plantation , which had been started in 1632 as a fortified community inland on the Virginia Peninsula , about 8 miles (13 km) distant. [54] When the statehouse burned again in 1698, this time accidentally, the legislature again temporarily relocated to Middle Plantation and was able to meet in the new facilities of the College of William & Mary , which had been established after receiving a royal charter in 1693. Rather than rebuilding at Jamestown again, the capital of the colony was moved permanently to Middle Plantation in 1699. The town was renamed Williamsburg , to honor the reigning monarch, King William III . A capitol building and "Governor's Palace" were erected there in the following years.
Aftermath and preservation
An 1854 image of the ruins of Jamestown showing the tower of the old Jamestown Church , built in the 17th century
After the move of the capital to Williamsburg, Jamestown declined. Those who lived in the general area attended services at Jamestown's church until the 1750s, when it was abandoned. By the mid-18th century, the land was heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families. In 1831, David Bullock purchased Jamestown from the Travis and Ambler families.
American Civil War
During the American Civil War , in 1861 Confederate William Allen , who owned the Jamestown Island, occupied Jamestown with troops he raised at his own expense with the intention of blockading the James River and Richmond from the Union Navy. [55] He was joined by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones , who directed the building of batteries and conducted ordnance and armor tests for the first Confederate ironclad warship , CSS Virginia , which was under construction at the Gosport Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth in late 1861 and early 1862. [55] Jamestown had a peak force of 1,200 men. [55]
During the Peninsula campaign , which began later that spring, Union forces under General George B. McClellan moved up the peninsula from Fort Monroe in an attempt to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. [55] The Union forces captured Yorktown in April 1862, and the Battle of Williamsburg was fought the following month. [55] With these developments, Jamestown and the lower James River were abandoned by the Confederates. [55] Some of the forces from Jamestown and the crew of Virginia relocated to Drewry's Bluff , a fortified and strategic position high above the river about 8 miles (13 km) below Richmond. There they successfully blocked the Union Navy from reaching the Confederate capital.
Once in Federal hands, Jamestown became a meeting place for runaway slaves, who burned the Ambler house, an 18th-century plantation house, which along with the old church was one of the few remaining signs of old Jamestown. [55] When Allen sent men to assess the damage in late 1862, they were killed by the former slaves. [55] Following the Confederate surrender at Appomattox Courthouse , the oath of allegiance was administered to former Confederate soldiers at Jamestown. [55]
Preservation and early archaeology
See also: Jamestown Rediscovery
Ruins of Jamestown Church at the turn of the 20th century, prior to the Tercentennial in 1907
In the years after the Civil War, Jamestown became quiet and peaceful once again. In 1892, Jamestown was purchased by Edward Barney. The following year, Barney donated 22½ acres of land, including the ruined church tower, to the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, now known as Preservation Virginia . By this time, erosion from the river had eaten away the island's western shore. Visitors began to conclude that the site of James Fort lay completely underwater. With federal assistance, a sea wall was constructed in 1900 to protect the area from further erosion. The archaeological remains of the original 1607 fort, which had been protected by the sea wall, were not discovered until 1996.
In 1932, George Craghead Gregory of Richmond was credited with discovering the foundation of the first brick statehouse (capitol) building, circa 1646, at Jamestown on the land owned by Preservation Virginia. [56] Around 1936, Gregory, who was active with the Virginia Historical Society , founded the Jamestowne Society for descendants of stockholders in the Virginia Company of London and the descendants of those who owned land or who had domiciles in Jamestown or on Jamestown Island prior to 1700. [57]
Colonial National Monument was authorized and established by the U.S. Congress in 1930. In 1934, the National Park Service obtained the remaining 1,500 acres (610 hectares) portion of Jamestown Island which had been under private ownership by the Vermillion family. The National Park Service partnered with Preservation Virginia to preserve the area and present it to visitors in an educational manner. On June 5, 1936, the national monument was re-designated a national historical park and became known as Colonial National Historical Park .
Beginning in 1936, J.C. Harrington worked on the NPS's excavations at Jamestown. In 1954, John L. Cotter took charge of field projects at Jamestown, conducted with the site's 350th anniversary (1957) in mind. Cotter worked with Edward B. Jelks and Harrington to survey the area's colonial sites. In 1957 Cotter and J. Paul Hudson co-authored New Discoveries at Jamestown . Cotter contributed, along with Jelks, Georg Neumann, and Johnny Hack, to the 1958 report Archaeological Excavations at Jamestown. [58]
In the present time, as part of the Colonial National Historical Park , the Jamestown Island area is home to two heritage tourism sites related to the original fort and town. Nearby, the Jamestown-Scotland Ferry [59] service provides a link across the navigable portion of the James River for vehicles and affords passengers a view of Jamestown Island from the river.
Historic Jamestowne
In 1996, Historic Jamestowne gained renewed importance when the Jamestown Rediscovery project began excavations in search of the original James Fort site, originally in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown's founding. The primary goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of "the first years of settlement at Jamestown, especially of the earliest fortified town; [and the] subsequent growth and development of the town". [60]
Visitors to Historic Jamestowne can view the site of the original 1607 James Fort, the 17th-century church tower and the site of the 17th-century town, as well as tour an archaeological museum called the Archaearium and view many of the close to two million artifacts found by Jamestown Rediscovery. They also may participate in living history ranger tours and archaeological tours given by the Jamestown Rediscovery staff. Visitors can also often observe archaeologists from the Jamestown Rediscovery Project at work, as archaeological work at the site continues. As of 2014 [update] , the archaeological work and studies are ongoing. [61] In addition to their newsletter and website, new discoveries are frequently reported in the local newspaper, the Virginia Gazette based in nearby Williamsburg, and by other news media, often worldwide. [62]
Jamestown Settlement
Jamestown Settlement is a living-history park and museum located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) from the original location of the colony and adjacent to Jamestown Island. Initially created for the celebration of the 350th anniversary in 1957, Jamestown Settlement is operated by the Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation, and largely sponsored by the Commonwealth of Virginia . The museum complex features a reconstruction of a Powhatan village, the James Fort as it was c. 1610–1614, and seagoing replicas of the three ships that brought the first settlers, Susan Constant , Godspeed , Discovery .
Commemorations
With the national independence of the United States established by the end of the 18th century, Jamestown came to be looked at as a starting point. Its founding in 1607 has been regularly commemorated, with the most notable events being held every fifty years.
200th anniversary
The bicentennial of Jamestown on May 13–14, 1807, was called the Grand National Jubilee. [63] Over 3,000 people attended the event, many arriving on vessels which anchored in the river off the island. [63] May 13 was the opening day of the festival, which began with a procession which marched to the graveyard of the old church, where the attending bishop delivered the prayer. [63] The procession then moved to the Travis mansion, where the celebrants dined and danced in the mansion that evening. [63] Also during the festivities, students of the College of William & Mary gave orations. An old barn on the island was used as a temporary theater, where a company of players from Norfolk performed. [63] Attending were many dignitaries, politicians, and historians. The celebration concluded on May 14 with a dinner and toast at the Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg. [63]
250th anniversary (1857)
In 1857, the Jamestown society organized a celebration marking the 250th anniversary of Jamestown's founding. [63] According to the Richmond Enquirer, the site for the celebration was on 10 acres (40,000 m2) on the spot where some of the colonists' houses were originally built. [63] However, it is also speculated that the celebration was moved further east on the island closer to the Travis grave site, in order to avoid damaging Major William Allen 's corn fields. [63]
The attendance was estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 people. [63] Sixteen large steam ships anchored offshore in the James River and were gaily decorated with streamers. [63] Former US President John Tyler of nearby Sherwood Forest Plantation gave a 2½ hour speech, and there were military displays, a grand ball and fireworks. [63]
300th anniversary (1907): Jamestown Exposition
The Jamestown Tercentenary Monument, erected on Jamestown Island in 1907, which stands 103 feet (31 m) tall
The 100th anniversary of the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781 had generated a new interest in the historical significance of the colonial sites of the Peninsula. Williamsburg, a sleepy but populated town of shops and homes, was still celebrating Civil War events. However, as the new century dawned, thoughts turned to the upcoming 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now known as Preservation Virginia ) started the movement in 1900 by calling for a celebration honoring the establishment of the first permanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown to be held on the 300th anniversary in 1907. [64]
As a celebration was planned, virtually no one thought that the actual isolated and long-abandoned original site of Jamestown would be suitable for a major event because Jamestown Island had no facilities for large crowds. The original fort housing the Jamestown settlers was believed to have been long ago swallowed by the James River . The general area in James City County near Jamestown was also considered unsuitable, as it was not very accessible in the day of rail travel before automobiles were common.
As the tricentennial of the 1607 Founding of the Jamestown neared, around 1904, despite an assumption in some quarters that Richmond would be a logical location, leaders in Norfolk began a campaign to have a celebration held there. The decision was made to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewell's Point near the mouth of Hampton Roads . This was about 30 miles (48 km) downstream from Jamestown in a rural section of Norfolk County . It was a site which could become accessible by both long-distance passenger railroads and local streetcar service, with considerable frontage on the harbor of Hampton Roads. This latter feature proved ideal for the naval delegations which came from points all around the world.
The Jamestown Exposition of 1907 was one of the many world's fairs and expositions that were popular in the early part of the 20th century. Held from April 26, 1907, to December 1, 1907, attendees included US President Theodore Roosevelt , Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, the Prince of Sweden, Mark Twain , Henry H. Rogers , and dozens of other dignitaries and famous persons. A major naval review featuring the United States' Great White Fleet was a key feature. U.S. Military officials and leaders were impressed by the location, and the Exposition site later formed the first portion of the large U.S. Naval Station Norfolk in 1918 during World War I . [65] [64] [66]
Jamestown commemorative stamps, issue of 1907
The U.S. Post Office issued a set of stamps, on the 300th anniversary of the founding of theJamestown colony.
350th Anniversary (1957): Jamestown Festival
Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and her consort Prince Philip inspect the replica of Susan Constant at Jamestown Festival Park on October 16, 1957
With America's increased access to automobiles, and with improved roads and transportation, it was feasible for the 350th anniversary celebration to be held at Jamestown itself in 1957. Although erosion had cut off the land bridge between Jamestown Island and the mainland, the isthmus was restored and new access provided by the completion of the National Park Service's Colonial Parkway which led to Williamsburg and Yorktown , the other two portions of Colonial Virginia's Historic Triangle . There were also improvements of state highways. The north landing for the popular Jamestown Ferry and a portion of State Route 31 were relocated. [63]
Major projects were developed by non-profit, state and federal agencies. Jamestown Festival Park was established by the Commonwealth of Virginia adjacent to the entrance to Jamestown Island. Full-sized replicas of the three ships that brought the colonists, Susan Constant , Godspeed , and Discovery were constructed at a shipyard in Portsmouth , Virginia and placed on display at a new dock at Jamestown, where the largest, Susan Constant, could be boarded by visitors. On Jamestown Island, the reconstructed Jamestown Glasshouse , the Memorial Cross and the visitors center were completed and dedicated. [63] A loop road was built around the island.
Special events included army and navy reviews, air force fly-overs, ship and aircraft christenings and even an outdoor drama at Cape Henry , site of the first landing of the settlers. [63] This celebration continued from April 1 to November 30 with over a million participants, including dignitaries and politicians such as the British Ambassador and U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon . [63] The highlight for many of the nearly 25,000 at the Festival Park on October 16, 1957, was the visit and speech of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and her consort, Prince Philip . [63] Queen Elizabeth II loaned a copy of Magna Carta for the exhibition. It was her first visit to the United States since ascending the throne.
The 1957 Jamestown Festival was so successful that tourists still kept coming long after the official event was completed. Jamestown became a permanent attraction of the Historic Triangle , and has been visited by families, school groups, tours, and thousands of other people continuously ever since.
Early in the 21st century, new accommodations, transportation facilities and attractions were planned in preparation for the quadricentennial of the founding of Jamestown. Numerous events were promoted under the banner of America's 400th Anniversary and promoted by the Jamestown 2007 Commission. The commemoration included 18 months of statewide, national and international festivities and events, which began in April 2006 with a tour of the new replica Godspeed.
In January 2007, the Virginia General Assembly held a session at Jamestown. On May 4, 2007, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip attended a ceremony commemorating the 400th anniversary of the settlement's arrivals, reprising the honor they paid in 1957. [67]
In addition to the Virginia State Quarter, Jamestown was also the subject of two United States commemorative coins celebrating the 400th anniversary of its settlement. A silver dollar and a gold five dollar coin were issued in 2007.
2019 Commemoration
In 2019 Jamestown, in cooperation with Williamsburg , held a commemoration that marked the 400th anniversary of three landmark events in American history: the first meeting of the General Assembly, the arrival of the first Africans to English North America, and the first Thanksgiving. [68] [69]
In popular culture
A highly fictionalized version of the Jamestown settlement is depicted in the animated Disney film Pocahontas (1995) as well as its direct-to-video sequel Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998). Among other inaccuracies it is shown as being near mountains, when it was actually located on the Tidewater region .
A feature-length film, The New World (2005), directed by Terrence Malick , covers the story of Jamestown's colonization. Although the historical details are accurate in most ways, the plot focuses on a dramatized relationship between John Smith , played by Colin Farrell , and Pocahontas , played by Q'orianka Kilcher . It also features John Rolfe , played by Christian Bale . Many scenes were filmed on-location along the James and Chickahominy Rivers and at Henricus Historical Park in Chesterfield County , Virginia.
Another feature-length film, First Landing: The Voyage from England to Jamestown (2007), documents the 1607 landing of English colonists. [70]
In 2017, Sky 1 launched a new series based in Jamestown. The series , named after its eponymous setting, revolves around the societal change triggered by the arrival of women to the settlement to marry the male citizens of the area, and is made by the producers of Downton Abbey . [71]
The story of Bartholomew Gosnold and the establishment of Jamestown is told in the 2018 musical To Look For America [72] written by Richard Digance and Eric Sedge .
In the For All Mankind TV series, a fictional lunar base of the United States, erected in the lunar south pole region, is named after Jamestown.
Notes
^ Previously also written variously as James Town, James Towne, Jamestowne, and James City.
References
Shapiro, Laurie Gwen (June 22, 2014). "Pocahontas: Fantasy and Reality" . Slate. Archived from the original on June 23, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2014.
"History of Jamestown" . Apva.org. Archived from the original on March 23, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
"Historic Jamestowne (U.S. National Park Service)" . Historic Jamestowne. NPS.gov. August 3, 2009. Archived from the original on August 30, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
Cotter, John L. (1958). Archeological Excavations at Jamestown (Archeological Research Series No. 4) . Washington, D.C.: National Park Service. pp. 1 –3, 6. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
Horn, James (2006). A Land as God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America. New York: Basic Books. pp. 123–124, 127. ISBN
^ Horn, 2006, pp. 129–130.
^ Horn, 2006, p. 154–156.
^ Horn, 2006, pp. 128–129.
^ John Marshall, p. 44.
^ Horn, James (2006). A Land as God Made It: Jamestown and the Birth of America, pp. 158–160. New York: Basic Books.
LaCombe, Michael (2012). Political Gastronomy: Food and Authority in the English Atlantic World. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 53.
"Skull proves settlers resorted to cannibalism" . ABC News. May 2, 2013. Archived from the original on May 2, 2013. Retrieved May 2, 2013.
Kelso, William M. (2017). Jamestown: The Truth Revealed. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press. ISBN
^ Evans, Cerinda W. (1957). Some Notes On Shipbuilding and Shipping in Colonial Virginia. Williamsburg, Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation. p. 5.
^ Vaughan, Alden T., and Vaughan, Virginia Mason (1991). Shakespeare's Caliban: A Cultural History, pp. 38–40. Cambridge University Press.
^ Woodward, Hobson. A Brave Vessel: The True Tale of the Castaways Who Rescued Jamestown and Inspired Shakespeare's The Tempest. Viking (2009).
^ a b c "The lost colony and Jamestown droughts." Archived September 13, 2009, at the Wayback Machine , Stahle, D. W.; M. K. Cleaveland; D. B. Blanton; M. D. Therrell; and D. A. Gay. 1998. Science 280: 564–567.
"John Rolfe" . Historic Jamestowne. NPS.gov. Archived from the original on May 30, 2011. Retrieved June 8, 2011.
^ John Marshall, p. 52.
"history of Pocahontas" . Apva.org. Archived from the original on April 17, 2009. Retrieved September 22, 2009.
^ Gary Walton; History of the American Economy; p. 32.
. Archived from the original on March 11, 2015.
"Historic Jamestowne – Powhatan" . Historic Jamestowne. NPS.gov. January 4, 2008. Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. Retrieved September 22, 2009.
"NPS Publications: Popular Study Series" . Nps.gov. October 20, 2001. Archived from the original on January 6, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
"Welcome to the Jamestowne Society!" . Jamestowne.org. Archived from the original on December 30, 1996. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
Roberts, Daniel G.; Cotter, John L. (1999). "A Conversation with John L. Cotter". Historical Archaeology. 33 (2): 6–50. doi : 10.1007/BF03374288 . JSTOR 25616685 . S2CID 164104247 .
"Jamestown-Scotland Ferry" . Virginia Dot. Archived from the original on January 15, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
"1994 Interim Field Report – Jamestown Rediscovery" . Apva.org. Archived from the original on January 6, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
"Where are we digging now?" . Historic Jamestown. Historic Jamestowne (Preservation Virginia). Archived from the original on March 21, 2014. Retrieved March 4, 2014.
"Earth Station Nine" . www.earthstation9.com. Archived from the original on September 21, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2019.
"2019 Commemoration – History Is Fun" . Jamestown Settlement & Yorktown Victory Center. Archived from the original on August 10, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
"To Look For America" . To Look For America. Archived from the original on May 29, 2018. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
Attribution
Further reading
Christopher M. B. Allison, "Jamestown's Relics: Sacred Presence in the English New World." Essay. In Conversations: An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures of Religion (2016).
Bernard Bailyn, The Barbarous Years: The Peopling of British North America: The Conflict of Civilizations, 1600–1675 (Vintage, 2012)
Warren M. Billings (Editor), The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700 (University of North Carolina Press, 2007)
Warren M. Billings, "A Little Parliament; The Virginia General Assembly in the Seventeenth Century"; (Richmond, The Library of Virginia, in partnership with Jamestown 2007/Jamestown Yorktown Foundation. 2004)
Dorothy Hoobler and Thomas Hoobler, Captain John Smith: Jamestown and the Birth of an American Dream (John Wiley and Sons, 2006)
James Horn, A Land as God Made It (Perseus Books, 2005)
James Horn, "1619; Jamestown and the Forging of American Democracy"; (New York, Basic Books, 2018)
Margaret Huber, Powhatan Lords of Life and Death: Command and Consent in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (University of Nebraska Press, 2008)
William M. Kelso, Jamestown, The Buried Truth (University of Virginia Press, 2006)
James M. Lindgren, Preserving the Old Dominion: Historic Preservation and Virginia Traditionalism (University of Virginia, 1993)
A. Bryant Nichols Jr., Captain Christopher Newport: Admiral of Virginia (Sea Venture, 2007)
David A. Price, Love and Hate in Jamestown (Alfred A. Knopf, 2003)
Helen C. Rountree, The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture (University of Oklahoma Press, 2013)
Ed Southern (Editor), Jamestown Adventure, The: Accounts of the Virginia Colony, 1605–1614 (Blair, 2011)
Jocelyn R. Wingfield, Virginia's True Founder: Edward Maria Wingfield and His Times (Booksurge, 2007)
Benjamin Woolley, Savage Kingdom: The True Story of Jamestown, 1607, and the Settlement of America (Harper Perennial, 2008)
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jamestown, Virginia .
| 336 |
41 | the first permanent european settlement on future united states soil was located where | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_European_colonization_of_North_America | Timeline of the European colonization of North America
3 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pre–Columbus
c. 1450: Norse colony in Greenland dies out.
15th century
1492: La Navidad is established on the island of Hispaniola; it was destroyed by the following year.
1493: The colony of La Isabela is established on the island of Hispaniola. [6]
1494: Columbus arrives in Jamaica .
1496: Santo Domingo , the first European permanent settlement, is built. [7]
16th century
1501: Corte-Real brothers explore the coast of what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador
1502: Columbus sails along the mainland coast south of Yucatán, and reaches present-day Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica and Panama
1503: Las Tortugas noted by Columbus in passage through the Western Caribbean present-day Cayman Islands
1508: Ponce de León founds Caparra on San Juan Bautista (now Puerto Rico)
1511: Conquest of Cuba begins
1515: Conquest of Cuba completed
1521: Hernán Cortés completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
1524: Giovanni da Verrazzano sails along most of the east coast.
1526: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón briefly establishes the failed settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape in South Carolina, the first site of enslavement of Africans in North America and of the first slave rebellion .
1527: Fishermen are using the harbor at St. John's, Newfoundland and other places on the coast.
1536: Cabeza de Vaca reaches Mexico City after wandering through North America.
1538: Failed Huguenot settlement on St. Kitts in the Caribbean (destroyed by the Spanish).
1539: Hernando de Soto explores the interior from Florida to Arkansas.
1540: Coronado travels from Mexico to eastern Kansas.
1541: Spanish found Nueva Ciudad de Mechuacán (Morelia)
1540: López de Cárdenas reaches the Grand Canyon (the area is ignored for the next 200 years).
1541: Failed French settlement at Charlesbourg-Royal ( Quebec City ) by Cartier and Roberval.
1559: Failed Spanish settlement at Pensacola, Florida .
1562: Failed Huguenot settlement in South Carolina ( Charlesfort-Santa Elena site ).
1564: French Huguenots at Jacksonville, Florida ( Fort Caroline ).
1565: Spanish slaughter French 'heretics' at Fort Caroline.
1568: Dutch revolt against Spain begins. The economic model developed in the Netherlands would define colonial policies in the next two centuries.
1570: Failed Spanish settlement on Chesapeake Bay ( Ajacán Mission ).
1585: Roanoke Colony founded by English on Roanoke Island, North Carolina, failed in 1587
1598: Failed French settlement on Sable Island off Nova Scotia.
1600: By 1600 Spain and Portugal were still the only significant colonial powers. North of Mexico the only settlements were Saint Augustine and the isolated outpost in northern New Mexico. Exploration of the interior was largely abandoned after the 1540s. Around Newfoundland 500 or more boats annually were fishing for cod and some fishermen were trading for furs, especially at Tadoussac on the Saint Lawrence.
17th century
1718: New Orleans – French
1718: San Antonio – Spanish
1721: Germanna , Virginia – Germans
^ William Langer, ed.. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973)
^ Melvin E. Page, ed. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol. 2003); vol. 2 pages 648–831 has a detailed chronology
^ Birgitta Wallace, "The Norse in Newfoundland: L'Anse aux Meadows and Vinland." Newfoundland and Labrador Studies 19.1 (2005). online
^ Samuel Eliot Morison, Admiral of the ocean sea." A live of Christopher Columbus (1942).
^ Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierr firme del Mar Oceano (General History of the Deeds of the Castilians on the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea), Madrid, 1601–1615
. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
Timeline of the European colonization of North America
| 337 |
42 | who was the killer in the movie i know what you did last summer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Know_What_You_Did_Last_Summer | I Know What You Did Last Summer
44 languages
1997 American slasher film
I Know What You Did Last Summer
Theatrical release poster
Running time
Williamson was approached to adapt Duncan's source novel by producer Erik Feig . Where Scream , released the previous year, contained prominent elements of satire and self-referentiality, Williamson's script for I Know What You Did Last Summer reworked the novel's central plot to resemble a straightforward 1980s-era slasher film. [7]
I Know What You Did Last Summer was released theatrically in the United States on October 17, 1997. It received a mixed reception from critics and was a sizeable commercial hit, grossing $125.3 million worldwide on a budget of $17 million, staying in first place at the U.S. box office for three consecutive weeks. The film was parodied in Scary Movie (2000) and is frequently referenced in popular culture, as well as being credited alongside Scream with revitalizing the slasher genre in the 1990s. [8]
On July 4 , 1996, in Southport, North Carolina , Julie James and her friends Ray Bronson, Helen Shivers , and Barry Cox drive to the beach. On the way back, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Julie's friend Max passes by them on the road. Barry and Helen try to dump the body in the water, but the pedestrian wakes up and grabs Helen. Barry pushes him into the water and the group swears to never discuss what happened.
One year later, Julie returns home from college for the summer. The friends have gone their separate ways, with none of them pursuing their dreams due to struggling with the incident. Julie receives a letter stating, "I know what you did last summer!" She and Helen take the note to Barry, who suspects Max. Julie meets Ray, who now works as a fisherman. Max is killed by a figure in a raincoat wielding a hook. That night, Barry is ambushed by the assailant stealing and driving his car.
Julie researches newspaper articles, believing that the man they ran over was a local named David Egan. Helen and Julie meet David's sister Missy at her home. Missy explains that a friend of David's named Billy Blue visited her to pay his respects. That night, the killer sneaks into Helen's house and cuts off her hair while she sleeps.
The following morning, Julie finds Max's corpse wearing Barry's stolen jacket and covered in crabs in the trunk of her car. When she brings the others to see it, the body has been removed. Julie, Helen and Barry confront Ray, who claims to also have received a letter. Julie goes back to visit Missy, while Barry and Helen participate in the 4th of July parade . Missy reveals that David allegedly committed suicide out of guilt for the death of his girlfriend, Susie Willis, in a car accident and shows David's suicide note. As the writing matches that of the note she received, Julie realizes it was not a suicide note, but a death threat.
At the Croaker Beauty Pageant, Helen witnesses Barry being murdered on the balcony but finds no sign of the killer or Barry. The police officer escorting her home is murdered by the killer. Helen runs to her family's store, where the killer murders her sister Elsa. She escapes and runs toward the street, but the killer slashes her to death.
Julie finds an article mentioning Susie's father, Ben Willis, and realizes Ben was the man they had run over a year earlier, moments after he killed David to avenge his daughter. She goes to tell Ray, but notices Ray's boat is called Billy Blue. A fisherman knocks Ray unconscious, inviting Julie to hide on his boat. On the boat, she finds photos and articles about her and her friends, and pictures of Susie. The boat leaves the docks, and the fisherman is revealed to be Ben Willis, targeting them in revenge for leaving him for dead.
Ben chases Julie below deck, where she uncovers the bodies of Helen and Barry in the icebox. Ray awakens and goes to rescue Julie. He ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben's hand and send him overboard. He explains that he posed as David's friend and visited Missy out of guilt. The couple reconciles, relieved not to have actually killed anyone after all.
One year later, Julie is in college in Boston . As she enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know" written in the steam on the shower door. A dark figure then crashes through the door as she screams.
Muse Watson as Benjamin "Ben" Willis / the Fisherman
Written by Kevin Williamson , the screenplay for I Know What You Did Last Summer was rushed into production—having previously been disregarded—by Columbia Pictures upon the success of the Williamson-written Scream ,
released in 1996. [9]
The film is based on the 1973 novel by Lois Duncan, a youth-oriented suspense novel about four teenagers who are involved in a hit-and-run accident involving a young boy. [10]
Producer Erik Feig pitched the idea of a screen adaptation to Mandalay Entertainment , and subsequently appointed Williamson to retool the core elements of Duncan's novel, rendering a screenplay more akin to a 1980s slasher film. [5] [10] Inspired by his father, who had been a commercial fisherman, Williamson changed the setting of the novel to a small fishing village, and made the villain a hook-wielding fisherman. [7]
The killer's arming of himself with a hook is a reference to the urban legend "the Hook", which the four main characters recount at the beginning of the film around a campfire. [10] According to Williamson, he wrote the scene as a way of indicating what was to come: "Basically what I was doing was I was setting the framework to say, 'All right, audience: That's that legend. Now here's a new one.'" [10] Unlike Williamson's screenplay for the film's contemporary, Scream, which incorporated satire of the slasher film, I Know What You Did Last Summer was written more as a straightforward slasher film. [10] Gillespie commented in 2008: "The joy of this film for me as a filmmaker was in taking [the] elements that we've seen before, and saying to the audience: 'Here's something you've seen before'—knowing that they're saying 'We've seen this before'—and still getting them to jump." [10] Gillespie also claimed that he felt Williamson's screenplay did not resemble a "slasher horror movie" and that he saw it rather as simply "a really good story" with a morality tale embedded within it. [10]
According to producer Stokely Chaffin, the producers sought out actors who were "beautiful, but likable". [10] Director Gillespie recalled that, though he had been unfamiliar with the screenplay's source material, that "roughly 60 to 65%" of the young women auditioning had read the novel as children. [11] Jennifer Love Hewitt, who at the time was mainly known for her role on the television series Party of Five , was cast in the lead of Julie James based on her "ability to project vulnerability", which the producers, director Gillespie and writer Williamson unanimously agreed upon. [10] Initially, Hewitt was considered for the role of Helen. [10] Melissa Joan Hart was offered a role, but she turned it down, because she felt that the film was a rip-off of Scream. [12] For the role of Barry, the crew had envisioned an actor with a "6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) quarterback " appearance, as the character had been written as an intimidating figure. [10] Ryan Phillippe was ultimately cast in the part based on his audition, despite the fact that he was not as physically tall as the script had called for. [10] Director Gillespie chose Freddie Prinze Jr. for the role of Ray, because he felt Prinze himself had an "everyman" quality much like the character. [10]
Sarah Michelle Gellar was the last of the lead performers to be cast in the role of Helen. [10] Like Hewitt, Gellar was also known to American audiences at the time for her roles in television. [10] Gillespie commented on casting Gellar: "I wanted an actress that had a warmth to her, but could still come off as being a bitch." [10] For the supporting role of Missy, Gillespie sought an actress with significant screen presence, as the character, despite appearing in only two scenes, is central to several major plot points. [10] Anne Heche was cast in the role, which she recalled as being two days' worth of work that required her to "be scary". [10]
The cliff and rock shown at the beginning of the film, shot at Kolmer Gulch near Jenner, California
Scottish director Jim Gillespie was hired to direct the film after being suggested by writer Williamson. [10] Star Hewitt would later state in 2008 that Gillespie was to date her "favorite director [she's] ever worked with." [10] Principal photography began on March 31, 1997, [13] and took place over a period of ten weeks [14] throughout the late spring-early summer of 1997. [i] Approximately seven weeks of the ten-week shoot took place at night, which Gillespie says was difficult for the cast and crew, and also created commotion in primary small-town locations in which they shot. [13] Gillespie devised a color scheme with cinematographer Denis Crossan which was marked by heavy blues throughout and a notable lack of bright colors. [16]
The blind curve where the car accident occurs early in the film, shot at Kolmer Gulch near Jenner, California
For the beginning of the film, coastal areas of Sonoma County, California stood in for North Carolina, where the film is set. The opening shots of the sun setting on a rugged coast were filmed at Kolmer Gulch, just north of the town of Jenner, on Highway 1 . [17] The car crash scene was also filmed on Highway 1 in the same area. The scene in which the four friends are seated around a campfire on the beach next to a wrecked boat was inspired by a painting Gillespie had seen in a reference book; to achieve the image, the art department purchased an old boat in Bodega Bay , cut it in half and placed it at the beach location. [18]
The majority of the film was set in Southport, North Carolina
The remaining scenes were filmed primarily around the town of Southport, North Carolina. [17] Specific sites included the Amuzu Theater, where the beauty pageant is held, the Old Yacht Basin and Southport Fish Company. [19] Julie's house is on Short Street just north of Southport Marina. [20] The daytime sequences shot on the marina show multiple vessels traversing the water; though real vessels, the boat traffic was orchestrated by a marine traffic coordinator to make the waterway appear lively. [21] The Shiver's Department Store setting in the film was discovered on location in Southport by director Gillespie, who was so impressed by the location that he reworked elements of the script in order to incorporate it into the film; it eventually became the primary setting for Helen's extended chase sequence with the killer. [10] The exterior sequences of Julie's Boston college campus were in fact shot at Duke University , [22] while the hospital sequence was filmed at Southport's Dosher Memorial Hospital in an unused wing of the hospital. [23]
There is a climatic scene where Jennifer Love Hewitt's character walks into the middle of the street and screams to the killer "What are you waiting for?!". According to Hewitt, that scene was conceived and directed by a child who won a contest to "come on and create a moment for the movie". In an interview with Us Weekly , she stated that she disliked the idea but still went through with it, and noted that the scene "became the biggest part of the movie" and that ultimately it was "a great idea". [24]
The final sequence on the boat was shot on an actual water-bound vessel on the Cape Fear River , which proved difficult for the actors and crew. [10] According to Gillespie, the filmmakers nearly lost the boat while attempting to dock it due to the volatile waters, after which they were forced to leave and shoot other footage until the following day. [10]
Gillespie chose to film virtually no onscreen blood as he did not want the film to be overly gratuitous in terms of violence. [13] [10] The scene in which Elsa has her throat slashed while standing against a glass door had originally been shot from behind without any blood appearing on the glass. However, producer Feig worried that the scene appeared "medically impossible" after which Gillespie re-shot it (post-principal photography) with a visual effect of blood spattering across the glass. [10] Upon test screenings of the film, Gillespie and the producers decided that a death sequence needed to occur earlier in the film to establish a sense of legitimate danger for the main characters. [10] The scene in which Max is murdered in the crab factory was subsequently filmed and implemented into the final cut to achieve this (in the original script, his character was not killed). [10]
The original ending of the film featured a sequence in which Julie receives an email reading: "I Still Know". [13] This ending was scrapped for the more dramatic ending featured in the final cut of the film, in which Julie finds the same message scrawled on a shower stall just before the killer comes crashing through the glass. [13] This footage was also shot after principal photography, on a soundstage next-door to where Hewitt was filming Party of Five. [25]
The film produced two soundtracks. One of them featured the score composed by John Debney , while the other contained various rock songs found in the film.
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Original Motion Picture Score
3:43
15.
"Proud"
Korn
3:17
Additional songs featured in the film (but not on a soundtrack): [27]
"Forgotten Too" by Ugly Beauty
In anticipation of its release, distributor Columbia Pictures began a summer marketing campaign that presented the film as being "From the creator of Scream," meaning writer Kevin Williamson. [13] Miramax Films subsequently filed a lawsuit against Columbia, arguing the statement was misleading as it suggested that Wes Craven , the director of Scream, had been involved with the production. [13]
The week following the film's theatrical release, a federal judge awarded Miramax an injunction requiring that Columbia remove the claim from their advertising. [28] (Williamson himself had already requested its removal by this point after spotting it on a theater poster.) [29] Miramax won the lawsuit against Columbia during a March 1998 hearing. In a press release, executive Bob Weinstein noted plans to "vigorously pursue" damage claims against Columbia Pictures. [29]
Home media
The film was released on VHS and DVD by Columbia TriStar Home Video in the US on June 16, 1998. Special features included a theatrical trailer and the filmmaker's commentary. [30]
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray for the first time on July 22, 2008, with additional special features including the director's short film, Joyride. [31] On September 30, 2014, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the film on Blu-ray as a budget disc, featuring the film alone with no bonus materials. [32] On September 27, 2022, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment re-released the film for the first time on Ultra HD Blu-ray for its 25th anniversary.
I Know What You Did Last Summer opened theatrically in North America on October 17, 1997. [33] The film was made on a $17 million budget, [5] and grossed $15,818,645 in 2,524 theaters in its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, ranking number one; it remained in the number one position for an additional two weekends. [33] By the end of its theatrical run in December 1997, it had grossed $72,586,134 in the U.S. and Canada [5] and $53 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $126 million. [4] [33]
According to data compiled by Box Office Mojo , I Know What You Did Last Summer is the seventh highest-grossing slasher film as of 2021. [33]
In retrospect, Jim Gillespie said: "It was meant to be kind of a stand-alone revisit of those classic '80s horror films. It worked! The movie was number one three weeks in a row. It just clicked with the audience. The title clicked and everything just seemed to work. Third week was Halloween weekend and it was number one in its third week. I couldn't believe it stuck there for three weeks." [34]
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds an approval rating of 47% based on 79 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4 out of 10. The site's critics consensus reads: "A by-the-numbers slasher that arrived a decade too late, the mostly tedious I Know What You Did Last Summer will likely only hook diehard fans of the genre." [35] On Metacritic , it has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on reviews from 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". [36] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale. [37] [ better source needed ]
The film drew both positive and negative comparisons to Scream, also written by Williamson. Mick LaSalle considered the movie inferior to its predecessor. [38] Richard Harrington, on the other hand, cited I Know What You Did Last Summer as superior to Scream; he described the newer picture as "... a smart and sharply-drawn genre-film with a moral center, and with a solid cast of young actors to hold it." [39] Derek Elley of Variety was also enthusiastic, calling the film a "polished genre piece with superior fright elements that should perform at better-than-average theatrical levels." [40] Roger Ebert gave the movie one of four stars and wrote that "The best shot in this film is the first one. Not a good sign." [41] Entertainment Weekly praised Jennifer Love Hewitt's performance, noting that she "knows how to scream with soul". [42]
Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times wrote of the picture: "This isn't real life. It's the grand guignol of I Know What You Did Last Summer, laying its claim to succeed Scream as a high-grossing and blood-drenched date-night crowd-pleaser. And why shouldn't it?" [43] James Kendrick of the Q Network wrote that "Williamson's characters are all generic types; but they're still believable as people, and they react realistically according to the situations." Kendrick added that the film was "head and shoulders above earlier 'dead teenager' movies". [44]
TV Guide 's Maitland McDonagh awarded the movie two out of five stars, noting: "Screenwriter Kevin Williamson takes a step backward and writes the kind of movie Scream mocks. You can see him now, soaking up videos of Friday the 13th and Halloween —not to mention the lesser likes of He Knows You're Alone , Terror Train and My Bloody Valentine —and saying, 'I can do that!' And boy, does he ever." [45]
Critic James Berardinelli credited both I Know What You Did Last Summer and Scream with igniting a new boom of slasher films, adding: "There is one minor aspect of the plot that elevates I Know What You Did Last Summer above the level of a typical '80s slasher flick -- it has an interesting subtext. I'm referring to the way the lives and friendships of these four individuals crumble in the wake of their accident. Guilt, confusion and doubt build in them until they can no longer stand to be with each other or look at themselves in the mirror. Sadly, this potentially-fascinating element of the movie is dismissed quickly to facilitate a higher body count. And, as I said before, a few extra deaths can only make a slasher movie better, right?" [46]
Movie historian Leonard Maltin gave the film 2 out of a possible 4 stars; he described it as "...Too routine to succeed overall...Despite being based on a young-adult novel, this is absolutely not for kids. Still, it's a classic compared to the sequel." [47]
Motion picture scholar Adam Rockoff notes in his book Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986 that, at the time of its release, many critics branded I Know What You Did Last Summer as an imitation of Scream. However, he contends that it is a "much different film", despite both screenplays being penned by the same writer:
Whereas Scream relied heavily on self-conscious references and its pop culture veneer, Last Summer was a throwback to the slasher films of the early '80s. While, like Scream, it employed the services of a group of young, sexy and almost impossibly good-looking actors, Last Summer played its horror straight. Those looking for a good old-fashioned slasher film were pleasantly surprised. [2]
Lois Duncan, the author of the original novel, heavily criticized the film adaptation; she stated in a 2002 interview she was "appalled" that her story was turned into a slasher film. [48] [49]
Accolades
[ edit ]
Year
Ceremony
Category
Nominee
Result
1997
Nominated
A sequel titled I Still Know What You Did Last Summer was released in 1998, with a direct-to-video film, I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer , released in 2006. In the first sequel, Love Hewitt, Prinze Jr. and Watson reprised their roles. The third film has very little relation to the first two, other than the premise, the villain and the producers. It featured new characters and a different setting.
In February 2023, a legacy sequel was announced to be in development with Jennifer Love Hewitt and Freddie Prinze Jr. in negotiations to reprise their respective roles. Jennifer Kaytin Robinson was selected to direct the film from a script written by Leah McKendrick , based on an idea by Robinson and McKendrick. Neal H. Moritz would serve as producer. The plot is said to be similar in approach to Scream (2022), in which characters from the original film are included in a story featuring a younger cast. [50] The film is scheduled to be released on July 18, 2025. [51]
In September 2014, Sony Pictures revealed plans to remake the film, with Mike Flanagan and Jeff Howard writing the script. The film was a high priority and was initially set for release in 2016. Further, the new direction and scope of the film would need an estimated budget of $15–20 million. [56] [57] Flanagan confirmed that this new iteration of the franchise would not include elements of the 1973 novel (the antagonist being a central character) nor of the 1997 feature film (fisherman Ben Willis and the four protagonists Julie James, Helen Shivers, Barry Cox and Ray Bronson). [58] The project was ultimately never made and was subsequently canceled. [59]
Television adaptation
In popular culture
The Dawson's Creek season one episode "The Scare" spoofs I Know What You Did Last Summer alongside Scream , all written by Williamson. The episode opens with the characters Dawson and Joey viewing the former. [62]
The teen drama Popular spoofed the film in the season two episode "I Know What You Did Last Spring Break." [64]
^ In his 1998 audio commentary for the film, Gillespie notes that the California -shot scenes were filmed in June 1997, [15] and that the shoot lasted ten weeks. [14] According to Adam Rockoff, principal photography commenced on March 31, 1997. [13]
Karon, Paul (October 20, 1997). "Miramax reigns in court" . Variety . Archived from the original on April 8, 2018. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
.
(Requires manual search).
^ Maltin's TV, Movie, & Video Guide
"Lois Duncan" . July 19, 2016. Archived from the original on July 19, 2016. Retrieved June 1, 2019.
.
Gillespie, Jim; Mirkovich, Steve (1998). I Know What You Did Last Summer: Audio commentary (DVD). Columbia TriStar Home Video.
Harper, Jim (2004). Legacy of Blood: A Comprehensive Guide to Slasher Movies. Critical Vision. ISBN
Murphy, Bernice (2009). The Suburban Gothic in American Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN
.
Rockoff, Adam (2016). Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978–1986. Macmillan. ISBN
Shary, Timothy (2012). Teen Movies: American Youth on Screen. Columbia University Press. ISBN
Silly Mother (1962)
Horses of Dreamland (1985)
The Birthday Moon (1989)
The Magic of Spider Woman (1996)
The Longest Hair in the World (1999)
I Walk at Night (2000)
Song of the Circus (2002)
Nonfiction
Poetry collections
Film adaptations
Sick (2022, also produced)
I Know What You Did Last Summer
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42 | who was the killer in the movie i know what you did last summer | https://iknowwhatyoudidlastsummer.fandom.com/wiki/The_Fisherman | *SPOILERS*
In the classic from the late 90's, "I Know What You Did Last Summer" based off the novel written by Lois Duncan in 1973, the killer in the film is Ben Willis (Muse Watson) the fisherman that killed David Egan (Jonathan Quint). Ben Willis was walking away from the scene of the murder and continued to walk until Ray Bronson (Freddie Prinze Jr) accidentally runs Ben over. Scared and drunk Ray and his friends are scared what to do. Julie James (Jenifer Love Hewitt, the girlfriend of Ray) plans on telling the police and plans to tell the cops it was a accident. But, Barry Cox was drinking and spilt alcohol all over the drivers seat where Ray was driving. So if they turned themselves in they would be convicted guilty. This leads Ray to want to dump the body in the sea because the tide will come in and all the evidence will be gone. At first Julie and Helen Shivers (Sarah Michelle Gellar) are very concerned and not happy with the decision. But of course they eventually dump the body. 1 year later, Julie is in college but she has plans to visit her mother back in the town where she used to live and where she dumped the body. She is very resilient on going but her friend( who I can't seem to find the name of) drops her off their when she gets the note from her mother saying "I Know What You Did Last Summer". And that's when the carnage begins all of Julies friends are picked off by a killer using an Ice Hook. Until her and Ray are the last ones Julie presumes its Ray until she finds out the shocking truth that Ben Willis was actually the one they ran over! The hook and the slicker return for "I Still Know What You Did Last Summer" (1998) and then the franchise went straight to Home Video due to bad reviews of the smash hit sequel. The franchise would not get another film till 2006 called "I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer" (2006). In 2014 rumors of a loyal adaptation of the book has plans to release in 2021. Most likely the killer will be extremely different from the original film because when Kevin Williamson took many liberties writing the script.
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Play trailer
R
250,000+ Ratings
A year after running over a fisherman and dumping his body in the water, four friends reconvene when Julie (Jennifer Love Hewitt) receives a frightening letter telling her that their crime was seen. While pursuing who he thinks is responsible for the letter, Barry (Ryan Phillippe) is run over by a man with a meat hook. The bloodletting only increases from there, as the killer with the hook continues to stalk Julie, Helen (Sarah Michelle Gellar) and Ray (Freddie Prinze Jr.).
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I Know What You Did Last Summer
What to Know
Critics Consensus
A by-the-numbers slasher that arrived a decade too late, the mostly tedious I Know What You Did Last Summer will likely only hook diehard fans of the genre.
Minneapolis Star Tribune
Even though the murders are gruesome, the film is not scary, nor is it clever. We've seen this many times before, but with different titles and different stars.
Rated: 1.5/5
ChrisStuckmann.com
A cheesy and sometimes melodramatic slasher film that is certainly not one of the best, but... It's directed better than a lot of the slasher films in recent years.
Rated: B-
Rated: 2/4
Full Review
Grant Hermanns
Screen Rant
I Know What You Did Last Summer may certainly be one of the more entertaining of teen slashers from its era, but it has aged about as well as milk.
Rated: 6/10
Full Review
Paul Lê
Bloody Disgusting
To many people nowadays, the key version of I Know What You Did Last Summer is the film, but the novel, in many respects, better communicates this unique morality tale.
Rated: 3/5
The Wolfman Cometh
The core cast are undeniable talents and the genuinely surprising story helps keep you engaged in relatively redundant slasher tropes.
Rated: 4/5
audience reviews
Audience Member
I Know What You Did Last Summer is above average to me. It isn’t my favorite movie, and it doesn’t come close, but it was pretty enjoyable. I found it OK, but some parts, to me, were kinda cheesy. Not a bad movie.
Rated 3/5 Stars •
02/23/25
Full Review
Justin T
I often get this confused with Urban Legend (1998), they are so similar in so many ways. This hasn’t aged well but it is still mostly memorable. The cast is great. It’s comparatively devoid of gore and violence. It’s even lacking suspense, it is the cast that carries it. It’s an entertaining film but not a good film. It is categorically a product of the late nineties, teen influenced horror. I prefer Urban Legend as that has a better hook but this has the better.
Rated 2.5/5 Stars •
02/19/25
Full Review
Dave S
I Know What You Did Last Summer has an interesting premise – after killing a man in a road accident and disposing of the body in the ocean, four friends are tormented by a maniacal killer a year later. The movie has decent production values, a solid cast of young actors, and a genuine sense of foreboding, at least during the first half. Unfortunately, things slide downhill pretty quickly over the second half of the movie thanks primarily to a convoluted plot, a series of wildly unlikely events, and more bad decisions than the average teenager is likely to make, all culminating in a totally absurd final fifteen minutes. The bottom line? It ain’t all bad, but it certainly ain’t all good.
Rated 2.5/5 Stars •
02/06/25
Full Review
Tom T
Late 90’s royalty form the core. Pair it with an underrated soundtrack and you’ve got serious rewatch-ability. Some times the soft handed approach works.
Rated 3.5/5 Stars •
01/08/25
Un slasher merecedor a una franquicia de suspenso y venganza.
Rated 5/5 Stars •
01/07/25
Full Review
Stokesi J
Underrated slasher from the 90s , Sarah Michelle gellar as Helen shivers has hands down the best chase scene in a slasher to date , her encounter with the killer lasts around 10mins and keeps you on the edge of your seat !
Rated 5/5 Stars •
12/10/24
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I Know What You Did Last Summer
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Still Know
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Still Know
2:02
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - No Escape
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - No Escape
3:17
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Think He's Dead
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Think He's Dead
2:35
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - The Killer's Trap
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - The Killer's Trap
2:18
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - A Killer in the Balcony
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - A Killer in the Balcony
2:45
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - Make Sure He's Really Dead
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - Make Sure He's Really Dead
2:55
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Know
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - I Know
3:00
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - We Take This To Our Grave
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - We Take This To Our Grave
2:58
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - We'll Dump the Body
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - We'll Dump the Body
2:59
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - What Are You Waiting For?
I Know What You Did Last Summer: Official Clip - What Are You Waiting For?
2:24
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I Know What You Did Last Summer
Rotten Tomatoes Is Wrong About... I Know What You Did Last Summer
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I Know What You Did Last Summer
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997)
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Synopsis
A year after running over a fisherman and dumping his body in the water, four friends reconvene when Julie (Jennifer Love Hewitt) receives a frightening letter telling her that their crime was seen. While pursuing who he thinks is responsible for the letter, Barry (Ryan Phillippe) is run over by a man with a meat hook. The bloodletting only increases from there, as the killer with the hook continues to stalk Julie, Helen (Sarah Michelle Gellar) and Ray (Freddie Prinze Jr.).
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42 | who was the killer in the movie i know what you did last summer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Know_What_You_Did_Last_Summer_(franchise) | I Know What You Did Last Summer (franchise)
4 languages
Horror media franchise
Official franchise logo
Jennifer Kaytin Robinson & Leah McKendrick
Neal H. Moritz
I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998)
I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006)
Untitled fourth film (2025)
In September 2014, Sony Pictures revealed plans to remake the first film, with Mike Flanagan and Jeff Howard writing the script. The film was a high priority and was initially set for release in 2016. The project required an estimated budget of $15–20 million. [1] [2] Flanagan confirmed that his new iteration of the franchise would be a reboot and not include elements of the 1973 novel nor of the 1997 feature film. [3] The project was ultimately never made and was subsequently canceled. [4]
In February 2023, after years of remaining in development hell , a legacy sequel was announced to be in development with Jennifer Love Hewitt and Freddie Prinze Jr. in negotiations to reprise their respective roles. [5] Prinze Jr. and Hewitt were confirmed as part of the cast in September and December 2024, respectively, [6] [7] and the untitled film is scheduled for a release date of July 18, 2025. [8]
Television
[ edit ]
Series
Season
Episodes
Recurring cast and characters
[ edit ]
Film
Crew/detail
Composer(s)
Cinematographer(s)
Editor(s)
Ray Daniels, Trevor Baker, Jo Francis, Monica Daniel, Marc Pollon, and Christopher M. Meagher
October 15, 2021
In 1998, a paperback release of the screenplay for I Still Know What You Did Last Summer was published by Pocket Books.[ ISBN missing ]
"CinemaScore" . CinemaScore . Archived from the original on April 13, 2022. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
I Know What You Did Last Summer (franchise)
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42 | who was the killer in the movie i know what you did last summer | https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/i-know-what-you-did-last-summer-cast-then-now-jennifer-love-hewitt/ | Click to expand search form
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Jennifer Love Hewitt, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Philippe and Freddie Prinze Jr. have remained busy since the film premiered 25 years ago.
More Stories by Katherine
,
Audiences learned how scary summer secrets could be when I Know What You Did Last Summer hit theaters on Oct. 17, 1997.
The Jim Gillespie-directed film follows friends Julie James (Jennifer Love Hewitt), Helen Shivers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), Barry Cox (Ryan Phillippe) and Ray Bronson (Freddy Prinze Jr.) as they’re stalked by hook-wielding killer Benjamin Willis (Muse Watson). The scary stalker enters the picture one year after the group covered up a car accident in which they supposedly killed a pedestrian, who ended up being Ben.
While the movie wasn’t critically acclaimed, it was a box office success and earned more than $125 million worldwide. I Know What You Did Last Summer remained in the top box office spot for three consecutive weeks and earned nominations at several awards shows, including the MTV Movie Awards and the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards.
The movie was followed by the sequels I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and I’ll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006). Hewitt and Prinze reprised their roles in the 1998 sequel, while the 2006 film features a completely new cast.
Loosely based on Lois Duncan’s 1973 book of the same name, the film was written by Kevin Williamson and produced by Neal H. Moritz, Erik Feig and Stokely Chaffin.
In addition to the four leads and Watson, the cast includes Johnny Galecki, Bridgette Wilson and Anne Heche.
In honor of the film’s 25th anniversary, The Hollywood Reporter looks at what the cast of I Know What You Did Last Summer has been up to since the movie debuted in theaters.
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Julie James
Image Credit: Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection; Gregg DeGuire/FilmMagic
Hewitt stars as Julie James. Part of the group that appears to kill Ben, Julie returns from college to spend the Fourth of July at home one year after the accident, where she and her high school friends are stalked by the villain. Before her memorable role in I Know What You Did Last Summer, Hewitt starred as Sarah Reeves Merrin on the Fox drama Party of Five from 1995-99. She went on to have leading roles in films such as Can’t Hardly Wait, Heartbreakers, The Tuxedo and If Only. Additionally, she starred in CBS’ Ghost Whisperer, Lifetime’s The Client List and CBS’ Criminal Minds. Since 2018, the actress has been portraying Maddie Buckley on Fox’s 9-1-1. When she’s not acting, Hewitt is likely showing off her singing skills. She released her debut album Love Songs in 1992, followed by Let’s Go Bang in 1995, Jennifer Love Hewitt in 1996 and BareNaked in 2002. Hewitt has also directed and produced episodes of Ghost Whisperer and The Client List, as well as produced films including If Only and Jewtopia.
Sarah Michelle Gellar as Helen Shivers
Image Credit: ©Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection; Frazer Harrison/Getty Images
Gellar stars as Helen Shivers, Julie’s best friend, who’s involved in the car accident. Unlike Julie, Helen becomes one of Ben’s victims and is killed. Gellar starred as the much harder to kill titular character in Buffy the Vampire Slayer from 1997 until the series ended in 2003. She’s also starred in The CW’s Ringer and CBS’ The Crazy Ones. In 2021, she voiced the role of Teela in Netflix’s animated series Masters of the Universe: Revelation. She will next star in and executive produce the upcoming series Wolf Pack. On the film side, Gellar has had starring roles in Cruel Intentions, Scooby-Doo, Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, The Grudge and TMNT. The actress, who is married to I Know What You Did Last Summer and Scooby Doo co-star Prinze, most recently appeared in the Netflix original film Do Revenge. Outside of acting, Gellar co-founded the ecommerce startup Foodstirs with Galit Laibow and Greg Fleishman in 2015. Then in 2017, she released her cookbook Stirring Up Fun With Food.
Ryan Phillippe as Barry Cox
Image Credit: Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection;Kelly Lee Barrett/Getty Images
Barry is Helen’s high school boyfriend. Despite being madly in love with her, the pair break up shortly after the car accident on the Fourth of July. After being stalked, Barry tragically dies during the Croaker Queen Pageant when he is stabbed in the abdomen multiple times. Following I Know What You Did Last Summer, Phillippe reteamed with Gellar in Cruel Intentions, and went on to star in films including 54, Gosford Park, Crash, Flags of Our Fathers, Breach, Stop-Loss, MacGruber, The Lincoln Lawyer, One Shot and Collide. As for television, Phillippe has appeared on Shooter, the final season of Damages and Big Sky.
Freddie Prinze Jr. as Ray Bronson
Image Credit: ©Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection; Robert Trachtenberg/Peacock/NBCU Photo Bank via Getty Images
Prinze appears in the first two I Know What You Did Last Summer films as Ray Bronson, Julie’s high school boyfriend with whom she rekindles a romance after surviving Ben’s attacks. After portraying Ray, the actor was cast in starring roles in She’s All That, Down to You, Summer Catch, Scooby-Doo, Scooby-Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed, New York City Serenade and Jack and Jill vs. the World. From 2005 until 2006, he starred as the titular character in the ABC sitcom Freddie. His next leading live-action role for television was as Travis in Peacock’s Punky Brewster revival. Additionally, the actor has lent his voice to the animated shows Robot Chicken, Star Wars Rebels and Star Wars: The Bad Batch. Prinze began hosting the A&E series WWE Rivals in 2022.
Bridgette Wilson as Elsa Shivers
Image Credit: Columbia/courtesy Everett Collection
Wilson appears as Elsa, Helen’s older sister who never misses an opportunity to put her sibling down. Elsa is killed on the Fourth of July as Ben targeted both her and Helen. Since starring as the film’s antihero, Wilson has gone on to act in the films House on Haunted Hill, The Wedding Planner and Shopgirl. She portrayed Bridget Deshiel on Fox’s The $treet from 2000-01, while the actress has made guest appearances on shows including Frasier, Beyond Glory and Carpoolers. Her last acting credit was as Farah in the 2008 film Phantom Punch.
Anne Heche as Melissa “Missy” Egan
Image Credit: Momodu Mansaray/WireImage
Missy is the older sister of David Egan, who was one of Ben’s victims. Following her supporting role in I Know What You Did Last Summer, Heche starred in Wag the Dog; Six Days, Seven Nights; Return to Paradise; Psycho; Prozac Nation; Cedar Rapids; Catfight; and My Friend Dahmer. In 2004, Heche earned a Tony Award nomination for her role in the Broadway revival of the play Twentieth Century and a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for the television film Gracie’s Choice. In addition to acting, she pursued a career in directing and worked on the 2000 HBO film If These Walls Could Talk 2. Heche tragically died in August 2022 after suffering a brain injury from a car crash. Six of Heche’s films will be released following her death, including Supercell and Frankie Meets Jack.
Muse Watson as Benjamin Willis / Fisherman
Image Credit: ©Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection; Ray Mickshaw/WireImage
Ben Willis is the main antagonist in all three I Know What You Did Last Summer films. After the fisherman is run over and dropped into the ocean by the teens, he goes on a killing rampage the following summer and targets the group that left him for dead. In addition to his role in the franchise, Watson has also appeared in the films End of the Spear, Small Town Saturday Night, Meeting Evil, Compound Fracture and Suburban Gothic. On the TV side, he has played recurring roles on Prison Break and NCIS.
Johnny Galecki as Max Neurick
Image Credit: Columbia Pictures/Courtesy Everett Collection; Jean Baptiste Lacroix/Getty Images)
Galecki appears in I Know What You Did Last Summer as Max Neurick, a fishmonger who has a crush on Julie and interacts with the teens before the car accident occurs. Before appearing in the slasher film, Galecki was known for starring as David Healy on Roseanne from 1993 until 1997. He has since reprised the role on the spinoffs Roseanne and The Conners. The actor is also well known for his role as Leonard Hofstadter on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory, which aired from 2007-19. Galecki’s other film credits include The Opposite Sex, Bounce, Vanilla Sky, Hancock, In Time, The Cleanse, Rings and A Dog’s Journey.
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43 | who sang i'm gonna run away from you | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Lynn | Tami Lynn
1 language
Tami Lynn
Background information
Birth name
Died
Genres
Musical artist
Tami Lynn (born Gloria Jean Brown; January 25, 1939 – June 26, 2020) was an American soul singer . She scored a Top Ten hit on the UK Singles Chart in 1971 with the song "I'm Gonna Run Away From You". [1]
Jerry Wexler heard Lynn sing at a convention in 1965. [6] [7] Wexler had her record the Bert Berns penned and produced [8] song, "I'm Gonna Run Away From You", for Atco Records , but the song was not released at the time, although it was released in the UK on Atlantic (AT.4071). In 1971, "I'm Gonna Run Away From You" was released as a single , with "The Boy Next Door" as the B-side , on Mojo and Atlantic , where it became a hit in the UK among devotees of Northern soul . The tune hit number 4 in the UK Singles Chart in 1971. [1] A full-length album, Love Is Here and Now You're Gone, followed in 1972, produced by John Abbey , and was reissued on CD in 2005 by DBK Works . [9]
Lynn occasionally worked as a backup singer . She sang on many of Dr. John 's albums, and the musician put her in contact with the Rolling Stones with whom she sang on Exile on Main St. . [6] She also recorded with King Floyd , Wilson Pickett , and Sonny & Cher , [5] [7] and performed with other musicians including Miles Davis, Irma Thomas and Joe Cocker . [2] [6] "I'm Gonna Run Away From You" returned to the UK Singles Chart in 1975 after being reissued, hitting number 36 the second time around. [1] Following the song's success, Lynn toured with Dr. John. [5] [10] Another album was the 1992 funk CD , Tamiya Lynn. [8] In 2008, she appeared at the Ponderosa Stomp . [2]
Lynn lived in New York City for many years, [6] before moving to Florida. In 2014, she performed in concert at New Port Richey, Florida , with guitarist Matthew Colthup. [10] [11]
She died in Florida on June 26, 2020. [4] [12]
Love Is Here and Now You're Gone (1972, reissued 2005)
Tamiya Lynn (1992)
.
| 357 |
43 | who sang i'm gonna run away from you | https://lyricstranslate.com/en/tami-lynn-i’m-gonna-run-away-you-lyrics.html | Proofreading requested
I'm gonna run away from you-a-hoo
Everybody say run away, find another boy to play with
That's not easy to do-a-hoo
With someone new-ooh-ooh, ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh, ho yeah
(Run, run, run away, woh-oh, run, run, run away, woh-oh)
Why don't I run away and hide
Oh, it's very nice, their advice, I've already done it twice
They don't know how I tried
I've lost my pride, a-ho yeah
(Run, run, run away, woh-oh, run, run, run away, woh-oh)
I go to every single place we used to go
I can't even sit through a movie show-a-ho-a-ho-ho-ho
And I tried so
I'm gonna run away from you-hoo-hoo
Oh, I wish I could and I would, but it wouldn't do no good
When I feel the way I do-hoo-hoo
I still love you-ooh-ooh, ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh-ooh, ho yeah
(Run, run, run away, woh-oh) You know I do
(Run, run, run away, woh-oh) Baby I do
(Run away, run away, run away, woh-oh) I still love you
(Run away, run away, run away, woh-oh) Mmmm, baby I do
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What is the song called?? Sung by a girl. “I just want to run away run away run away ___ with you” …“put your arms around me”
Found the song (I was a bit off with the lyrics)…
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43 | who sang i'm gonna run away from you | https://www.soundback.co.uk/lyrics/TAMI-LYNN/I-m-Gonna-Run-Away-From-You/4981.php | I'm Gonna Run Away From You by TAMI LYNN
I'm gonna run away from youEverybody say run away Find another boy to play withThat's not easy to doWith someone newOh yeah(runaway runaway ah ah)Why don't I run away & hideOh very nice ? I've already done it twiceThey don't know how I cryI've lost my pride Oh yeah(runaway runaway ah ah)I go to every single place we ought to goI can't even sit through a movie show (ow ow ow )runaway runaway ah ahrunaway runaway ah ahI'm gonna run away from youBoy I wish I could & I would but it wouldn't do no goodWhen I feel the way I doI still love youOh yeahrunaway runaway ah ahI dorunaway runaway ah ahbaby I do
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44 | the winner of the best actor award in the 64th national film festival 2017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64th_National_Film_Awards | 64th National Film Awards
2017 Indian film award
64th National Film Awards
Awarded by
Selection process
The Directorate of Film Festivals invited online entries for the first time on 16 January 2017 and the acceptable last date for entries was until 21 January 2017. [2] Feature and Non-Feature Films certified by Central Board of Film Certification between 1 January 2016, and 31 December 2016, were eligible for the film award categories. Books, critical studies, reviews or articles on cinema published in Indian newspapers, magazines, and journals between 1 January 2016, and 31 December 2016, were eligible for the best writing on cinema section. Entries of dubbed, revised or copied versions of a film or translation, abridgements, edited or annotated works and reprints were ineligible for the awards. [3]
For the Feature and Non-Feature Films sections, films in any Indian language, shot on 16 mm , 35 mm , a wider film gauge or a digital format , and released in cinemas, on video or digital formats for home viewing were eligible. Films were required to be certified as a feature film, a featurette or a Documentary/Newsreel/Non-Fiction by the Central Board of Film Certification. [2]
Best Film-Friendly State
Jury members
Best Film Friendly State
State of Uttar Pradesh
For implementing a unique film policy, taking into account that the film medium is not only about entertainment but is also a very important vehicle of employment, social awareness and cultural development. The State's Film Policy includes various measures to create a suitable environment, which not only invites shooting of films on a large scale in the State but also promotes other activities, which are related to various aspects of film production at the ground level, including financial incentives for filmmakers.
Best Film Friendly State – Special Mention
To foster the film Industry and their endeavour to give incentives to filmmakers from across India. In addition to the above, the Film Policy also provides growth opportunities to the local filmmaking talent from within the State.
Golden Lotus Award
All the awardees are awarded with 'Golden Lotus Award (Swarna Kamal)'.
Dadasaheb Phalke Award
A committee consisting five eminent personalities from Indian film industry was appointed to evaluate the lifetime achievement award, Dadasaheb Phalke Award. Following were the jury members: [5]
Feature films
For the Feature Film section, six committees were formed based on the different geographic regions in India. The two-tier evaluation process included a central committee and five regional committees. The central committee, headed by the director Priyadarshan , included the heads of each regional committee and five other jury members. At regional level, each committee consisted of one chief and four members. The chief and one non-chief member of each regional committee were selected from outside that geographic region. The table below names the jury members for the central and regional committees: [5]
• K. J. Suresh (Head)
• Shyamaprasad (Head)
• Sanjeev Hazarika
• Tanushree Hazarika
• Girish Mohite
• Jagora Bandyopadhyay
Golden Lotus Award
Official name: Swarna Kamal
All the awardees are awarded with 'Golden Lotus Award (Swarna Kamal)', a certificate and cash prize.
Name of Award
Name of Film
₹ 125,000/- Each
Hindi
₹ 100,000/- Each
Official name: Rajat Kamal
All the awardees are awarded with 'Silver Lotus Award (Rajat Kamal)', a certificate and cash prize.
Name of Award
Name of Film
₹ 150,000/- Each
₹ 150,000/- Each
Bengali
₹ 50,000/-
Bengali
Dharma Durai (For the song "Entha Pakkam")
Name of Award
Name of Film
de Goan Studio
₹ 100,000/- Each
Best Feature Film in Each of the Language Other Than Those Specified in the Schedule VIII of the Constitution
Name of Award
Name of Film
A committee of seven, headed by Raju Mishra, was appointed to evaluate the Non-Feature Films entries. The jury members were: [5]
• Raju Mishra (Chairperson)
Official name: Swarna Kamal
All awardees are awarded with 'Golden Lotus Award (Swarna Kamal)', a certificate and cash prize.
Name of Award
Name of Film
₹ 100,000/- Each
₹ 150,000/- to the Director
Official name: Rajat Kamal
All the Awardees are awarded with 'Silver Lotus Award (Rajat Kamal)' and cash prize.
Name of Award
Name of Film
₹ 50,000/- Each
Urdu
₹ 50,000/- Each
English
The Lord of the Universe
English
English
₹ 50,000/- Each
₹ 50,000/- Each (Cash Component to be shared)
Sanath
Hindi
₹ 50,000/- Each
₹ 50,000/- Each
₹ 50,000/- Each
Hindi
Producer: IDC, IIT MUmbai Director: Nina SabnaniAnimator: Piyush Varma And Shyam Sundar Chatterjee
₹ 50,000/- Each
₹ 50,000/- Each
English
Certificate
A committee of three, headed by the National Award-winning writer Bhavana Somaya was appointed to evaluate the nominations for the best writing on Indian cinema. The jury members were as follows: [5]
• Bhavana Somaya (Chairperson)
• Mohan V. Raman
Official name: Swarna Kamal
All the awardees are awarded with the Golden Lotus Award (Swarna Kamal) accompanied with a cash prize.
Name of Award
Name of Book
₹ 75,000/- Each
English
Certificate Only
There was controversy over the National Film Award for Best Actor , which the committee awarded to Akshay Kumar for his performance in Rustom , [6] [7] possibly over Aamir Khan 's performance for Dangal . [8] Committee member Priyadarshan , who has worked with Kumar on several films, [6] [8] gave the following explanation for not considering Khan for the award: "Why should we have given the Best Actor award to Aamir Khan when he has made it very clear that he doesn't attend awards functions?" He further noted that Kumar was "every bit as meritorious". [8]
"17th National Film Awards" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 38. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
External links
Documentry
64th National Film Awards
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44 | the winner of the best actor award in the 64th national film festival 2017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Film_Award_for_Best_Actor | National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role
National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role
Awarded for
Sponsored by
Bharat Award (1968–1974)National Film Award for Best Actor (1975–2021)
Reward(s)
The National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role is an honour presented annually at the National Film Awards of India instituted since 1967 to actors who have delivered the best performance in a leading role within the Indian film industry . [1] Called the "State Awards for Films" when established in 1954, the National Film Awards ceremony is older than the Directorate of Film Festivals . The State Awards instituted the individual award in 1968 as the "Bharat Award for the Best Actor"; in 1975, it was renamed as the "Rajat Kamal Award for the Best Actor". [1] [2] [3] Throughout the past 45 years, accounting for ties and repeat winners, the Government of India has presented a total of 52 "Best Actor" awards to 40 actors. Until 1974, winners of the National Film Award received a figurine and certificate; since 1975, they have been awarded with a "Rajat Kamal" (silver lotus ), certificate and a cash prize. [a] [2] Since the 70th National Film Awards, the name was changed to "National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role". [5]
Although the Indian film industry produces films in around 20 languages and dialects , [1] the actors whose performances have won awards have worked in eight major languages: Hindi (twenty-five awards), Malayalam (fourteen awards), Tamil (nine awards), Bengali (five awards), Marathi , Kannada (four awards), English (two awards), and Telugu (one award).
The first recipient was Uttam Kumar from Bengali cinema , who was honoured at the 15th National Film Awards in 1967 for his performances in Anthony Firingee and Chiriyakhana . [6] He was also the first actor who won this award for two different films in the same year. As of 2022 edition, Amitabh Bachchan is the most honoured actor with four awards. Kamal Haasan , Mammootty and Ajay Devgn with three awards, while six actors— Mohanlal , Mithun Chakraborty , Sanjeev Kumar , Om Puri , Naseeruddin Shah and Dhanush —have won the award two times. Two actors have achieved the honour for performing in two languages—Mithun Chakraborty (Hindi and Bengali) and Mammootty (Malayalam and English). [7] The most recent recipient is Rishab Shetty who is honoured at the 70th National Film Awards for his performance in Kantara .
Key
[ edit ]
Symbol
Meaning
Year
Indicates a joint award for that year
Indicates that the winner won the award for two performances in that year
Uttam Kumar (The first-ever recipient of the Best Actor Award for his performances in Antony Firingee and Chiriyakhana in 1967.)
Kamal Haasan (top), Mammootty (middle), and Ajay Devgn (bottom) are the three actors to win the honour thrice.
List of award recipients, showing the year, role(s), film(s) and language(s)
^ The character played by Kamal Haasan was loosely based on the Mumbai-based Tamil gangster Varadarajan Mudaliar . [25]
^ Mammootty played the real-life character of Vaikom Muhammad Basheer in the film that was based on an autobiographical novel of the same name by Basheer himself . [28]
^ The character remained unnamed throughout the film.
^ Vijay played the character of a transgender.
^ In interviews with The Quint and Hindustan Times , the then-jury chairman Priyadarshan stated that Kumar won the award for Rustom and Airlift , but for technical reasons only one film was mentioned in the list of winners. [52] [53]
^ Sen played the character of a transgender.
"14th National Film Awards For Films (1968)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. 25 November 1968. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"16th National Awards For Films (1969)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. 13 February 1970. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
Gokulsing, K. & Dissanayake, Wimal (2004). Indian popular cinema: a narrative of cultural change. Trentham Books. p. 97. ISBN
"23rd National Film Festival (1976)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 May 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"40th National Film Festival" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. pp. 38–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"25th National Film Festival (1978)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"28th National Film Festival (1981)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"29th National Film Festival (1982)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"30th National Film Festival (1983)" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2014. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"31st National Film Festival June 1984" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
Chatterjee, Saibal; Nihalani, Govind & Guljar (2003). "Kapoor, Shashi (b. 1938)". Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema. Delhi: Popular Prakashan. p. 568. ISBN
.
"34th National Film Awards 1987" . Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 24. Archived from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
"Of course Velu Nayakan doesn't dance" . The Hindu. 18 January 2013. Archived from the original on 18 June 2013. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
Nagarajan, Saraswathy (17 September 2010). "Smooth sailing" . The Hindu . Archived from the original on 21 September 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. pp. 34–35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Standing ovation for Dev Anand" . The Tribune. Chandigarh . Tribune News Service. 30 December 2003. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 32. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 34. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 64. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"Award for the Best Actor" (PDF). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
"61st National Film Awards Announced" (Press release). Press Information Bureau (PIB), India. 16 April 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2014.
"63rd National Film Awards: List of winners" . The Times of India. 28 March 2013. Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
"65th National Film Awards" (PDF) (Press release). Directorate of Film Festivals. p. 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
External links
Documentry
National Film Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role
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44 | the winner of the best actor award in the 64th national film festival 2017 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes_Film_Festival_Award_for_Best_Actor | Best Actor Award
Presented by
/
Contents
The award was first presented in 1946. The prize was not awarded on five occasions (1947, 1953–54, 1956, and 1960). The festival was not held at all in 1948, 1950, and 2020. In 1968, no awards were given as the festival was called off mid-way due to the May 1968 events in France . The award can be for lead or supporting roles, with the exception of the period from 1979 to 1981, and in 1991, when the festival used to award a separate "Best Supporting Actor" prize. The jury also, on occasion, cites actors with a special citation that is separate from the main award.
On four occasions, the jury has awarded multiple men (more than 2) the prize for one film. The four films were: A Big Family (1955), Compulsion (1959), Long Day's Journey into Night (1962), and Days of Glory (2006).
1940s
edit
Year
Actress
Role(s)
Number of wins
Winning year
^ : This year the award was changed to Prix d'Interpretation (Acting Award), without gender differentiation.
B
C
^ : This year award was given as Prix Le Premier Regard Un Certain Regard (Premiere Award - Un Certain Regard) to the lead male and female cast of Long Day's Journey into Night and A Taste of Honey (ex aequo).
"Awards 1958 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
"Awards 1962 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
"Awards 1979 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
"Awards 1980 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
"Awards 1981 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
"Awards 2014 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 27 May 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
"Awards 2015 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2015.
"Awards 2016 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
"Awards 2017 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
"Awards 2018 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
"Awards 2019 : Competition" . Cannes. Archived from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
"Awards 2021 : Competition" . Cannes. 21 May 2004. Archived from the original on 2017-05-17. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
External links
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless otherwise noted.
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44 | the winner of the best actor award in the 64th national film festival 2017 | https://testbook.com/blog/64th-national-film-awards-2017-winners/ | Kabya Srivastava | Updated: Apr 10, 2017 17:59 IST
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You can also refer the following article to boost your preparations
Head of Jury – Priyadarshan
Directorate of film festivals comes under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
The award is given for the best work in the film industry.
Two types of awards are awarded – Golden lotus award and Silver lotus award.
Featured and non- featured films certified by CBFC are eligible for this award.
List of 64th National Film Awards Winners 2017
Sonam Kapoor and Akshay Kumar are the big winners of 64th National Film Awards 2017. Sonam’s Neerja was declared the Best Hindi Film of 2016 & Akshay Kumar wins the Best Actor award for Rustom movie. While Shoojit Sircar’s Pink won the best film on social issues.
Name
Pink
Best Film on National Integration
Dikchow Banat Palaax
Best Film Critic
Mohan lal
Special Jury Award (Non feature film)
The Cinema Travelers
Little magician
English movie
Best film on environment/ conservation/ preservation (featured film)
Loktak Lairembee
The tiger who crossed the line
English movie
Jharkhand
To help in fostering film industry by giving incentives to filmmaker
National Film Awards for Regional Language Film
There are some awards given to the films in regional languages.
Category
Bisarjan
Wrong Side Raju
Maj Rati Keteki
Reservation
Maheshinte Prathikaaram
Pelli Choopulu
Joker
Here are the links for more articles to improve your general awareness.
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44 | the winner of the best actor award in the 64th national film festival 2017 | https://testbook.com/question-answer/which-actor-won-the-best-actor-award-in-the-64th-n--5b765dd386d5270c3a1ba86a | This question was previously asked in
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Key Points
Akshay Kumar won the best actor award for his film Rustom, while the best actress award was won by Surabhi Lakshmi for her Malayalam film Minnaminungu.
The National Film Awards is an award ceremony conducted every year during which the Directorate of Film Festivals honours the best films of Indian cinema for that year.
The 64th National Film Awards was held on May 3, 2017.
Important Points
The National Film Awards is the most prominent film award ceremony in India.
National Film Awards established in 1954, it has been administered, along with the International Film Festival of India and the Indian Panorama, by the Indian government's Directorate of Film Festivals since 1973.
The National Film Awards are presented in two main categories:
Feature Films and Non-Feature Films.
The Awards are categorized into three sections:
Feature Films, Non-Feature Films, and Best Writing on Cinema.
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45 | what was the result of the reconstruction amendments apex | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments | Reconstruction Amendments
7 languages
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution
This article is part of a series on the
Slavery is dead? Thomas Nast presents the Republican argument for federal civil-rights legislation and constitutional amendment in this illustration for the January 12, 1867 issue of Harper's Weekly
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln , 1865, entitled "The 'Rail Splitter' at Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever!! (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended!
The Reconstruction Amendments, or the Civil War Amendments, are the Thirteenth , Fourteenth , and Fifteenth amendments to the United States Constitution , adopted between 1865 and 1870. [1] The amendments were a part of the implementation of the Reconstruction of the American South which occurred after the Civil War .
The Thirteenth Amendment (proposed in 1864 and ratified in 1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except for those duly convicted of a crime. [2] The Fourteenth Amendment (proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868) addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws for all persons. The Fifteenth Amendment (proposed in 1869 and ratified in 1870) prohibits discrimination in voting rights of citizens on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." [3]
These amendments were intended to guarantee the freedom of the formerly enslaved and grant certain civil rights to them, and to protect the formerly enslaved and all citizens of the United States from discrimination. However, the promise of these amendments was eroded by state laws and federal court decisions throughout the late 19th century. It was not fully realized until the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 .
The Reconstruction Amendments were adopted between 1865 and 1870, [1] the five years which immediately followed the Civil War . [4] The last time the Constitution had been amended was with the Twelfth Amendment more than 60 years earlier in 1804.
These three amendments were part of a large movement to reconstruct the United States that followed the Civil War. Their proponents believed that they would transform the United States from a country that was (in Abraham Lincoln 's words) "half slave and half free" [5] to one in which the constitutionally guaranteed "blessings of liberty" would be extended to the entire populace, including the formerly enslaved and their descendants.
Thirteenth Amendment
Text of the 13th Amendment
The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolished slavery and involuntary servitude , except as a punishment for a crime. [6] It was passed by the U.S. Senate on April 8, 1864, and, after one unsuccessful vote and extensive legislative maneuvering by the Lincoln administration, the House followed suit on January 31, 1865. [7] The measure was swiftly ratified by all but three Union states (the exceptions were Delaware, New Jersey, and Kentucky), and by a sufficient number of border and "reconstructed" Southern states, to be ratified by December 6, 1865. [7] On December 18, 1865, Secretary of State William H. Seward proclaimed it to have been incorporated into the federal Constitution. It became part of the Constitution 61 years after the Twelfth Amendment , the longest interval between constitutional amendments to date. [8]
Slavery had been tacitly enshrined in the original Constitution through provisions such as Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, commonly known as the Three-Fifths Compromise , which detailed how each state's total enslaved population would be factored into its total population count for the purposes of apportioning seats in the United States House of Representatives and direct taxes among the states. [9] Although many enslaved people had been declared free by Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation , their legal status after the Civil War was uncertain. [10]
Fourteenth Amendment
The two pages of the Fourteenth Amendment in the National Archives
The amendment's first section includes several clauses: the Citizenship Clause , the Privileges or Immunities Clause , the Due Process Clause , and the Equal Protection Clause . The Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship, overruling the Supreme Court's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), which had held that Americans descended from Africans could not be citizens of the United States. The Privileges or Immunities Clause has been interpreted in such a way that it does very little. While "Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment reduces congressional representation for states that deny suffrage on racial grounds," it was not enforced after southern states disenfranchised blacks in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [14] While Northern Congressmen in 1900 raised objections to the inequities of southern states being apportioned seats based on total populations when they excluded blacks, Southern Democratic Party representatives formed such a powerful bloc that opponents could not gain approval for change of apportionment. [15]
The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local government officials from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without legislative authorization. This clause has also been used by the federal judiciary to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states , as well as to recognize substantive and procedural requirements that state laws must satisfy. [16]
The Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people within its jurisdiction . This clause was the basis for the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, and its prohibition of laws against interracial marriage, in its ruling in Loving v. Virginia (1967). [17] [18]
Fifteenth Amendment
Text of the 15th Amendment
The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's " race , color , or previous condition of servitude." It was ratified on February 3, 1870, as the third and last of the Reconstruction Amendments. [7]
In some of the early United States, such as New Jersey prior to 1807, citizens of all races, regardless of prior enslavement, could vote provided that they could meet other requirements like property ownership. [19] But by 1869, voting rights were restricted in all states to white men. The narrow election of Ulysses S. Grant to the presidency in 1868 convinced a majority of Republicans that protecting the franchise of black men was important for the party's future. After rejecting broader versions of a suffrage amendment, Congress proposed a compromise amendment banning franchise restrictions on the basis of race, color, or previous servitude on February 26, 1869. The amendment survived a difficult ratification fight and was adopted on March 30, 1870. [20] After blacks gained the vote, the Ku Klux Klan directed some of their attacks to disrupt their political meetings and intimidate them at the polls, to suppress black participation. [21] In the mid-1870s, there was a rise in new insurgent groups, such as the Red Shirts and White League , who acted on behalf of white supremicists calling themselves " Redeemers ", to violently suppress black voting. [22] While Redeemers in the Democrats regained local power in southern state legislatures, through the 1880s and early 1890s, numerous blacks continued to be elected to local offices in many states, as well as to Congress as late as 1894. [23]
Beginning around 1900, states in the former Confederacy passed new constitutions and other laws that incorporated methods to disenfranchise blacks , such as poll taxes , residency rules, and literacy tests administered by white staff, sometimes with exemptions for whites via grandfather clauses . [23] When challenges reached the Supreme Court , it interpreted the amendment narrowly, ruling based on the stated intent of the laws rather than their practical effect. The results in voter suppression were dramatic, as voter rolls fell: nearly all blacks, as well as tens of thousands of poor whites in Alabama and other states, [24] were forced off the voter registration rolls and out of the political system, effectively excluding millions of people from representation. [25]
In the twentieth century, the Court interpreted the amendment more broadly, striking down grandfather clauses in Guinn v. United States (1915). [26] It took a quarter-century to finally dismantle the white primary system in the " Texas primary cases " (1927–1953). With the South having become a one-party[ which? ] region after the disenfranchisement of blacks, Democratic Party primaries were the only competitive contests in those states.[ further explanation needed ] But Southern states reacted rapidly to Supreme Court decisions, often devising new ways to continue to exclude blacks from voter rolls and voting; most blacks in the South did not gain the ability to vote until after the passage of the mid-1960s federal civil rights legislation and the beginning of federal oversight of voter registration and district boundaries. The Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) forbade the requirement for poll taxes in federal elections; by this time five of the eleven southern states continued to require such taxes. Together with the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections (1966), which forbade requiring poll taxes in state elections, blacks regained the opportunity to participate in the U.S. political system. [27]
Erosion, litigation, and scope
See also
"America's Historical Documents" . National Archives. National Archives and Records Administration. January 25, 2016. Archived from the original on September 26, 2016. Retrieved November 25, 2018.
"The 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution" . National Constitution Center – The 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Archived from the original on December 30, 2020. Retrieved January 3, 2020.
Greene, Jamal; McAward, Jennifer Mason. "The Thirteenth Amendment" . Archived from the original on December 30, 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2020.
. Archived from the original on April 29, 2016. Retrieved October 31, 2015.
Feldman, Glenn (2004). The Disfranchisement Myth Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama. University of Georgia Press. p. 135. OCLC 474353255 .
Sherrilyn A. Ifill (October 28, 2015). "Freedom Still Awaits" . The Atlantic. The Atlantic. Archived from the original on June 6, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2024.
External links
Louisiana readmitted to Union
Alabama readmitted to Union
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45 | what was the result of the reconstruction amendments apex | https://history.nycourts.gov/democracy-teacher-toolkit/civil-rights-and-reconstruction/ | Congress has power to enforce
States can’t deny privileges/immunities, due process, equal protection
No public office for insurrection or rebellion, aid or comfort to enemies
Congress has power to enforce
Congress has power to enforce
Ratified between 1865 and 1870, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, known as the “Reconstruction Amendments,” ended slavery in the United States, ensured birthright citizenship, as well as due process and “equal protection of the laws” under the federal and state governments, and expanded voting rights by prohibiting discrimination based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” The Reconstruction Amendments also granted Congress the power to enforce the amendments’ provisions through federal legislation. The 14th Amendment eliminated the three-fifths rule in Article I, Sec. 2, cl. 3, and punished any state that did not permit male citizens twenty-one years old or older to vote by reducing the state’s proportional representation. This amendment also barred those who “have engaged in insurrection or rebellion” or “given aid or comfort to the enemies” of the United States from public office, unless Congress voted to remove this prohibition. The Reconstruction Amendments were essential to reuniting the United States during Reconstruction, and confederate states were required to ratify the 13th and 14th Amendments to be readmitted to the union.
Civil Rights Legacy
The Reconstruction Amendments provided the constitutional basis for enforcement and implementation of Reconstruction and passage of federal legislation such as the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875 and the Enforcement Acts of 1870-71 to end slavery, ensure full citizenship, civil rights, and voting rights to freed African Americans and to address growing violence and intimidation against freed African Americans in the South. However, in U.S. v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court dismissed the use of Enforcement Acts against individuals, and, in the Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Court declared that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had barred racial discrimination in public accommodations, was unconstitutional. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Court upheld segregation laws, establishing the “separate but equal” doctrine. The end of Reconstruction in 1877 and these Supreme Court decisions paved the way for racial violence, disenfranchisement through literacy tests, and Jim Crow segregation in the South, but it also inspired legal challenges to discrimination and segregation including Brown v. Board of Ed. (1954), a Civil Rights Movement, and a Second Reconstruction a century later with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Civil War & Reconstruction
From CrashCourse (in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios ). This video discusses Reconstruction after the Civil War, its goals, gains for African Americans, reasons why it failed, as well as the Reconstruction Amendments and election of 1876.
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45 | what was the result of the reconstruction amendments apex | https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/reconstruction-amendments-official-documents-social-history | User menu
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Eric Foner
On June 13, 1866, Thaddeus Stevens, the Republican floor leader in the House of Representatives and the nation’s most prominent Radical Republican, rose to address his Congressional colleagues on the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Born during George Washington’s administration, Stevens had enjoyed a career that embodied, as much as any other person’s, the struggle against slavery and for equal rights for black Americans. In 1837, as a delegate to Pennsylvania’s constitutional convention, he had refused to sign the state’s new frame of government because it abrogated African Americans’ right to vote. During the Civil War, he was among the first to advocate the emancipation of the slaves and the enrollment of black soldiers. The most radical of the Radical Republicans, he even proposed confiscating the land of Confederate planters and distributing small farms to the former slaves.
Like other Radical Republicans, Stevens believed that Reconstruction was a golden opportunity to purge the nation of the legacy of slavery and create a "perfect republic," whose citizens enjoyed equal civil and political rights, secured by a powerful and beneficent national government. In his speech on June 13 he offered an eloquent statement of his political dream—"that the intelligent, pure and just men of this Republic . . . would have so remodeled all our institutions as to have freed them from every vestige of human oppression, of inequality of rights, of the recognized degradation of the poor, and the superior caste of the rich." Stevens went on to say that the proposed amendment did not fully live up to this vision. But he offered his support. Why? "I answer, because I live among men and not among angels." A few moments later, the Fourteenth Amendment was approved by the House. It became part of the Constitution in 1868. The Fourteenth Amendment did not fully satisfy the Radical Republicans. It did not abolish existing state governments in the South and made no mention of the right to vote for blacks. Indeed it allowed a state to deprive black men of the suffrage, so long as it suffered the penalty of a loss of representation in Congress proportionate to the black percentage of its population. (No similar penalty applied, however, when women were denied the right to vote, a provision that led many advocates of women’s rights to oppose ratification of this amendment.) Nonetheless, the Fourteenth Amendment was the most important constitutional change in the nation’s history since the Bill of Rights. Its heart was the first section, which declared all persons born or naturalized in the United States (except Indians) to be both national and state citizens, and which prohibited the states from abridging their "privileges and immunities," depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or denying them "equal protection of the laws." In clothing with constitutional authority the principle of equality before the law regardless of race, enforced by the national government, this amendment permanently transformed the definition of American citizenship as well as relations between the federal government and the states, and between individual Americans and the nation. We live today in a legal and constitutional system shaped by the Fourteenth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment was one of three changes that altered the Constitution during the Civil War and Reconstruction. The Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865, irrevocably abolished slavery throughout the United States. The Fifteenth, which became part of the Constitution in 1870, prohibited the states from depriving any person of the right to vote because of race (although leaving open other forms of disenfranchisement, including sex, property ownership, literacy, and payment of a poll tax). In between came the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which gave the vote to black men in the South and launched the short-lived period of Radical Reconstruction, during which, for the first time in American history, a genuine interracial democracy flourished. "Nothing in all history," wrote the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, equaled "this . . . transformation of four million human beings from . . . the auction-block to the ballot-box." These laws and amendments reflected the intersection of two products of the Civil War era—a newly empowered national state and the idea of a national citizenry enjoying equality before the law. These legal changes also arose from the militant demands for equal rights from the former slaves themselves. As soon as the Civil War ended, and in some places even before, blacks gathered in mass meetings, held conventions, and drafted petitions to the federal government, demanding the same civil and political rights as white Americans. Their mobilization (given moral authority by the service of 200,000 black men in the Union Army and Navy in the last two years of the war) helped to place the question of black citizenship on the national agenda. The Reconstruction Amendments, and especially the Fourteenth, transformed the Constitution from a document primarily concerned with federal-state relations and the rights of property into a vehicle through which members of vulnerable minorities could stake a claim to substantive freedom and seek protection against misconduct by all levels of government. The rewriting of the Constitution promoted a sense of the document’s malleability, and suggested that the rights of individual citizens were intimately connected to federal power. The Bill of Rights had linked civil liberties and the autonomy of the states. Its language—"Congress shall make no law"—reflected the belief that concentrated power was a threat to freedom. Now, rather than a threat to liberty, the federal government, declared Charles Sumner, the abolitionist US senator from Massachusetts, had become "the custodian of freedom." The Reconstruction Amendments assumed that rights required political power to enforce them. They not only authorized the federal government to override state actions that deprived citizens of equality, but each ended with a clause empowering Congress to "enforce" them with "appropriate legislation." Limiting the privileges of citizenship to white men had long been intrinsic to the practice of American democracy. Only in an unparalleled crisis could these limits have been superseded, even temporarily, by the vision of an egalitarian republic embracing black Americans as well as white and presided over by the federal government. Constitutional amendments are often seen as dry documents, of interest only to specialists in legal history. In fact, as the amendments of the Civil War era reveal, they can open a window onto broad issues of political and social history. The passage of these amendments reflected the immense changes American society experienced during its greatest crisis. The amendments reveal the intersection of political debates at the top of society and the struggles of African Americans to breathe substantive life into the freedom they acquired as a result of the Civil War. Their failings—especially the fact that they failed to extend to women the same rights of citizenship afforded black men—suggest the limits of change even at a time of revolutionary transformation. Moreover, the history of these amendments underscores that rights, even when embedded in the Constitution, are not self-enforcing and cannot be taken for granted. Reconstruction proved fragile and short-lived. Traditional ideas of racism and localism reasserted themselves, Ku Klux Klan violence disrupted the Southern Republican party, and the North retreated from the ideal of equality. Increasingly, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the Fourteenth Amendment to eviscerate its promise of equal citizenship. By the turn of the century, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments had become dead letters throughout the South. A new racial system had been put in place, resting on the disenfranchisement of black voters, segregation in every area of life, unequal education and job opportunities, and the threat of violent retribution against those who challenged the new order. The blatant violation of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments occurred with the acquiescence of the entire nation. Not until the 1950s and 1960s did a mass movement of black southerners and white supporters, coupled with a newly activist Supreme Court, reinvigorate the Reconstruction Amendments as pillars of racial justice. Today, in continuing controversies over abortion rights, affirmative action, the rights of homosexuals, and many other issues, the interpretation of these amendments, especially the Fourteenth, remains a focus of judicial decision-making and political debate. We have not yet created the "perfect republic" of which Stevens dreamed. But more Americans enjoy more rights and freedoms than ever before in our history.
Eric Foner, the DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at Columbia University, is the author of numerous books on the Civil War and Reconstruction. His most recent book, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (2010), has received the Pulitzer, Bancroft, and Lincoln Prizes.
Suggested Sources
Books and Printed Materials
A selection of relevant books by the author of this essay: Foner, Eric. Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. New York: Knopf, 2005.
Foner, Eric. Nothing But Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007.
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1807. New York: Perennial Classics, 2002.
On the adoption of the Reconstruction Amendments: Maltz, Earl M. Civil Rights, the Constitution, and Congress, 1863–1869. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990.
The Reconstruction Amendments’ Debates: The Legislative History and Contemporary Debates in Congress on the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. Richmond: Commission on Constitutional Government, 1963.
Richards, David A. Conscience and the Constitution: History, Theory, and Law of the Reconstruction Amendments. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
On Thaddeus Stevens: Stevens, Thaddeus. The Selected Papers of Thaddeus Stevens. Beverly Wilson Palmer and Holly Byers Ochoa, eds. 2 vols. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997.
Internet Resources
For images of manuscript copies of the amendments, transcripts of their texts, and brief background information, see the National Archives’ "Our Documents" site: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=40 [Thirteenth Amendment] http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=43 [Fourteenth Amendment] http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=44 [Fifteenth Amendment]
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45 | what was the result of the reconstruction amendments apex | https://publicsquaremag.org/politics-law/legal/how-reconstruction-amendments-changed-america/ | How did the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments transform the US Government? To maintain civil rights, they granted more power to the federal government.
On July 4, 2023, just over a year ago, I wrote about what I learned about the Constitution while studying to become a U.S. citizen. Over a dozen of my friends who read that article asked all sorts of questions on how the Fourteenth Amendment allowed the Federal government, not state governments, to become the trustworthy guardians of the First Amendment’s freedoms. This is what they found most interesting and novel.
To this end, what I found profound when I studied the history of this great country is that few Americans understood how the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments radically changed the Constitution, augmented the need for compromise, and safeguarded the Bill of Rights. Iowa, where I have lived for 20-plus years, like the state of Utah (where I lived from 1991 – 1998), is politically conservative and are both advocates of state rights over Federal rights. Many people in Utah and Iowa believe in originalism that the U.S. Constitution should be interpreted as it was understood at its adoption—written in 1787 and ratified in 1788. It is a belief in the original Constitution that State rights eclipse federal rights.
The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments radically changed the Constitution.
Section 3 of the 14th Amendment has recently received much media coverage due to the Colorado Supreme Court declaring Donald Trump ineligible for the White House via the insurrection clause and the recent U.S. Supreme Court unanimous decision to overturn the Colorado Supreme Court decision. Yet, I believe few Americans understand how these three amendments transformed the Constitution. This may be why Dr. David Strauss, a distinguished Professor of Law at the University of Chicago, argued that the Constitution is a living document that changes; it is not a rigid, unimodal document from 1787. If the original Constitution had not changed, women would still not be able to vote! State rights, as originally framed in the Constitution, have transformed.
In the past year, I have spent more time learning about the social context that gave birth to these three amendments by reading Eric Foner’s books The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution and Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 . Dr. Foner is DeWitt Clinton Professor Emeritus of History affiliated with Columbia University, whose academic work specializes in the Civil War and Reconstruction, slavery, and 19th-century America.
Learning more about the historical context of these three amendments made me realize that compromise is the psychological soul of the Constitution and how vital it is for healthy interactions, including healthy disagreements, between the Federal government and State governments. As Dr. Foner explains, the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments lessened state rights and gave prominence to Federal rights.
After the Civil War, the Wade-Davis Bill (1864) created a framework for Reconstruction and the re-admittance of the Confederate States to the Union, and most Confederate leaders were able to return home. Lincoln, his cabinet, and Congress knew that if states still held greater power than the federal government, Confederate states would go back to having black slaves. The creation of these three amendments allowed black people to have rights and allowed the Bill of Rights to flourish, thus making democracy genuinely blossom. Dr. Forner, in The Second Founding , states
. . . the application of the Bill of Rights to the States has come via the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause . . . Thanks to incorporation, the states are now required to act in accordance with the fundamental liberties enumerated in the Bill of Rights, tremendously expanding the ability for all Americans to protect their civil liberties against abridgment by state and local authorities.
Akhil Amar, one of the most cited constitutional scholars from Yale Law School, clearly pinpoints in his 2021 book The Words That Made Us , and perhaps more so in his 1998 book The Bill of Rights , that the federal government became more trustworthy guardians of the first amendment freedoms than state government during the reconstruction period in American history. As Dr. Amar adds, immediately after ratifying the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, the federal government initiated civil rights legislation banning segregation in public places, including within state governments, that still perpetuated the beliefs that African Americans were less-than-human slaves.
It seems like the federal government is often viewed as the “bad guy.”
In states like Iowa and Utah, where more citizens generally believe in the priority of state rights, it seems like the federal government is often viewed as the “bad guy.” For example, I have many friends within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who believe the federal government was “the bad guy” when they cite the example of Joseph Smith’s visit with U.S. President Martin Van Buren in 1839. This meeting was organized to redress the federal government for wrongs inflicted on the Latter-day Saints in the state of Missouri. President Van Buren followed the constitutional philosophy of that era, stating that Congress had no jurisdiction in the matter but that church members should take their case to the State of Missouri government or courts. Joseph Smith may have envisioned what the Constitution would eventually become after the Civil War, where the federal government allowed the essential freedoms detailed in the Bill of Rights, including freedom of religion.
While there are many examples of the federal government doing harm, the creation of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments exemplify some of the good work it has done in protecting civil liberties. Certainly, in preventing Confederate states from continuing slavery, the federal government protected fundamental rights much better than certain States.
What makes the U.S. Constitution so amazing is that it permits freedom of viewpoint, negotiation, and cognitive elasticity, which gives breath to creativity. This includes the interplay between state and federal governments, and good public policy can emerge when a middle ground is found. Our mentality judging between state and federal governments does not have to be an “us” versus “them” mentality. Just as there can be harm in both, there can also be good in both the federal and state governments, and good things can happen when they set aside differences and work together.
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45 | what was the result of the reconstruction amendments apex | https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/reconstruction-amendments | Recent Preservation Victories
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Recent Preservation Victories
Updated December 6, 2023 • January 2, 2020
On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to General Ulysses S. Grant . With this surrender, other Confederate armies capitulated in short order, and the Civil War came to an end. Soldiers on both sides were discharged and returned to their homes. Now that the guns had been silenced, the lingering question remained: how do we move forward from here?
President Abraham Lincoln was grappling with that issue. Two days after Lee’s surrender, he delivered a speech on the “reconstruction” of the American States:
“By these recent successes the re-inauguration of the national authority -- reconstruction -- which has had a large share of thought from the first, is pressed much more closely upon our attention. It is fraught with great difficulty. Unlike the case of a war between independent nations, there is no authorized organ for us to treat with.”
This “Speech on Reconstruction” was his last public address to the people of the United States. In the crowd was John Wilkes Booth , who was angered at the outcome of the war and pledged to kill the President. On April 14, Booth shot Lincoln at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. At 7:22 a.m. the next morning, President Lincoln died.
107th Colored Troops (USA), Ft. Woodbury, Arlington County, Virginia, Nov. 1, 1865. New York Public Library
Hints of the Reconstruction that Lincoln wanted began during the war in 1863. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation , which gave freedom to all slaves in the areas that were in rebellion against the United States, and who worked under Confederate masters. (Note: slaves that were employed by Union aligned masters or in Union-aligned states were not Emancipated) This proclamation helped inhibit the Confederacy from obtaining legitimacy from foreign powers, such as England and France who were both antislavery. In addition, it, in theory, robbed Southern plantations and factories the free manpower needed to continue production in the South. Following this proclamation, African Americans from the North and South were recruited for the Union Army to form the United States Colored Troops division. These men were fighting for the continue emancipation of African Americans in all states.
Because of this Emancipation, many abolitionist leaders and groups petitioned Lincoln to continue these effects. These effects resulted in the first of three, later named, Reconstruction Amendments that aimed to give equal rights and liberties to newly freed African Americans in the United States. The Thirteenth Amendment was passed by the Senate and the House on April 8, 1864, and January 31, 1865, respectively. However, President Lincoln did not see the ratification of this law. President Andrew Johnson , Lincoln’s Vice President and successor after his assassination, saw the ratification and adoption on December 18, 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment reads:
Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.,
Prisons sold the use of their “prison gangs” to plantations to harvest and plant crops; while African Americans were now “free” many found themselves back on plantations working for no pay.
With the Thirteenth Amendment, slavery as an institution was outlawed in the United States; however, it did so only to a certain degree. At the time, the caveat “except as a punishment for a crime” was non-controversial. Historically, prisoners had been punished with unpaid hard labor in the United States and abroad. However, including this stipulation allowed the South to re-enslave African Americans. The South created strict laws that disproportionally affected newly freed African Americans called Black Codes . The most common violation was “vagrancy,” which imprisons individuals for unemployment or for finding employment that was not as “legitimate” in the eyes of the law. There was no clear definition of “legitimate” employment, which allowed law enforcement to imprison anyone with little evidence of wrongdoing. Since many African Americans struggled to find employment after Emancipation, they were ripe for imprisonment from this charge. Once individuals were imprisoned, prisons sold the use of their “prison gangs” to plantations to harvest and plant crops. Ironically, while African Americans were now “free” many found themselves back on plantations working for no pay.
Seeing this abuse by the Southern States, the government set out to enact more legal protections for newly freed African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was written to establish citizenship, without question, to newly freed African Americans. The Act, after it was ratified, stated:
“That all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power […] are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude[…] shall have the same right, in every State and Territory in the United States […] full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens […]”
President Andrew Johnson believed that the Civil Rights Act of 1866 “operate[d] in favor of the colored and against the white race" and vetoed the Act.
However, when it was first written in 1865, this amendment was vetoed by President Johnson. Johnson believed that it “operate[d] in favor of the colored and against the white race.” This perceived bias, he believed, could set a precedent of legislation that discriminates one race in favor of another. Particularly, legislation that could discriminate against white people. Congress did not agree with this position and the veto was overridden. On April 9, 1866, the Civil Rights Act was enacted into law.
However, members of Congress worried that the Act did not give enough constitutional power to enact and uphold this law. They worried that, with no power backing, that Congress could not properly protect the citizenship of African Americans in the courtroom or with further legislation. Congress began meeting to establish the Fourteenth Amendment , the second of three Reconstruction Amendments, to help establish this citizenship. In addition, Confederate States were required to ratify this amendment, in addition to 10% of the population pledging loyalty to the Union, in order to be readmitted into the United States. Because of these stipulations, this Amendment was highly contested between the North and the South. Even with these debates, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed on July 9, 1868. The first section reads:
“All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
The first section of the fourteenth Amendment is the section that is the most quoted in subsequent judicial decisions. For example, in the landmark decisions of Brown v. Board of Education segregation was classified as “unconstitutional” because a “separate but equal” school system could never be truly equal and that this State-sanctioned inequality violated citizen’s rights to “life, liberty, or property.” However, the Supreme Court ruled that this Amendment only affected public entities and could not address the denial of citizenship or rights performed by private citizens. The subsequent sections regarding how Representatives shall be appointed (Section 2), the exclusion of individuals who have “engaged in insurrection or rebellion” from serving in Congress (Section 3), the refusal of Congress to pay for debts incurred from engaging in “insurrection or rebellion” (Section 4), and stating their power to enforce the legislation (Section5). While this amendment solidified that African Americans were citizens according to the law, it did not stop the harassment or discrimination against African Americans in everyday life.
Much of this harassment played out in and near the voting booths. Voting laws were established to limit African American's ability to vote. With African American’s adoption as citizens, African American males could vote for the first time. Since Lincoln, who was a Republican, and a Republican Congress legislated Emancipation and citizenship to former slaves, most African American men voted for Republican candidates. Southern Democrats, worried that they could lose their elected seats, enacted convoluted laws to limit the amount of African American men who could vote. Laws were enacted that required all new voters to pass a literacy test before registration. Since education was illegal for slaves in the South, few former slaves were literate and could pass these tests. In order to not discriminate against poor white, illiterate farmers who usually voted Democrat, “Grandfather Clauses” were added to voting laws: if one’s grandfather had the right to vote, then their descendants had the right to vote regardless of other tests and limitations. If individuals were able to pass the literacy tests and the other stipulations in place, many African Americans were still wary or unable to vote. White community members verbally and physically harassed African Americans who tried to vote and threatened bodily harm against them, their children, their family, and their friends.
Adopted into law on February 3, 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment helped protect African-American men's right to vote.
With the election of President Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and these new challenges, Congress agreed that another amendment was needed. The last Amendment of the Reconstruction Amendments was adopted into law on February 3, 1870. It stated:
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
With this Amendment, lawyers could argue that these exploitative voting laws were targeting African American voters and were unconstitutional by way of the Fifteenth Amendment . This amendment did not fully stop voting obstacles to certain groups being utilized but did make those obstacles unconstitutional.
No other amendments were added before Reconstruction officially ended in 1877. Overall, Reconstruction was a failure. Innovative legislation was not forthcoming to help ease the discrimination that many newly freed slaves felt in the South. However, the Reconstruction Amendments did their part: they officially ended overt slavery, gave citizenship to newly freed African Americans, and established the right to vote regardless of race.
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46 | computer based models of real life situation are called | https://bjc.edc.org/June2017/bjc-r/cur/programming/5-algorithms/3-simulation/1-intro-to-simulations.html | Why Use Models and Simulations?
2.3 Models and simulations use abstraction to generate new understanding and knowledge. 2.3.1 Use models and simulations to represent phenomena. [P3] 2.3.1A Models and simulations are simplified representations of more complex objects or phenomena. 2.3.1B Models may use different abstractions or levels of abstraction depending on the objects or phenomena being posed. 2.3.1C Models often omit unnecessary features of the objects or phenomena that are being modeled. 2.3.1D Simulations mimic real world events without the cost or danger of building and testing the phenomena in the real world. 2.3.2 Use models and simulations to formulate, refine, and test hypotheses. [P3] 2.3.2A Models and simulations facilitate the formulation and refinement of hypotheses related to the objects or phenomena under consideration. 2.3.2B Hypotheses are formulated to explain the objects or phenomena being modeled. 2.3.2C Hypotheses are refined by examining the insights that models and simulations provide into the objects or phenomena. 2.3.2D The results of simulations may generate new knowledge and new hypotheses related to the phenomena being modeled. 2.3.2E Simulations allow hypotheses to be tested without the constraints of the real world. 2.3.2F Simulations can facilitate extensive and rapid testing of models. 2.3.2G The time required for simulations is impacted by the level of detail and quality of the models, and the software and hardware used for the simulation. 2.3.2H Rapid and extensive testing allows models to be changed to accurately reflect the objects or phenomena being modeled.
Models and simulations are computer representations of complex phenomena in the real world. They are used to explain or predict real life occurrences. There are many reasons to use computer simulations rather than real world experiments:
Experimenting in the real world may be expensive. For example, a new design for an airplane might fall apart in strong winds. Using a computer to model the shape of the airplane and to simulate the wind behavior can eliminate some bad designs before building a real airplane.
Experimenting in the real world may be time-consuming, such as testing the effects of a genetic mutation in a species across generations.
Experimenting in the real world may be dangerous, such as testing whether a nuclear reactor will survive an earthquake.
Experimenting in the real world may be unethical, such as giving a population a disease to test how fast it spreads.
Computer models rarely capture the full complexity of real situations. For example, models that scientists use to predict the impact of global climate change have to account for hundreds of interconnected factors such as wind patterns, the course of rivers, geological fault lines that cause earthquakes, and interactions of local plants and animals. It would be impossible to include all real interdependent factors in a model. So, researchers make simplifying assumptions in their models.
Researchers may use an iterative design process, starting with a very simple model and refining that model based on their past experiences to make it more realistic for the next simulation. Highly detailed models may push the limits of current computer speeds. So, researchers may have to limit the complexity of the model. Complex models and simulations depend on abstractions (simplifications) to avoid the many details of real world phenomena.
As a class, come up with some examples of complex real life phenomena for which it would be impractical, impossible, dangerous, or unethical to conduct real world experiments.
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46 | computer based models of real life situation are called | https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/simulations-science/ | Computer Simulations in Science
First published Mon May 6, 2013; substantive revision Thu Sep 26, 2019
Computer simulation was pioneered as a scientific tool in meteorology
and nuclear physics in the period directly following World War II, and
since then has become indispensable in a growing number of
disciplines. The list of sciences that make extensive use of computer
simulation has grown to include astrophysics, particle physics,
materials science, engineering, fluid mechanics, climate science,
evolutionary biology, ecology, economics, decision theory, medicine,
sociology, epidemiology, and many others. There are even a few
disciplines, such as chaos theory and complexity theory, whose very
existence has emerged alongside the development of the computational
models they study.
After a slow start, philosophers of science have begun to devote
more attention to the role of computer simulation in
science. Several areas of philosophical interest in
computer simulation have emerged: What is the structure of the
epistemology of computer simulation? What is the relationship
between computer simulation and experiment? Does computer
simulation raise issues for the philosophy of science that are not
fully covered by recent work on models more generally? What does
computer simulation teach us about emergence? About the structure
of scientific theories? About the role (if any) of fictions in
scientific modeling?
In its narrowest sense, a computer simulation is a program that is
run on a computer and that uses step-by-step methods to explore
the approximate behavior of a mathematical model. Usually this is
a model of a real-world system (although the system in question might
be an imaginary or hypothetical one). Such a computer program is
a computer simulation model. One run of the
program on the computer is a computer simulation of the system. The
algorithm takes as its input a specification of the system’s
state (the value of all of its variables) at some time t.
It then calculates the system’s state at time t+1.
From the values characterizing that second state, it then calculates
the system’s state at time t+2, and so on. When
run on a computer, the algorithm thus produces a numerical picture of
the evolution of the system’s state, as it is conceptualized in
the model.
This sequence of values for the model variables can be saved as a
large collection of “data” and is often viewed on a
computer screen using methods of visualization. Often, but
certainly not always, the methods of visualization are designed to mimic the output of some scientific instrument—so that the
simulation appears to be measuring a system of interest.
Sometimes the step-by-step methods of computer simulation are used
because the model of interest contains continuous (differential)
equations (which specify continuous rates of change in time) that
cannot be solved analytically—either in principle or perhaps only in
practice. This underwrites the spirit of the following
definition given by Paul Humphreys: “any computer-implemented method
for exploring the properties of mathematical models where analytic
methods are not available” (1991, 500). But even as a narrow
definition, this one should be read carefully, and not be taken to
suggest that simulations are only used when there are analytically
unsolvable equations in the model. Computer simulations are often
used either because the original model itself contains discrete
equations—which can be directly implemented in an algorithm suitable
for simulation—or because the original model consists of something
better described as rules of evolution than as equations.
In the former case, when equations are being
“discretized” (the turning of equations that describe
continuous rates of change into discrete equations), it should be
emphasized that, although it is common to speak of simulations
“solving” those equations, a discretization can at best
only find something which approximates the solution of continuous
equations, to some desired degree of accuracy. Finally,
when speaking of “a computer simulation” in the narrowest
sense, we should be speaking of a particular implementation of the
algorithm on a particular digital computer, written in a particular
language, using a particular compiler, etc. There are cases in
which different results can be obtained as a result of variations in
any of these particulars.
Both of the above definitions take computer simulation to be
fundamentally about using a computer to solve, or to approximately
solve, the mathematical equations of a model that is meant to represent
some system—either real or hypothetical. Another approach
is to try to define “simulation” independently of the
notion of computer simulation, and then to define “computer
simulation” compositionally: as a simulation that is carried out
by a programmed digital computer. On this approach, a simulation is any
system that is believed, or hoped, to have dynamical behavior that is
similar enough to some other system such that the former can be studied
to learn about the latter.
For example, if we study some object because we believe it is
sufficiently dynamically similar to a basin of fluid for us to learn
about basins of fluid by studying the it, then it provides a
simulation of basins of fluid. This is in line with the definition of
simulation we find in Hartmann: it is something that “imitates
one process by another process. In this definition the term
‘process’ refers solely to some object or system whose
state changes in time” (1996, 83). Hughes (1999) objected that
Hartmann’s definition ruled out simulations that imitate a system’s
structure rather than its dynamics. Humphreys revised his definition
of simulation to accord with the remarks of Hartmann and Hughes as
follows:
System S provides a core simulation of an object or process B just
in case S is a concrete computational device that produces, via a
temporal process, solutions to a computational model … that
correctly represents B, either dynamically or statically. If in
addition the computational model used by S correctly represents the
structure of the real system R, then S provides a core simulation of
system R with respect to B. (2004, p. 110)
(Note that Humphreys is here defining computer simulation, not
simulation generally, but he is doing it in the spirit of defining a
compositional term.) It should be noted that Humphreys’ definitions
make simulation out to be a success term, and that seems
unfortunate. A better definition would be one that, like the one in
the last section, included a word like “believed” or
“hoped” to address this issue.
In most philosophical discussions of computer simulation, the more
useful concept is the one defined in 1.2. The exception is when it is
explicitly the goal of the discussion to understand computer
simulation as an example of simulation more generally (see section
5). Examples of simulations that are not computer simulations include
the famous physical model of the San Francisco Bay (Huggins &
Schultz 1973). This is a working hydraulic scale model of the San
Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta System built in
the 1950s by the Army Corps of engineers to study possible engineering
interventions in the Bay. Another nice example, which is discussed
extensively in (Dardashti et al., 2015, 2019) is the use of acoustic
“dumb holes” made out of Bose-Einstein condensates to
study the behavior of Black Holes. Physicist Bill Unruh noted that in
certain fluids, something akin to a black hole would arise if there
were regions of the fluid that were moving so fast that waves would
have to move faster than the speed of sound (something they cannot do)
in order to escape from them (Unruh 1981). Such regions would in
effect have sonic event horizons. Unruh called such a physical setup a
“dumb hole” (“dumb” as in “mute”)
and proposed that it could be studied in order to learn things we do
not know about black holes. For some time, this proposal was viewed as
nothing more than a clever idea, but physicists have recently come to
realize that, using Bose-Einstein condensates, they can actually build
and study dumb holes in the laboratory. It is clear why we should
think of such a setup as a simulation: the dumb hole simulates the
black hole. Instead of finding a computer program to simulate the
black holes, physicists find a fluid dynamical setup for which they
believe they have a good model and for which that model has
fundamental mathematical similarities to the model of the systems of
interest. They observe the behavior of the fluid setup in the
laboratory in order to make inferences about the black holes. The
point, then, of the definitions of simulation in this section is to
try to understand in what sense computer simulation and these sorts of
activities are species of the same genus. We might then be in a better
situation to understand why a simulation in the sense of 1.3 which
happens to be run on a computer overlaps with a simulation in the
sense of 1.2. We will come back to this in section 5.
Barberousse et al. (2009), however, have been critical of this
analogy. They point out that computer simulations do not
work the way Unruh’s simulation works. It is not the case that the
computer as a material object and the target system follow the same
differential equations. A good reference about
simulations that are not computer simulations is Trenholme 1994.
Agent-based simulations are most common in the social and behavioral
sciences, though we also find them in such disciplines as artificial
life, epidemiology, ecology, and any discipline in which the networked
interaction of many individuals is being studied.
Agent-based simulations are similar to particle-based simulations in
that they represent the behavior of n-many discrete individuals.
But unlike equation-particle-based simulations, there are no global
differential equations that govern the motions of the
individuals. Rather, in agent-based simulations, the behavior of
the individuals is dictated by their own local rules
To give one example: a famous and groundbreaking agent-based
simulation was Thomas Schelling’s (1971) model of
“segregation.” The agents in his simulation
were individuals who “lived” on a chessboard.
The individuals were divided into two groups in the society (e.g. two
different races, boys and girls, smokers and non-smokers, etc.)
Each square on the board represented a house, with at most one person
per house. An individual is happy if he/she has a certain percent
of neighbors of his/her own group. Happy agents stay where they are,
unhappy agents move to free locations. Schelling found that the board
quickly evolved into a strongly segregated location pattern if the
agents’ “happiness rules” were specified so that
segregation was heavily favored. Surprisingly, however, he also found
that initially integrated boards tipped into full segregation even if
the agents’ happiness rules expressed only a mild preference for having
neighbors of their own type.
In section 2.1 we discussed equation-based models that are based on
particle methods and those that are based on field methods.
But some simulation models are hybrids of different kinds of modeling
methods. Multiscale simulation models, in particular,
couple together modeling elements from different scales of
description. A good example of this would be a model that
simulates the dynamics of bulk matter by treating the material as a
field undergoing stress and strain at a relatively coarse level of
description, but which zooms into particular regions of the material
where important small scale effects are taking place, and models those
smaller regions with relatively more fine-grained modeling methods.
Such methods might rely on molecular dynamics, or quantum mechanics, or
both—each of which is a more fine-grained description of matter
than is offered by treating the material as a field. Multiscale
simulation methods can be further broken down into serial multiscale
and parallel multiscale methods. The more traditional
method is serial multi-scale modeling. The idea here is to
choose a region, simulate it at the lower level of description,
summarize the results into a set of parameters digestible by the higher
level model, and pass them up to into the part of the algorithm
calculating at the higher level.
Serial multiscale methods are not effective when the different scales
are strongly coupled together. When the different scales interact
strongly to produce the observed behavior, what is required is an
approach that simulates each region simultaneously. This is called
parallel multiscale modeling. Parallel multiscale modeling is the
foundation of a nearly ubiquitous simulation method: so called
“sub-grid” modeling. Sub-grid modeling refers to the
representation of important small-scale physical processes that occur
at length-scales that cannot be adequately resolved on the grid size
of a particular simulation. (Remember that many simulations discretize
continuous equations, so they have a relatively arbitrary finite
“grid size.”) In the study of turbulence in fluids, for
example, a common practical strategy for calculation is to account for
the missing small-scale vortices (or eddies) that
fall inside the grid cells. This is done by adding to the large-scale
motion an eddy viscosity that characterizes the transport and
dissipation of energy in the smaller-scale flow—or any such
feature that occurs at too small a scale to be captured by the
grid.
In climate science and kindred disciplines, sub-grid modeling is
called “parameterization.” This, again, refers to the
method of replacing processes—ones that are too small-scale or
complex to be physically represented in the model— by a more
simple mathematical description. This is as opposed to other
processes—e.g., large-scale flow of the atmosphere—that are
calculated at the grid level in accordance with the basic theory. It is
called “parameterization” because various non-physical parameters are needed to drive the highly approximative
algorithms that compute the sub-grid values. Examples of
parameterization in climate simulations include the descent rate of
raindrops, the rate of atmospheric radiative transfer, and the rate of
cloud formation. For example, the average cloudiness over a 100
km2 grid box is not cleanly related to the average humidity
over the box. Nonetheless, as the average humidity increases, average
cloudiness will also increase—hence there could be a parameter linking
average cloudiness to average humidity inside a grid box. Even
though modern-day parameterizations of cloud formation are more
sophisticated than this, the basic idea is well illustrated by the
example. The use of
sub-grid modeling methods in simulation has important consequences for
understanding the structure of the epistemology of
simulation. This will be discussed in greater detail in
section 4.
Sub-grid modelling methods can be contrasted with another kind of
parallel multiscale model where the sub-grid algorithms are more
theoretically principled, but are motivated by a theory at a different
level of description. In the example of the simulation of bulk matter
mentioned above, for example, the algorithm driving the smaller level
of description is not built by the seat-of-the-pants. The algorithm
driving the smaller level is actually more theoretically principled
than the higher level in the sense that the physics is more
fundamental: quantum mechanics or molecular dynamics vs. continuum
mechanics. These kinds of multiscale models, in other words, cobble
together the resources of theories at different levels of
description. So they provide for interesting examples that
provoke our thinking about intertheoretic relationships, and that
challenge the widely-held view that an inconsistent set of laws can
have no models.
In the scientific literature, there is another large class of
computer simulations called Monte Carlo (MC) Simulations. MC
simulations are computer algorithms that use randomness to calculate
the properties of a mathematical model and where the randomness of the
algorithm is not a feature of the target model. A nice
example is the use of a random algorithm to calculate the value
of π. If you draw a unit square on a piece of
paper and inscribe a circle in it, and then randomly drop a collection
of objects inside the square, the proportion of objects that land in
the circle would be roughly equal to π/4. A
computer simulation that simulated a procedure like that would be
called a MC simulation for calculating π.
Many philosophers of science have deviated from ordinary scientific
language here and have shied away from thinking of MC simulations as
genuine simulations. Grüne-Yanoff and Weirich (2010) offer the
following reasoning: “The Monte Carlo approach does not have a
mimetic purpose: It imitates the deterministic system not in order to
serve as a surrogate that is investigated in its stead but only in
order to offer an alternative computation of the deterministic
system’s properties” (p.30). This shows that MC
simulations do not fit any of the above definitions aptly. On the
other hand, the divide between philosophers and ordinary language can
perhaps be squared by noting that MC simulations simulate an imaginary
process that might be used for calculating something relevant to
studying some other process. Suppose I am modeling a planetary orbit
and for my calculation I need to know the value of π. If I do the
MC simulation mentioned in the last paragraph, I am simulating the
process of randomly dropping objects into a square, but what I am
modeling is a planetary orbit. This is the sense in which MC
simulations are simulations, but they are not simulations of the systems they are being used to study.
However, as Beisbart and Norton (2012) point
out, some MC simulations (viz. those that use MC techniques to solve
stochastic dynamical equations referring to a physical system) are in
fact simulations of the systems they study.
There are three general categories of purposes to which computer
simulations can be put. Simulations can be used for
heuristic purposes, for the purpose of predicting data that we do not
have, and for generating understanding of data that we do already
have.
Under the category of heuristic models, simulations can be further
subdivided into those used to communicate knowledge to others, and
those used to represent information to ourselves. When Watson and Crick
played with tin plates and wire, they were doing the latter at first,
and the former when they showed the results to others. When the army
corps built the model of the San Francisco Bay to convince the voting
population that a particular intervention was dangerous, they were
using it for this kind of heuristic purpose. Computer simulations can
be used for both of these kinds of purposes—to explore features of
possible representational structures; or to communicate knowledge to
others. For example: computer simulations of natural processes, such as
bacterial reproduction, tectonic shifting, chemical reactions, and
evolution have all been used in classroom settings to help students
visualize hidden structure in phenomena and processes that are
impractical, impossible, or costly to illustrate in a “wet”
laboratory setting.
Another broad class of purposes to which computer simulations can be
put is in telling us about how we should expect some system in the
real world to behave under a particular set of circumstances. Loosely
speaking: computer simulation can be used for prediction. We can use
models to predict the future, or to retrodict the past; we can use
them to make precise predictions or loose and general ones. With
regard to the relative precision of the predictions we make with
simulations, we can be slightly more fine-grained in our
taxonomy. There are a) Point predictions: Where will the planet Mars
be on October 21st, 2300? b) “Qualitative” or global or
systemic predictions: Is the orbit of this planet stable? What scaling
law emerges in these kinds of systems? What is the fractal dimension
of the attractor for systems of this kind? and c) Range predictions:
It is 66% likely that the global mean surface temperature will
increase by between 2–5 degrees C by the year 2100; it is
“highly likely” that sea level will rise by at least two
feet; it is “implausible” that the thermohaline will shut
down in the next 50 years.
Finally, simulations can be used to understand systems and their
behavior. If we already have data telling us how some system
behaves, we can use computer simulation to answer questions about how
these events could possibly have occurred; or about how those events
actually did occur.
When thinking about the topic of the next section, the epistemology
of computer simulations, we should also keep in mind that the
procedures needed to sanction the results of simulations will often
depend, in large part, on which of the above kind of purpose or
purposes the simulation will be put to.
As computer simulation methods have gained importance in more and
more disciplines, the issue of their trustworthiness for generating new
knowledge has grown, especially when simulations are expected to be
counted as epistemic peers with experiments and traditional analytic
theoretical methods. The relevant question is always whether or not the
results of a particular computer simulation are accurate enough for
their intended purpose. If a simulation is being used to forecast weather, does it predict the variables we are
interested in to a degree of accuracy that is sufficient to meet the
needs of its consumers? If a simulation of the atmosphere above a
Midwestern plain is being used to understand the structure of
a severe thunderstorm, do we have confidence that the structures in the
flow—the ones that will play an explanatory role in our account of why
the storm sometimes splits in two, or why it sometimes forms
tornados—are being depicted accurately enough to support our
confidence in the explanation? If a simulation is being used in
engineering and design, are the predictions made by the simulation
reliable enough to sanction a particular choice of design parameters,
or to sanction our belief that a particular design of airplane wing
will function? Assuming that the answer to these questions is sometimes
“yes”, i.e. that these kinds of inferences are at least
sometimes justified, the central philosophical question is: what
justifies them? More generally, how can the claim that a simulation is
good enough for its intended purpose be evaluated? These are the
central questions of the epistemology of computer simulation
(EOCS).
Given that confirmation theory is one of the traditional
topics in philosophy of science, it might seem obvious that the
latter would have the resources to begin to approach these questions.
Winsberg (1999), however, argued that when it comes to topics related
to the credentialing of knowledge claims, philosophy of science has
traditionally concerned itself with the justification of theories, not
their application. Most simulation, on the other hand, to the extent
that it makes use of the theory, tends to make use of the
well-established theory. EOCS, in other words, is rarely about testing
the basic theories that may go into the simulation, and most often
about establishing the credibility of the hypotheses that are, in part,
the result of applications of those theories.
Winsberg (2001) argued that, unlike the epistemological issues that
take center stage in traditional confirmation theory, an adequate EOCS
must meet three conditions. In particular it must take account of
the fact that the knowledge produced by computer simulations is the
result of inferences that are downward, motley, and autonomous.
Downward. EOCS must reflect the fact that in a large
number of cases, accepted scientific theories are the starting point
for the construction of computer simulation models and play an
important role in the justification of inferences from simulation
results to conclusions about real-world target systems. The
word “downward” was meant to signal the fact that, unlike
most scientific inferences that have traditionally interested
philosophers, which move up from observation instances to
theories, here we have inferences that are drawn (in part) from
high theory, down to particular features of phenomena.
Motley. EOCS must take into account that simulation results
nevertheless typically depend not just on theory but on many other
model ingredients and resources as well, including parameterizations
(discussed above), numerical solution methods, mathematical tricks,
approximations and idealizations, outright fictions, ad hoc
assumptions, function libraries, compilers and computer hardware, and
perhaps most importantly, the blood, sweat, and tears of much trial and
error.
Autonomous. EOCS must take into account the autonomy
of the knowledge produced by simulation in the sense that the knowledge
produced by simulation cannot be sanctioned entirely by comparison with
observation. Simulations are usually employed to study phenomena where
data are sparse. In these circumstances, simulations are meant to
replace experiments and observations as sources of data about the world
because the relevant experiments or observations are out of reach,
for principled, practical, or ethical reasons.
Parker (2013) has made the point that the usefulness of
these conditions is somewhat compromised by the fact that it is overly
focused on simulation in the physical sciences, and other disciplines
where simulation is theory-driven and equation-based. This seems
correct. In the social and behavioral sciences, and other
disciplines where agent-based simulation (see 2.2) are more the
norm, and where models are built in the absence of established and
quantitative theories, EOCS probably ought to be characterized in other
terms.
For instance, some social scientists who use agent-based simulation
pursue a methodology in which social phenomena (for example an
observed pattern like segregation) are explained, or accounted for, by
generating similar looking phenomena in their simulations (Epstein and
Axtell 1996; Epstein 1999). But this raises its own sorts of
epistemological questions. What exactly has been accomplished, what
kind of knowledge has been acquired, when an observed social
phenomenon is more or less reproduced by an agent-based simulation?
Does this count as an explanation of the phenomenon? A possible
explanation? (see e.g., Grüne-Yanoff 2007). Giuseppe Primiero
(2019) argues that there is a whole domain of “artificial
sciences” built around agent-based and multi-agent system based
simulations, and that it requires its own epistemology--one where
validation cannot be defined by comparison with an existing real-world
system, but must be defined vis a vis an intended system.
It is also fair to say, as Parker does (2013), that the
conditions outlined above pay insufficient attention to the various and
differing purposes for which simulations are used (as discussed in
2.4). If we are using a simulation to make detailed
quantitative predictions about the future behavior of a target system,
the epistemology of such inferences might require more stringent
standards than those that are involved when the inferences being made
are about the general, qualitative behavior of a whole class of
systems. Indeed, it is also fair to say that much more work could
be done in classifying the kinds of purposes to which computer
simulations are put and the constraints those purposes place on the
structure of their epistemology.
Frigg and Reiss (2009) argued that none of these three conditions
are new to computer simulation. They argued that ordinary
‘paper and pencil’ modeling incorporate these
features. Indeed, they argued that computer simulation could not
possibly raise new epistemological issues because the epistemological
issues could be cleanly divided into the question of the
appropriateness of the model underlying the simulation, which is an
issue that is identical to the epistemological issues that arise in
ordinary modeling, and the question of the correctness of the solution
to the model equations delivered by the simulation, which is a
mathematical question, and not one related to the epistemology of
science. On the first point, Winsberg (2009b) replied that
it was the simultaneous confluence of all three features that was new
to simulation. We will return to the second point in section
4.3
Some of the work on the EOCS has developed analogies between
computer simulation in order to draw on recent work in the epistemology
of experiment, particularly the work of Allan Franklin;
see the entry on experiments in physics .
In his work on the epistemology of experiment, Franklin (1986,
1989) identified a number of strategies that experimenters use to
increase rational confidence in their results. Weissart (1997)
and Parker (2008a) argued for various forms of analogy between these
strategies and a number of strategies available to simulationists to
sanction their results. The most detailed analysis of these
relationships is to be found in Parker 2008a, where she also uses
these analogies to highlight weaknesses in current approaches to
simulation model evaluation.
Winsberg (2003) also makes use of Ian Hacking’s (1983, 1988,
1992) work on the philosophy of experiment. One of Hacking’s
central insights about experiment is captured in his slogan that
experiments have a life of their own’ (1992: 306). Hacking
intended to convey two things with this slogan. The first was a
reaction against the unstable picture of science that comes, for
example, from Kuhn. Hacking (1992) suggests that experimental results
can remain stable even in the face of dramatic changes in the other
parts of sciences. The second, related, point he intended to
convey was that ‘experiments are organic, develop, change, and
yet retain a certain long-term development which makes us talk about
repeating and replicating experiments’ (1992: 307). Some of the
techniques that simulationists use to construct their models get
credentialed in much the same way that Hacking says that instruments
and experimental procedures and methods do; the credentials develop
over an extended period of time and become deeply tradition-bound. In
Hacking’s language, the techniques and sets of assumptions that
simulationists use become ‘self-vindicating’. Perhaps a
better expression would be that they carry their own credentials. This
provides a response to the problem posed in 4.1, of understanding how
simulation could have a viable epistemology despite the motley and
autonomous nature of its inferences.
Drawing inspiration from another philosopher of experiment (Mayo
1996), Parker (2008b) suggests a remedy to some of the shortcomings in
current approaches to simulation model evaluation. In this work,
Parker suggests that Mayo’s error-statistical approach for
understanding the traditional experiment—which makes use of the
notion of a “severe test”—could shed light on the
epistemology of simulation. The central question of the epistemology
of simulation from an error-statistical perspective becomes,
‘What warrants our taking a computer simulation to be a severe
test of some hypothesis about the natural world? That is, what
warrants our concluding that the simulation would be unlikely to give
the results that it in fact gave, if the hypothesis of interest were
false (2008b, 380)? Parker believes that too much of what passes for
simulation model evaluation lacks rigor and structure because it:
consists in little more than side-by-side comparisons of simulation
output and observational data, with little or no explicit argumentation
concerning what, if anything, these comparisons indicate about the
capacity of the model to provide evidence for specific scientific
hypotheses of interest. (2008b, 381)
Drawing explicitly upon Mayo’s (1996) work, she argues that
what the epistemology of simulation ought to be doing, instead, is
offering some account of the ‘canonical errors’ that can
arise, as well as strategies for probing for their presence.
Practitioners of simulation, particularly in engineering contexts,
in weapons testing, and in climate science, tend to conceptualize
the EOCS in terms of verification and validation. Verification is said to be the process of determining whether
the output of the simulation approximates the true solutions to the
differential equations of the original model. Validation, on
the other hand, is said to be the process of determining whether the
chosen model is a good enough representation of the real-world system
for the purpose of the simulation. The literature on verification and
validation from engineers and scientists is enormous and it is
beginning to receive some attention from philosophers.
Verification can be divided into solution verification and code
verification. The former verifies that the output of the intended
algorithm approximates the true solutions to the differential
equations of the original model. The latter verifies that the
code, as written, carries out the intended algorithm. Code
verification has been mostly ignored by philosophers of science;
probably because it has been seen as more of a problem in computer
science than in empirical science—perhaps a mistake. Part of solution
verification consists in comparing computed output with analytic
solutions (so called “benchmark solutions”).
Though this method can of course help to make case for the results of a
computer simulation, it is by itself inadequate, since
simulations are often used precisely because analytic solution is
unavailable for regions of solution space that are of interest. Other
indirect techniques are available: the most important of which is
probably checking to see whether and at what rate computed output
converges to a stable solution as the time and spatial resolution of
the discretization grid gets finer.
The principal strategy of validation involves comparing model output
with observable data. Again, of course, this strategy is
limited in most cases, where simulations are being run because
observable data are sparse. But complex strategies can be
employed, including comparing the output of subsystems of a simulation
to relevant experiments (Parker, 2013; Oberkampf and Roy
2010).
The concepts of verification and validation has drawn some criticism
from philosophers. Oreskes et al. 1994, a very widely-cited article,
was mostly critical of the terminology, arguing that
“validity,” in particular, is a property that only applies
to logical arguments, and that hence the term, when applied to models,
might lead to overconfidence.
Winsberg (2010, 2018, p.155) has argued that the conceptual division
between verification and validation can be misleading, if it is taken
to suggest that there is one set of methods which can, by itself, show
that we have solved the equations right, and that there is another set
of methods, which can, by itself, show that we’ve got the right
equations. He also argued that it is misleading to think that the
epistemology of simulation is cleanly divided into an empirical part
(verification) and a mathematical (and computer science) part
(validation.) But this misleading idea often follows discussion of
verification and validation. We find this both in the work of
practitioners and philosophers.
Here is the standard line from a practitioner, Roy:
“Verification deals with mathematics and addresses the
correctness of the numerical solution to a given model. Validation, on
the other hand, deals with physics and addresses the appropriateness
of the model in reproducing experimental data. Verification can be
thought of as solving the chosen equations correctly, while validation
is choosing the correct equations in the first place” (Roy
2005).
Some philosophers have put this distinction to work in arguments
about the philosophical novelty of simulation. We first
raised this issue in section 4.1, where Frigg and Reiss argued that
simulation could have no epistemologically novel features, since it
contained two distinct components: a component that is identical
to the epistemology of ordinary modeling, and a component that is
entirely mathematical. “We should distinguish two
different notions of reliability here, answering two different
questions. First, are the solutions that the computer provides close
enough to the actual (but unavailable) solutions to be
useful?…this is a purely mathematical question and falls within
the class of problems we have just mentioned. So, there is nothing new
here from a philosophical point of view and the question is indeed one
of number crunching. Second, do the computational models that are the
basis of the simulations represent the target system correctly? That
is, are the simulation results externally valid? This is a serious
question, but one that is independent of the first problem, and
one that equally arises in connection with models that do not involve
intractable mathematics and ordinary experiments” (Frigg
and Reiss 2009).
But verification and validation are not, strictly speaking, so cleanly
separable. That is because most methods of validation, by themselves,
are much too weak to establish the validity of a simulation. And most
model equations chosen for simulation are not in any straightforward
sense “the right equations”; they are not the model
equations we would choose in an ideal world. We have good reason to
think, in other words, that there are model equations out there that
enjoy better empirical support, in the abstract. The equations we
choose often reflect a compromise between what we think best describes
the phenomena and computational tractability. So the equations that
are chosen are rarely well “validated” on their own. If we
want to understand why simulation results are taken to be credible, we
have to look at the epistemology of simulation as an integrated whole,
not as cleanly divided into verification and validation—each of
which, on its own, would look inadequate to the task.
So one point is that verification and validation are not
independently-successful and separable activities. But the other point
is that there are not two independent entities onto which these
activities can be directed: a model chosen to discretized, and a method
for discretizing it. Once one recognizes that the equations to be
“solved” are sometimes chosen so as to cancel out
discretization errors, etc. (Lenhard 2007 has a very nice example of
this involving the Arakawa operator), this later distinction gets harder
to maintain. So success is achieved in simulation with a kind of
back-and-forth, trial-and-error, piecemeal adjustment between model and
method of calculation. And when this is the case, it is hard even to
know what it means to say that a simulation is separately verified and
validated.
No one has argued that V&V isn’t a useful distinction, but
rather that scientists shouldn’t overinflate a pragmatically
useful distinction into a clean methodological dictate that
misrepresents the messiness of their own practice. Collaterally, Frigg
and Reiss’s argument for the absence of epistemological novelty
in simulation fails for just this reason. It is not “a purely
mathematical question” whether the solutions that the computer
provides close enough to the actual (but unavailable) solutions to be
useful. At least not in this respect: it is not a question that can be
answered, as a pragmatic matter, entirely using mathematical
methods. And hence it is an empirical/epistemological issue that does
not arise in ordinary modeling.
A major strand of ordinary (outside of the philosophy of science)
epistemology is to emphasize the degree to which it is a condition for
the possibility of knowledge that we rely on our senses and the
testimony of other people in a way that we cannot ourselves justify.
According to Tyler Burge (1993,1998), belief in the results of
these two processes are warranted but not justified. Rather,
according to Burge, we are entitled to these beliefs.
“[w]e are entitled to rely, other things equal, on perception,
memory, deductive and inductive reasoning, and on…the word of
others” (1993, p. 458). Beliefs in which a believer is
entitled are those that are unsupported by evidence available to the
believer, but which the believer is nevertheless warranted in
believing.
Some work in EOCS has developed analogies between computer
simulation and the kinds of knowledge producing practices Burge
associates with entitlement. (See especially Barberousse
and Vorms, 2014, and Beisbart, 2017.) This is, in some ways, a
natural outgrowth of Burge’s arguments that we view computer
assisted proofs in this way (1998). Computer simulations
are extremely complex, often the result of the epistemic labor of a
diverse set of scientists and other experts, and perhaps most
importantly, epistemically opaque (Humphreys, 2004). Because of
these features, Beisbart argues that it is reasonable to treat computer
simulations in the same way that we treat our senses and the testimony
of others: simply as things that can be trusted on the assumption
that everything is working smoothly. (Beisbart,
2017).
Symons and Alvarado (2019) argue that there is a fundamental problem
with this approach to EOCS and it has to do with a feature of
computer-aided proof that was crucial to Burge’s original
account: that of a being a ‘transparent conveyor’.
“It is very important to note, for example, that Burge’s
account of content preservation and transparent conveying requires
that the recipient already has reason not to doubt the source”
(p. 13). But Symons and Alvarado point to many of the properties of
computer simulations (drawing from Winsberg 2010 and Ruphy 2015) in
virtue of which they fail to have these properties. Lenhard and
Küster 2019 is also relevant here, as they argue that there are
many features of computer simulation that make them difficult to
reproduce and that therefore undermine some of the stability that
would be required for them to be transparent conveyors. For these
reasons and others having to do with many of the features discussed in
4.2 and 4.3, Symons and Alvarado argue that it is implausible that we
should view computer simulation as a basic epistemic practice on a par
with sense perception, memory, testimony, or the like.
Working scientists sometimes describe simulation studies in
experimental terms. The connection between simulation and
experiment probably goes back as far as von Neumann, who, when
advocating very early on for the use of computers in physics, noted
that many difficult experiments had to be conducted merely to determine
facts that ought, in principle, to be derivable from theory. Once
von Neumann’s vision became a reality, and some of these
experiments began to be replaced by simulations, it became somewhat
natural to view them as versions of experiment. A
representative passage can be found in a popular book on
simulation:
A simulation that accurately mimics a complex phenomenon contains a
wealth of information about that phenomenon. Variables such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity are evaluated at
thousands of points by the supercomputer as it simulates the
development of a storm, for example. Such data, which far exceed
anything that could be gained from launching a fleet of weather
balloons, reveals intimate details of what is going on in the storm
cloud. (Kaufmann and Smarr 1993, 4)
The idea of “in silico” experiments becomes even more
plausible when a simulation study is designed to learn what happens to
a system as a result of various possible interventions: What would
happen to the global climate if x amount of carbon were added
to the atmosphere? What will happen to this airplane wing if it is
subjected to such-and-such strain? How would traffic patterns change
if an onramp is added at this location?
Philosophers, consequently, have begun to consider in what sense, if
any, computer simulations are like experiments and in what sense they
differ. A related issue is the question of when a process that
fundamentally involves computer simulation can counts as measurement
(Parker, 2017) A number of views have emerged in the literature
centered around defending and criticizing two theses:
The identity thesis. Computer simulation studies are
literally instances of experiments.
The epistemological dependence thesis. The identity
thesis would (if it were true) be a good reason (weak version), or the
best reason (stronger version), or the only reason (strongest version;
it is a necessary condition) to believe that simulations can provide
warrants for belief in the hypotheses that they support. A
consequence of the strongest version is that only if the identity
thesis is true is there reason to believe that simulations can confer
warrant for believing in hypotheses.
The central idea behind the epistemological dependence thesis is
that experiments are the canonical entities that play a central role in
warranting our belief in scientific hypotheses, and that therefore the
degree to which we ought to think that simulations can also play a role
in warranting such beliefs depends on the extent to which they can be
identified as a kind of experiment.
One can find philosophers arguing for the identity thesis as early as
Humphreys 1995 and Hughes 1999. And there is at least implicit support
for (the stronger) version of the epistemological dependence thesis in
Hughes. The earliest explicit argument in favor of the epistemological
dependence thesis, however, is in Norton and Suppe 2001. According to
Norton and Suppe, simulations can warrant belief precisely because
they literally are experiments. They have a detailed story to tell
about in what sense they are experiments, and how this is all supposed
to work. According to Norton and Suppe, a valid simulation is one in
which certain formal relations (what they call
‘realization’) hold between a base model, the modeled
physical system itself, and the computer running the algorithm. When
the proper conditions are met, ‘a simulation can be used as an
instrument for probing or detecting real world phenomena. Empirical
data about real phenomena are produced under conditions of
experimental control’ (p. 73).
One problem with this story is that the formal conditions that they
set out are much too strict. It is unlikely that there are very many
real examples of computer simulations that meet their strict standards.
Simulation is almost always a far more idealizing and approximating
enterprise. So, if simulations are experiments, it is probably
not in the way that Norton and Suppe imagined.
More generally, the identity thesis has drawn fire from other
quarters.
Gilbert and Troitzsch argued that “[t]he major difference is
that while in an experiment, one is controlling the actual object of
interest (for example, in a chemistry experiment, the chemicals under
investigation), in a simulation one is experimenting with a model
rather than the phenomenon itself.” (Gilbert and Troitzsch 1999,
13). But this doesn’t seem right. Many (Guala 2002, 2008, Morgan 2003,
Parker 2009a, Winsberg 2009a) have pointed to problems with the
claim. If Gilbert and Troitzsch mean that simulationists manipulate
models in the sense of abstract objects, then the claim is difficult
to understand—how do we manipulate an abstract entity? If, on
the other hand, they simply mean to point to the fact that the
physical object that simulationists manipulate—a digital
computer—is not the actual object of interest, then it is not
clear why this differs from ordinary experiments.
It is false that real experiments always manipulate exactly their
targets of interest. In fact, in both real experiments and
simulations, there is a complex relationship between what is
manipulated in the investigation on the one hand, and the real-world
systems that are the targets of the investigation on the other. In
cases of both experiment and simulation, therefore, it takes an
argument of some substance to establish the ‘external
validity’ of the investigation – to establish that what is
learned about the system being manipulated is applicable to the system
of interest. Mendel, for example, manipulated pea plants, but he was
interested in learning about the phenomenon of heritability
generally. The idea of a model organism in biology makes this
idea perspicuous. We experiment on Caenorhabditis elegans because we are interested in understanding how organism in general use
genes to control development and genealogy. We experiment
on Drosophila melanogaster, because it provides a
useful model of mutations and genetic inheritance. But the idea is not
limited to biology. Galileo experimented with inclined planes because
he was interested in how objects fall and how they would behave in the
absence of interfering forces—phenomena that the inclined plane
experiments did not even actually instantiate.
Of course, this view about experiments is not uncontested. It is
true that, quite often, experimentalists infer something about a system
distinct from the system they interfere with. However, it is not clear
whether this inference is proper part of the original experiment.
Peschard (2010) mounts a criticism along these lines, and hence can be
seen as a defender of Gilbert and Troitzsch. Peschard argues that the
fundamental assumption of their critics—that in experimentation,
just as in simulation, what is manipulated is a system standing in for
a target system—is confused. It confuses, Peschard argues, the epistemic target of an experiment with its epistemic
motivation. She argues that while the epistemic motivation for
doing experiments on C. elegans might be quite far-reaching,
the proper epistemic target for any such experiment is the worm
itself. In a simulation, according to Peschard, however, the
epistemic target is never the digital computer itself. Thus,
simulation is distinct from experiment, according to her, in that its
epistemic target (as opposed to merely its epistemic motivation) is
distinct from the object being manipulated. Roush (2017) can also be
seen as a defender of the Gilbert and Troitzsch line, but Roush
appeals to sameness of natural kinds as the crucial feature that
separates experiments and simulations. Other opponents of the identity
thesis include Giere (2009) and Beisbart and Norton (2012, Other
Internet Resources).
It is not clear how to adjudicate this dispute, and it seems to
revolve primarily around a difference of emphasis. One can
emphasize the difference between experiment and simulation,
following Gilbert and Troitzsch and Peschard, by insisting that
experiments teach us first about their epistemic targets and only
secondarily allow inferences to the behavior of other systems.
(I.e., experiments on worms teach us, in the first instance, about
worms, and only secondarily allow us to make inferences about genetic
control more generally.) This would make them conceptually
different from computer simulations, which are not thought to teach us,
in the first instance, about the behavior of computers, and only in the
second instance about storms, or galaxies, or whatever.
Or one can emphasize similarity in the opposite way. One can
emphasize the degree to which experimental targets are always chosen
as surrogates for what’s really of interest. Morrison, 2009 is
probably the most forceful defender of emphasizing this aspect of the
similarity of experiment and simulation. She argues that most
experimental practice, and indeed most measurement practice, involve
the same kinds of modeling practices as simulations. In any case,
pace Peschard, nothing but a debate about nomenclature—and maybe
an appeal to the ordinary language use of scientists; not always the
most compelling kind of argument—would prevent us from saying
that the epistemic target of a storm simulation is the computer, and
that the storm is merely the epistemic motivation for studying the
computer.
Be that as it may, many philosophers of simulation, including those
discussed in this section, have chosen the latter path—partly as
a way of drawing attention to ways in which the message lurking behind
Gilbert and Troitzsch’s quoted claim paints an overly simplistic
picture of experiment. It does seem overly simplistic to paint a
picture according to which experiment gets a direct grip on
the world, whereas simulation’s situation is exactly
opposite. And this is the picture one seems to get from the
Gilber and Troitzsch quotation. Peschard’s more sophisticated picture
involving a distinction between epistemic targets and epistemic
motivations goes a long way towards smoothing over those concerns
without pushing us into the territory of thinking that simulation and
experiment are exactly the same, in this regard.
Still, despite rejecting Gilbert and Troitzsch’s
characterization of the difference between simulation and experiment,
Guala and Morgan both reject the identity thesis. Drawing on the
work of Simon (1969), Guala argues that simulations differ
fundamentally from experiments in that the object of manipulation in an
experiment bears a material similarity to the target of interest, but
in a simulation, the similarity between object and target is merely
formal. Interestingly, while Morgan accepts this argument against the
identity thesis, she seems to hold to a version of the epistemological dependency thesis. She argues, in other words,
that the difference between experiments and simulations identified by
Guala implies that simulations are epistemologically inferior to real
experiments – that they have intrinsically less power to warrant
belief in hypotheses about the real world because they are not
experiments.
A defense of the epistemic power of simulations against Morgan’s
(2002) argument could come in the form of a defense of the identity
thesis, or in the form of a rejection of the epistemological
dependency thesis. On the former front, there seem to be two problems
with Guala’s (2002) argument against the identity thesis. The
first is that the notion of material similarity here is too weak, and
the second is that the notion of mere formal similarity is too vague,
to do the required work. Consider, for example, the fact that it is
not uncommon, in the engineering sciences, to use simulation methods
to study the behavior of systems fabricated out of silicon. The
engineer wants to learn about the properties of different design
possibilities for a silicon device, so she develops a computational
model of the device and runs a simulation of its behavior on a digital
computer. There are deep material similarities between, and some of
the same material causes are at work in, the central processor of the
computer and the silicon device being studied. On Guala’s line
of reasoning, this should mark this as an example of a real
experiment, but that seems wrong. The peculiarities of this example
illustrate the problem rather starkly, but the problem is in fact
quite general: any two systems bear some material similarities to each
other and some differences.
On the flip side, the idea that the existence of a formal similarity
between two material entities could mark anything interesting is
conceptually confused. Given any two sufficiently complex entities,
there are many ways in which they are formally identical, not to
mention similar. There are also ways in which they are formally
completely different. Now, we can speak loosely, and say that two
things bear a formal similarity, but what we really mean is that our
best formal representations of the two entities have formal
similarities. In any case, there appear to be good grounds for rejecting both
the Gilbert and Troitzsch and the Morgan and Guala grounds for
distinguishing experiments and simulations.
Returning to the defense of the epistemic power of simulations, there
are also grounds for rejecting the epistemological dependence thesis.
As Parker (2009a) points out, in both experiment and simulation, we
can have relevant similarities between computer simulations and target
systems, and that’s what matters. When the relevant background
knowledge is in place, a simulation can provide more reliable
knowledge of a system than an experiment. A computer simulation of the
solar system, based on our most sophisticated models of celestial
dynamics, will produce better representations of the planets’
orbits than any experiment.
Parke (2014) argues against the epistemological dependency thesis by
undermining two premises that she believes support it: first, that
experiments generate greater inferential power than simulations, and
second, that simulations cannot surprise us in the same way that
experiments can. The argument that simulations cannot surprise us
comes from Morgan (2005). Pace Morgan, Parke argues that
simulationists are often surprised by their simulations, both because
they are not computationally omniscient, and because they are not
always the sole creators of the models and code they use. She argues,
moreover, that ‘[d]ifferences in researcher’s epistemic states, alone,
seem like the wrong grounds for tracking a distinction between
experiment and simulation’ (258). Adrian Curry (2017) defends
Morgan’s original intuition by making two friendly amendments. He
argues that the distinction Morgan was really after was between two
different kinds of surprise, and in particular to what the source of
surprise is: surprise due to bringing out theoretical knowledge into
contact with the world are distinctive of experiment. He also more
carefully defines surprise in a non-psychological way such that it is
a “quality the attainment of which constitutes genuine epistemic
progress” (p. 640).
Paul Humphreys (2004) has argued that computer simulations
have profound implications for our understanding of the structure of
theories; he argues that they reveal inadequacies with both the
semantic and syntactic views of scientific theories. This claim has
drawn sharp fire from Roman Frigg and Julian Reiss (2009). Frigg and
Reiss argue that whether a model admits of analytic solution or not has
no bearing on how it relates to the world. They use the example of the
double pendulum to show this. Whether or not the pendulum’s inner
fulcrum is held fixed (a fact which will determine whether the relevant
model is analytically solvable) has no bearing on the semantics of the
elements of the model. From this, they conclude that the semantics of a
model, or how it relates to the world, is unaffected by whether or not
the model is analytically solvable.
This was not responsive, however,
to the most charitable reading of what Humphreys was pointing at. The
syntactic and semantic views of theories, after all, were not just
accounts of how our abstract scientific representations relate to the
world. More particularly, they were not stories about the
relation between particular models and the world, but rather about the
relation between theories and the world, and the role, if any,
that models played in that relation.
They were also stories that had a lot to say about where the
philosophically interesting action is when it comes to scientific
theorizing. The syntactic view suggested that scientific practice could
be adequately rationally reconstructed by thinking of theories as
axiomatic systems, and, more importantly, that logical deduction was a
useful regulative ideal for thinking about how inferences from theory
to the world are drawn. The syntactic view also, by omission, made if
fairly clear that modeling played, if anything, only a heuristic role in science. (This was a feature of the
syntactic view of theories that Frederick Suppe, one of its most ardent
critics, often railed against.) Theories themselves had nothing
to do with models, and theories could be compared directly to
the world, without any important role for modeling to play.
The semantic view of theories, on the other hand, did emphasize an
important role for models, but it also urged that theories were
non-linguistic entities. It urged philosophers not to be distracted by
the contingencies of the particular form of linguistic expression a
theory might be found in, say, a particular textbook.
Computer simulations, however, do seem to illustrate that both of
these themes were misguided. It was profoundly wrong to think that
logical deduction was the right tool for rationally reconstructing the
process of theory application. Computer simulations show that there are
methods of theory application that vastly outstrip the inferential
power of logical deduction. The space of solutions, for example, that
is available via logical deduction from the theory of fluids is
microscopic compared with the space of applications that can be
explored via computer simulation. On the flip side, computer
simulations seem to reveal that, as Humphreys (2004) has urged, syntax
matters. It was wrong, it turns out, to suggest, as the semantic
view did, that the particular linguistic form in which a scientific
theory is expressed is philosophically uninteresting. The syntax of the
theory’s expression will have a deep effect on what inferences
can be drawn from it, what kinds of idealizations will work well with
it, etc. Humphreys put the point as follows: “the
specific syntactic representation used is often crucial to the
solvability of the theory’s equations” (Humphreys 2009,
p.620). The theory of fluids can be used to
emphasize this point: whether we express that theory in Eulerian or
Lagrangian form will deeply affect what, in practice, we can calculate
and how; it will affect what idealizations, approximations, and
calculational techniques will be effective and reliable in which
circumstances. So the epistemology of computer simulation needs
to be sensitive to the particular syntactic formulation of a theory,
and how well that particular formulation has been credentialed.
Hence, it does seem right to emphasize, as Humphreys (2004) did, that
computer simulations have revealed inadequacies with both the syntactic
and semantic theories.
Paul Humphreys (2004) and Mark Bedau (1997, 2011) have argued that
philosophers interested in the topic of emergence can learn a great
deal by looking at computer simulation. Philosophers
interested in this topic should consult the entry on emergent properties ,
where the contributions of all these philosophers have been
discussed.
The connection between emergence and simulation was perhaps best
articulated by Bedau in his (2011). Bedau argued that any
conception of emergence must meet the twin hallmarks of explaining how
the whole depends on its parts and how the whole is independent of its
parts. He argues that philosophers often focus on what he calls
“strong” emergence, which posits brute downward causation that is
irreducible in principle. But he argues that this is a
mistake. He focuses instead on what he calls “weak”
emergence, which allows for reducibility of wholes to parts in principle but not in practice. Systems that
produce emergent properties are mere mechanisms, but the mechanisms are
very complex (they have very many independently interacting parts). As
a result, there is no way to figure out exactly what will happen given
a specific set of initial and boundary conditions, except to “crawl the
causal web”. It is here that the connection to computer
simulation arises. Weakly emergent properties are characteristic
of complex systems in nature. And it is also characteristic of
complex computer simulations that there is no way to predict what they
will do except to let them run. Weak emergence explains, according to
Bedau, why computer simulations play a central role in the
science of complex systems. The best way to understand and predict how
real complex systems behave is to simulate them by crawling the
micro-causal web, and see what happens.
Models of course involve idealizations. But it has been argued
that some kinds of idealization, which play an especially prominent
role in the kinds of modeling involved in computer simulation, are
special—to the point that they deserve the title of
“fiction.” This section will discuss attempts to define
fictions and explore their role in computer simulation.
There are two different lines of thinking about the role of fictions
in science. According to one, all models are fictions. This line of
thinking is motivated by considering the role, for example, of
“the ideal pendulum” in science. Scientists, it is argued,
often make claims about these sorts of entities (e.g., “the
ideal pendulum has a period proportional to the square-root of its
length”) but they are nowhere to be found in the real world;
hence they must be fictional entities. This line of argument about
fictional entities in science does not connect up in any special way
with computer simulation—readers interested in this topic should
consult the entry on scientific representation [forthcoming].
Another line of thinking about fictions is concerned with the question
of what sorts of representations in science ought to be regarded as
fictional. Here, the concern is not so much about the ontology of
scientific model entities, but about the representational character of
various postulated model entities. Here, Winsberg (2009c) has argued
that fictions do have a special connection to computer simulations. Or
rather, that some computer simulations contain elements that best
typify what we might call fictional representations in science, even
if those representations are not uniquely present in simulations.
He notes that the first conception of a fiction—mentioned
above—which makes “any representation that contradicts
reality a fiction” (p. 179), doesn’t correspond to our ordinary
use of the term: a rough map is not fiction. He then proposes an
alternative definition: nonfiction is offered as a “good
enough” guide to some part of the world (p. 181); fiction is
not. But the definition needs to be refined. Take the fable of the
grasshopper and the ant. Although the fable offers lessons about how
the world is, it is still fiction because it is “a useful guide
to the way the world is in some general sense” rather than a
specific guide to the way a part of the world is, its “prima
facie representational target”, a singing grasshopper and
toiling ant. Nonfictions, on the other hand, “point to a certain
part of the world” and are a guide to that part of the world
(p. 181).
These kinds of fictional components of models are
paradigmatically exemplified in certain computer simulations. Two of
his examples are the “silogen atom” and “artificial
viscosity.” Silogen atoms appear in certain nanomechanical models
of cracks in silicon—a species of the kind of multiscale models
that blend quantum mechanics and molecular mechanics mentioned in
section 2.3. The silogen containing models of crack propagation in
silicon work by describing the crack itself using quantum mechanics and
the region immediately surrounding the crack using classical molecular
dynamics. To bring together the modeling frameworks in the two regions,
the boundary gets treated as if it contains ‘silogen’
atoms, which have a mixture of the properties of silicon and those of
hydrogen. Silogen atoms are fictions. They are not offered as even a
‘good enough’ description of the atoms at the
boundary—their prima facie representational targets. But they are
used so that the overall model can be hoped to get things right. Thus
the overall model is not a fiction, but one of its components is.
Artificial viscosity is a similar sort of example. Fluids with abrupt
shocks are difficult to model on a computational grid because the
abrupt shock hides inside a single grid cell, and cannot be resolved by
such an algorithm. Artificial viscosity is a technique that pretends
that the fluid is highly viscous—a fiction—right were the
shock is, so that he shock becomes less abrupt, and blurs over several
grid cells. Getting the viscosity, and hence the thickness of the
shock, wrong, helps to get the overall model to work “well
enough.” Again, the overall model of the fluid is not a fiction,
it is a reliable enough guide to the behavior of the fluid. But the
component called artificial viscosity is a fiction—it is not
being used to reliably model the shock. It is being incorporated into a
larger modeling framework so as to make that larger framework,
“reliable enough.”
This account has drawn two sorts of criticisms. Toon (2010) has
argued that this definition of a fiction is too narrow. He gives
examples of historical fictions like I, Claudius, and Schindler’s Ark, which he argues are fictions, despite
the fact that “they are offered as ‘good enough’
guides to those people, places and events in certain respects and we
are entitled to take them as such.” (p. 286–7). Toon, presumably,
supports a broader conception of the role of fictions in science, then,
according to which they do not play a particularly prominent or
heightened role in computer simulation.
Gordon Purves (forthcoming) argues that there are examples of
fictions in computational models (his example is so-called
“imaginary cracks”), and elsewhere, that do not meet the
strict requirements discussed above. Unlike Toon, however, he also
wants to delineate fictional modeling elements from the non-fictional
ones. His principal criticism is of the criterion of fictionhood in
terms of social norms of use—and Purves argues that we ought to
be able to settle whether or not some piece of modeling is a fiction in
the absence of such norms. Thus, he wants to find an intrinsic
characterization of a scientific fiction. His proposal takes as
constitutive of model fictions that they fail to have the
characteristic that Laymon (1985) called “piecewise
improvability” (PI). PI is a characteristic of many models that
are idealizations; it says that as you de-idealize, your model becomes
more and more accurate. But as you de-idealize a silogen atom, you do
not get a more and more accurate simulation of a silicon crack. But
Purves takes this failure of PI to be constitutive of a fiction, rather
than merely symptomatic of them.
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Academic Tools
Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054
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46 | computer based models of real life situation are called | https://ors.od.nih.gov/OD/OQM/cms/Pages/default.aspx | Computer Modeling and Simulation
Computer simulation modeling is a discipline gaining popularity in both government and industry. Designers, program managers, analysts, and engineers use computer simulation modeling to understand and evaluate ‘what if’ case scenarios.
Computer simulation modeling can assist in the design, creation, and evaluation of complex systems by replicating a real or proposed system using computer software when changes to the actual system are difficult to implement, involve high costs, or are impractical. Some examples of computer simulation modeling familiar to most of us include: weather forecasting, flight simulators used for training pilots, and car crash modeling.
For more videos of OQM Computer Modeling and Simulation Projects, visit OQM and Computer Modeling and Simulation Projects (NIH-only access)
Benefits:
Identify problem areas or bottlenecks in processes
Evaluate effect of systems or process changes such as demand, resources, supply, and constraints
Identify actions needed upstream or downstream relative to a given operation, organization, or activity to either improve or mitigate processes or events
Evaluate impact of changes in policy prior to implementation
Types of Simulation Models:
Discrete Models – Changes to the system occur at specific times
Division of Property Management trouble calls
Acquisition or construction business processes
A manufacturing system with parts entering and leaving at specific times
Continuous Models – The state of the system changes continuously over time
A reservoir as water flows in and out
Chilled water or steam distribution
Mixed Models – Contains both discrete and continuous elements
A refinery with continuously changing pressure inside vessels and discreetly occurring shutdowns
Chilled water distribution including plant shutdowns
Types of Data/Information Needed to Develop a Simulation Model:
The overall process flow and its associated resources
What is being produced, served, or acted upon by the process (entities)
Frequency at which the entities arrive in the process
How long do individual steps in the process take
Probability distributions that characterize real life uncertainties and variations in the process
Examples of use in ORS/ORF include:
Shooter scenarios
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46 | computer based models of real life situation are called | https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/faq-what-is-simulation | Subscribe to our newsletter to receive the latest news and events from TWI:
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46 | computer based models of real life situation are called | https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/computational-modeling | Here’s how you know
Here’s how you know
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Computational modeling is the use of computers to simulate and study complex systems using mathematics, physics and computer science. A computational model contains numerous variables that characterize the system being studied. Simulation is done by adjusting the variables alone or in combination and observing the outcomes. Computer modeling allows scientists to conduct thousands of simulated experiments by computer. The thousands of computer experiments identify the handful of laboratory experiments that are most likely to solve the problem being studied.
Today’s computational models can study a biological system at multiple levels. Models of how disease develops include molecular processes, cell to cell interactions, and how those changes affect tissues and organs. Studying systems at multiple levels is known as multiscale modeling (MSM).
How is computational modeling used to study complex systems?
Computational models are used to simulate and study complex biological systems. Image Courtesy ISB
Weather forecasting models make predictions based on numerous atmospheric factors. Accurate weather predictions can protect life and property and help utility companies plan for power increases that occur with extreme climate shifts.
Flight simulators use complex equations that govern how aircraft fly and react to factors such as turbulence, air density, and precipitation. Simulators are used to train pilots, design aircraft, and study how aircraft are affected as conditions change.
Earthquake simulations aim to save lives, buildings, and infrastructure. Computational models predict how the composition, and motion of structures interact with the underlying surfaces to affect what happens during an earthquake.
How can computational modeling improve medical care and research?
Tracking infectious diseases. Computational models are being used to track infectious diseases in populations, identify the most effective interventions, and monitor and adjust interventions to reduce the spread of disease. Identifying and implementing interventions that curb the spread of disease are critical for saving lives and reducing stress on the healthcare system during infectious disease pandemics.
Clinical decision support. Computational models intelligently gather, filter, analyze and present health information to provide guidance to doctors for disease treatment based on detailed characteristics of each patient. The systems help to provide informed and consistent care of a patient as they transfer to appropriate hospital facilities and departments and receive various tests during their course of treatment.
Predicting drug side effects. Researchers use computational modeling to help design drugs that will be the safest for patients and least likely to have side effects. The approach can reduce the many years needed to develop a safe and effective medication.
How are NIBIB-funded researchers using computational modeling to improve health?
Modeling infectious disease spread to identify effective interventions. Modeling infectious diseases accurately relies on numerous large sets of data. For example, evaluation of the efficacy of social distancing on the spread of flu-like illness must include information on friendships and interactions of individuals, as well as standard biometric and demographic data. NIBIB-funded researchers are developing new computational tools that can incorporate newly available data sets into models designed to identify the best courses of action and the most effective interventions during pandemic spread of infectious disease and other public health emergencies.
Multiscale modeling (MSM) is a complex type of computational modeling that incorporates multiple levels of a biological system. Image Courtesy ISB.
Tracking viral evolution during spread of infectious disease. RNA viruses such as HIV, hepatitis B, and coronavirus continually mutate to develop drug resistance, escape immune response, and establish new infections. Samples of sequenced pathogens from thousands of infected individuals can be used to identify millions of evolving viral variants. NIBIB-funded researchers are creating computational tools to incorporate this important data into infectious disease analysis by health care professionals. The new tools will be created in partnership with the CDC and made available online to researchers and health care workers. The project will enhance worldwide disease surveillance and treatment and enable development of more effective disease eradication strategies.
Transforming wireless health data into improved health and healthcare. Health monitoring devices at hospitals, and wearable sensors such as smartwatches generate vast amounts of health data in real-time. Data-driven medical care promises to be fast, accurate, and less expensive, but the continual data streams currently overwhelm the ability to use the information. NIBIB-funded researchers are developing computational models that convert streaming health data into a useful form. The new models will provide real-time physiological monitoring for clinical decision making at the Nationwide Children’s Hospital. A team of mathematicians, biomedical informaticians, and hospital staff will generate publicly shared data and software. The project will leverage the $11 billion wireless health market to significantly improve healthcare.
Human and machine learning for customized control of assistive robots. The more severe a person’s motor impairment, the more challenging it is to operate assistive machines such as powered wheelchairs and robotic arms. Available controls such as sip-and-puff devices are not adequate for persons with severe paralysis. NIBIB-funded researchers are engineering a system to enable people with tetraplegia to control a robotic arm while promoting exercise and maintenance of residual motor skills. The technology uses body-machine interfaces that respond to minimal movement in limbs, head, tongue, shoulders, and eyes. Initially, when the user moves, machine learning augments the signal to perform a task with a robotic arm. Help is scaled back as the machine transfers control to the progressively skilled user. The approach aims to empower people with severe paralysis and provide an interface to safely learn to control robotic assistants.
Updated May 2020
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| 399 |
47 | where does the sound come from when you crack your knuckles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_cracking | Joint cracking
16 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Bending person's joints to produce a distinct cracking or popping sound
Cracking finger joints makes a distinct cracking or popping sound.
Joint cracking is the manipulation of joints to produce a sound and related "popping" sensation. It is sometimes performed by physical therapists , chiropractors , and osteopaths [1] pursuing a variety of outcomes.
The cracking of joints, especially knuckles, was long believed to lead to arthritis and other joint problems. However, this has been debunked [2]
The cracking mechanism and the resulting sound is caused by dissolved gas (nitrogen gas) cavitation bubbles suddenly collapsing inside the joints. This happens when the joint cavity is stretched beyond its normal size. The pressure inside the joint cavity drops and the dissolved gas suddenly comes out of solution and takes gaseous form which makes a distinct popping noise. To be able to crack the same knuckle again requires waiting about 20 minutes before the bubbles dissolve back into the synovial fluid and will be able to form again. [2]
It is possible for voluntary joint cracking by an individual to be considered as part of the obsessive–compulsive disorders spectrum. [3] [4]
MRI of a cracking finger joint depicting cavitation between the bones
Static images of the hand in the resting phase before cracking (left). The same hand following cracking with the addition of a post-cracking distraction force (right). Note the dark, interarticular void (yellow arrow).
For many decades, the physical mechanism that causes the cracking sound as a result of bending, twisting, or compressing joints was uncertain. Suggested causes included:
Cavitation within the joint—small cavities of partial vacuum form in the synovial fluid and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound. [5] [6]
Rapid stretching of ligaments. [7]
Formation of bubbles of joint air as the joint is expanded. [8]
There were several hypotheses to explain the cracking of joints. Synovial fluid cavitation has some evidence to support it. [9] When a spinal manipulation is performed, the applied force separates the articular surfaces of a fully encapsulated synovial joint, which in turn creates a reduction in pressure within the joint cavity. In this low-pressure environment, some of the gases that are dissolved in the synovial fluid (which are naturally found in all bodily fluids) leave the solution, making a bubble , or cavity ( tribonucleation ), which rapidly collapses upon itself, resulting in a "clicking" sound. [10] The contents of the resultant gas bubble are thought to be mainly carbon dioxide , oxygen and nitrogen . [11] The effects of this process will remain for a period of time known as the " refractory period ", during which the joint cannot be "re-cracked", which lasts about 20 minutes, while the gases are slowly reabsorbed into the synovial fluid . There is some evidence that ligament laxity may be associated with an increased tendency to cavitate. [12]
In 2015, research showed that bubbles remained in the fluid after cracking, suggesting that the cracking sound was produced when the bubble within the joint was formed, not when it collapsed. [8] In 2018, a team in France created a mathematical simulation of what happens in a joint just before it cracks. The team concluded that the sound is caused by bubbles' collapse, and bubbles observed in the fluid are the result of a partial collapse. Due to the theoretical basis and lack of physical experimentation, the scientific community is still not fully convinced of this conclusion. [2] [13] [14]
The snapping of tendons or scar tissue over a prominence (as in snapping hip syndrome ) can also generate a loud snapping or popping sound. [7]
Relation to arthritis
The common old wives' tale that cracking one's knuckles causes arthritis is without scientific evidence. [15] A study published in 2011 examined the hand radiographs of 215 people (aged 50 to 89). It compared the joints of those who regularly cracked their knuckles to those who did not. [16] The study concluded that knuckle-cracking did not cause hand osteoarthritis, no matter how many years or how often a person cracked their knuckles. [16] This early study has been criticized for not taking into consideration the possibility of confounding factors, such as whether the ability to crack one's knuckles is associated with impaired hand functioning rather than being a cause of it. [17]
The medical doctor Donald Unger cracked the knuckles of his left hand every day for more than sixty years, but he did not crack the knuckles of his right hand. No arthritis or other ailments formed in either hand, and for this, he was awarded 2009's satirical Ig Nobel Prize in Medicine. [18]
See also
^ Richard Boggs, Hammaming in the Sham: A Journey Through the Turkish Baths of Damascus, Aleppo and Beyond, 2012,
Brodeur R. (1995). "The audible release associated with joint manipulation". J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 18 (3): 155–64. PMID 7790795 .
Maigne, Jean-Yves; Vautravers, Philippe (September 2003). "Mechanism of action of spinal manipulative therapy". Joint Bone Spine. 70 (5): 336–341. doi : 10.1016/S1297-319X(03)00074-5 . PMID 14563460 .
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47 | where does the sound come from when you crack your knuckles | https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/knuckle-cracking-annoying-and-harmful-or-just-annoying-2018051413797 | October 27, 2020
By Robert H. Shmerling, MD ,
Senior Faculty Editor, Harvard Health Publishing; Editorial Advisory Board Member, Harvard Health Publishing
Follow me on Twitter @RobShmerling
Knuckle cracking is a common behavior enjoyed by many. It can become a habit or a way to deal with nervous energy; some describe it as a way to "release tension." For some, it's simply an annoying thing that other people do.
If you've ever wondered why stretching the fingers in certain ways causes that familiar noise or whether knuckle cracking is harmful in some way, read on. Despite how common it is, there has been considerable debate regarding where the noise comes from. Fortunately — at least for those of us who are curious about it — knuckle cracking has been the subject of a fair amount of research.
Here's some of what we know about knuckle cracking
The "cracking" of knuckle cracking seems to be produced by increasing the space between finger joints. This causes gas bubbles in the joint fluid to collapse or burst. It's a bit like blowing up a balloon and then stretching the walls of the balloon outward until it pops.
The reason you can't crack the same knuckle or joint twice right away is that it takes some time for the gas bubbles to accumulate again in the joint.
Cracking the knuckles is probably harmless . Although there have been occasional reports of dislocations or tendon injuries from overly vigorous knuckle cracking, such problems seem very much to be the exception and not the rule.
How do we know that knuckle cracking is harmless?
One of the most convincing bits of evidence suggesting that knuckle cracking is harmless comes from a California physician who reported on an experiment he conducted on himself. Over his lifetime, he regularly cracked the knuckles of only one hand. He checked x-rays on himself after decades of this behavior and found no difference in arthritis between his hands. A larger study came to a similar conclusion.
There are rare medical reports of problems associated with this behavior that may relate to how much force is applied and one's particular technique. For example, joint dislocations and tendon injuries have been described after attempts to crack knuckles. One study published in 1990 found that among 74 people who regularly cracked their knuckles, their average grip strength was lower and there were more instances of hand swelling than among 226 people who did not crack their knuckles. However, the incidence of arthritis was the same in both groups.
And another study created a mathematical model of a knuckle that helped confirm that the noise comes from collapsing gas bubbles.
What about other sounds coming from the joints?
The origin of most joint noises, such as popping sounds or cracking of the knees when squatting, is uncertain. They may come from the kneecap rubbing on the bones below, or a tendon sliding across an irregular surface. However, in the absence of pain, swelling, or other joint symptoms, these sounds are probably nothing to be concerned about, and there is no reliable way to silence them.
The bottom line on knuckle cracking
If you want to crack your knuckles, it's unlikely to cause you harm. But if you want someone else to stop cracking their knuckles, you'll need a better reason than telling them they're ruining their joints.
Image: Andrey Popov/Getty Images
Robert H. Shmerling, MD,
Senior Faculty Editor, Harvard Health Publishing; Editorial Advisory Board Member, Harvard Health Publishing
Dr. Robert H. Shmerling is the former clinical chief of the division of rheumatology at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC), and is a current member of the corresponding faculty in medicine at Harvard Medical School. … See Full Bio
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No content on this site, regardless of date, should ever be used as a substitute for direct medical advice from your doctor or other qualified clinician.
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47 | where does the sound come from when you crack your knuckles | https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43572709 | 29 March 2018
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Scientists have turned their attention to investigating that most annoying of human habits - the sound made when you crack your knuckles.
The characteristic pop can be explained by three mathematical equations, say researchers in the US and France.
Their model confirms the idea that the cracking sound is due to tiny bubbles collapsing in the fluid of the joint as the pressure changes.
Surprisingly, perhaps, the phenomenon has been debated for around a century.
Science student Vineeth Chandran Suja was cracking his knuckles in class in France when he decided to investigate.
He developed a series of equations with his lecturer, Dr Abdul Barakat of École polytechnique, to explain the typical sound that accompanies the release of the joint between the fingers and the hand bones.
"The first equation describes the pressure variations inside our joint when we crack our knuckles," he told BBC News.
"The second equation is a well-known equation which describes the size variations of bubbles in response to pressure variations.
"And the third equation that we wrote down was coupling the size variation of the bubbles to ones that produce sounds."
The equations make up a complete mathematical model that describes the sound of knuckle cracking, said Chandran Suja, who is now a postgraduate student at Stanford University in California.
"When we crack our knuckles we're actually pulling apart our joints," he explained. "And when we do that the pressure goes down. Bubbles appear in the fluid, which is lubricating the joint - the synovial fluid.
"During the process of knuckle cracking there are pressure variations in the joint which causes the size of the bubbles to fluctuate extremely fast, and this leads to sound, which we associate with knuckle cracking."
Conflicting theories
The model neatly bridges two conflicting theories. The idea that a collapse of bubbles causes the cracking sound was first put forward in 1971.
This was challenged 40 years later when new experiments showed that bubbles persist in the fluid long after knuckles have been cracked.
The new mathematical model appears to resolve this by showing that only a partial collapse of the bubbles is needed to produce the sound. Thus, tiny bubbles can hang around in the joint fluid after the knuckle has been cracked.
The study, published in the journal Scientific Reports , shows that the pressure generated by the collapse of the bubbles produces acoustic waves that can be predicted mathematically, as well as measured experimentally in three volunteers.
It also confirms why some people are unable to crack their knuckles. If you have a large space between the bones in the knuckles, the pressure in the fluid does not drop low enough to trigger the sound.
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Thomas Gemini. Compendiosa totius Anatomie Delineatio… (Compendium of all anatomy delineated…). London: John Herford, 1545. Rosenwald Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress.
Your joints can make a variety of sounds: popping, cracking, grinding, and snapping. The joints that “crack” are the knuckles, knees, ankles, back, and neck. There are different reasons why these joints “sound off”.
Escaping gases: Scientists explain that synovial fluid present in your joints acts as a lubricant. The fluid contains the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. When you pop or crack a joint, you stretch the joint capsule. Gas is rapidly released, which forms bubbles. In order to crack the same knuckle again, you have to wait until the gases return to the synovial fluid.
Movement of joints, tendons and ligaments: When a joint moves, the tendon’s position changes and moves slightly out of place. You may hear a snapping sound as the tendon returns to its original position. In addition, your ligaments may tighten as you move your joints. This commonly occurs in your knee or ankle, and can make a cracking sound.
Rough surfaces: Arthritic joints make sounds caused by the loss of smooth cartilage and the roughness of the joint surface.
Is joint cracking harmful? If you are feeling pain when your joints pop, then you should seek a health care professional. In terms of knuckle cracking, some studies show that knuckle cracking does not cause serious harm. Other studies show that repetitive knuckle cracking can do some damage to the soft tissue of the joint. It may also lead to a weak grip and a swelling hand.
Published: 11/19/2019. Updated: 5/8/2024. Author: Science Reference Section, Library of Congress
Related Websites
Australian Broadcasting Corporation: Dr. Karl “Knuckle Cracking" External Dr. Karl answers the question "What happens when I crack my knuckles and is it bad for you?". There is an option to listen to the discussion using Real Audio. References are included at the end of the page.
Ask a Doctor: Is Knuckle Cracking Bad? External (Cedars Sinai) - Author Kyle Beswick interviews orthopedic surgeon, Dr. Robert Klapper, about knuckle cracking and any benefits or drawbacks.
Busting the Myth About Knuckle Cracking External (Chicago Health) - Harvard Medical School Associate Professor of Medicine, Dr. Robert H. Shmerling, dicusses knuckle cracking in this brief post from a Chicago Health Magazine.
UAMS Joint Tables External (University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences: Department of Neurobiology and Developmental Sciences) - This website provides lists of joints and ligaments organized by regions of the body, with descriptions and notes.
Further Reading
Ballard, Carol. How your body moves. New York, Gareth Stevens Pub. 2011. 32p. (Juvenile).
Ward, Brian. Bones and joints. New York, F. Watts, c.1991. 32 p. (Juvenile).
Chang-Miller, April. Mayo clinic on arthritis. . Rochester, Minnesota, Mayo Clinic. 2013. 334 p.
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Why Cracking Your Knuckles is Bad for Your Joints
While many of us enjoy cracking your knuckles every now and again, it can actually wreak havoc on your joint health and even increase your risk of developing arthritis. Learn more about why you should nip this bad habit in the bud.
What Actually Makes Your Knuckles “Crack”
The “cracking” sound that you hear when you hear when you apply pressure to your knuckles is actually caused by bubbles in your synovial fluid bursting from the added pressure or by pulling your bones apart. This synovial fluid is responsible for lubricating your joints.
Why People Crack Their Knuckles
Studies have shown that more than 50% of people crack their knuckles regularly, which can be caused by a multitude of reasons. Some of the main reasons people enjoy indulging in hearing these pops and cracks include:
They enjoy the sound.
It’s a nervous habit.
Some people do it to relieve stress.
How it Affects Your Joints
Although cracking your knuckles regularly can be relatively harmless, it can also cause damage if it’s done incorrectly or too frequently. If you pull or crack your knuckles incorrectly, you can actually cause a ligament injury or even dislocate your fingers. If you notice sudden pain or swelling after cracking your knuckles, you may have caused an injury to your joint ant you should see your doctor as soon as possible.
Cracking your knuckles consistently can also wear away the cartilage in your joints over time, resulting in pain-causing inflammation within your joints.
Orthopedic Care in Bishop, CA
At Northern Inyo Healthcare District , our team of orthopedists take a holistic approach to care, focusing on you as a whole person rather than specific symptoms or conditions. Whether you’re suffering from aches and pains or mobility issues, we’re here to help improve your quality of life.
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48 | who plays red on orange is new black | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Orange_Is_the_New_Black_characters | List of Orange Is the New Black characters
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy-drama series created by Jenji Kohan that airs on Netflix . It is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison , which chronicles her experiences in a women's prison. [1] The series' protagonist is Piper Chapman , a woman sentenced to 15 months in a women's federal prison for her part in a drug smuggling operation. She was led into this situation by her ex-girlfriend Alex Vause who is first seen in one of the opening scenes, which takes place ten years before the start of the first season. The series follows Piper's experiences in and out of prison along with the experiences of a diverse ensemble . [2]
Recurring
Guest
Recurring
^ Harney is credited as main cast in season five despite not appearing in any of the episodes.
^ Rodriguez is promoted to the main cast in the seventh episode of season four. In all prior appearances in season four, she is credited as a guest star.
Main characters
Taylor Schilling
Piper Chapman (played by Taylor Schilling ) is a woman who was sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a fictitious prison in Litchfield , New York, for helping her former girlfriend, Alex Vause, smuggle drug money in Europe several years before the first episode.
Season One
Season Two
Season Three
Season Four
Season Five
Season Six
In the sixth season, Piper is being held in Max and has not seen Alex for days. She desperately tries to find out what happened to her, though she receives no information. Inmate Madison Murphy "assists" in getting Piper sent to medical to look for her by tripping her up, causing her tooth to chip, but Alex is not there. When Red attempts to get the message to her group that Piscatella was killed after he was released, Piper misunderstands the message, thinking that it was Alex who died, which is strengthened when she learns that one inmate died in the riot. Believing that Red's actions got Alex killed, she names her as an instigator, causing ten years to be added to her sentence. After being moved to Block C, Piper is forced to bunk with Madison, who tries to boss her around, despite her grieving, depressed state. Piper is thus caught off guard when Alex turns out to be alive, merely having sustained a broken arm in the raid, and they have a happy reunion. Alex then helps Piper by persuading Madison to leave her alone. Wanting to make her final months more bearable, Piper lobbies Luschek to reintroduce the Max kickball tournament, and eventually receives assistance from Block C's gang leader, Carol Denning. Madison initially muscles in to be captain for the team, but they eventually vote for Piper to take over, which incites Madison's jealousy. She responds by trying to have Piper's sentence extended by two years by planting drugs on her. Although Alex disagrees with Piper's planned approach to the problem, to just tell the guards, it actually ends up being successful: when Madison is eventually scared off, she is unable to prevent CO Hellman from handing a report about a drug infraction from Piper to his superior, CO Rick Hopper. However, because Piper chose to tell Hopper in advance what Madison was doing, he destroyed the report, and instead had Piper put forward for early release, fearing she would expose the drug smuggling operation he was assisting with. Before leaving, Nicky and Lorna organize a surprise wedding for her, so that she and Alex can be married before she leaves. She is finally released from prison and collected by Cal.
After Piper is released from prison, she moves in with Cal and his wife Neri, and she has to frequently check in with her probation officer Wyndolyn Capers. She was able to get a job working at a Thai restaurant but is fired after requesting time off to visit Alex. After being told by Wyndolyn that babysitting her niece is not sufficient to satisfy the employment requirement of her probation she is able to convince her father to hire her. She is almost sent back to prison for a parole violation when she ate a "Bloob," which contained marijuana at the behest of Cal and she later failed a drug test. Instead, Wyndolyn sends her to Narcotics Anonymous . Later in the season, she goes on a forest retreat and meets Zelda, who she eventually starts dating after an unexpected visit from her former CO McCollough convinces her not to continue staying faithful to Alex. She is also in contact with her former fiancé Larry and learns that he got Polly pregnant. Near the end of the series, Zelda tries to convince her to go with her on a consulting trip to Northhampton and her father strongly endorses Zelda's request. After getting advice from Larry she decides to decline Zelda's request and instead continue her relationship with Alex. In order to continue seeing Alex when she got transferred to a prison in Ohio she quit her job at her father's company in favor of moving closer to Alex's prison, getting a new job at Starbucks , and taking a civil procedure law class.
Alex Vause
Laura Prepon
Alex Vause (played by Laura Prepon ) – Alex is a former drug smuggler for an unspecified international drug cartel . Years prior to the beginning of the series, she took a sexual interest in Piper after meeting her in a bar, and gradually integrated her into the drug trade while they traveled the world living in luxury. Alex once convinced Piper to smuggle cash through customs at an airport in Europe, the crime for which Piper is doing time. Alex specifically named Piper during her testimony, which is what led to Piper's later arrest. After Piper broke up with her, Alex began using heroin, but cleaned up in rehab paid by the head of her drug ring. She states during an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting that being in prison is her "rock bottom" experience. Alex's mother had worked four jobs, and her father was a washed-up rock star. Alex tracked down her father and struck up a friendship with his drug dealer who subsequently became her industry contact in a drug cartel. Alex is not particularly broken up about being in prison since she at least managed to free herself from her drug addiction. She admits to Piper and Nicky that she is not sure what she will do with her life when she gets out, as her only life skill is "moving massive amounts of heroin." She appears to have moments of depression, telling Nicky that she can no longer "get past the swirling darkness in her brain long enough to land on anything," and mentioning to Piper that upon entering prison, she was on anti-depressants , which she now trades for black eyeliner.
Alex is good at reading people and is perceptive, quite often surmising Piper's true feelings and intentions. During the second season, she double-crosses Piper and gives incriminating evidence at the trial of her former boss Kubra (after advising Piper to lie), earning herself an early release. When Piper calls her on the phone, she reveals that Kubra had walked free, and she is now in fear for her life. To Piper's dismay, when Alex visits, she reveals that she is planning to skip town and go into hiding. Alex ends up violating her parole when she pulls a gun on her landlord while he was letting her parole officer in her apartment, mistakenly assuming that he may have been one of Kubra's hitmen breaking in to kill her. This was a result of Piper secretly asking Polly to tip off Alex's probation officer so she could be returned to prison. In the third season, she returns to Litchfield, and despite finding out that Piper was the reason she was arrested, she restarts their relationship. This is short-lived, as the two break up again when Piper starts dating Stella. Alex becomes suspicious when Lolly Whitehall, a new inmate originally seen in Chicago, comes to the prison and she assumes that Kubra sent Lolly to kill her. Confronting Lolly in the bathroom, the two fight, and while choking Lolly, Alex discovers that she is just a paranoid prisoner that thinks the NSA is watching her. Alex ends up convincing Lolly that she is an undercover agent with the CIA in order to keep her from reporting their confrontation.
At the end of the third season, one of Kubra's enforcers, Aydin Bayat, confronts Alex in the greenhouse, ready to kill her. At the beginning of the fourth season, Lolly returns to find Aydin garroting Alex with his belt. Instinctively, Lolly storms in, pushes him off of her, and stomps him until he is unconscious and presumed dead. Later that night, Alex finds Aydin still breathing, and smothers him to death before dismembering his body and disposing of his remains in the prison garden the following morning with Lolly and Frieda. She is concerned with Lolly's actions when she continues to insist that Aydin was a government agent, but she prevents Frieda from killing Lolly to silence her. Alex becomes consumed with guilt for killing Aydin, and tells Red about it. When Nicky returns from max, Alex declines a proposition for sex with her but ends up smoking crack with her and Piper in the garden. While they were high, Piper shows her the swastika brand on her arm, and Alex tells Piper and Nicky that she killed Aydin. She helps Red and Norma turn Piper's brand into a window, while Piper apologized to her for ignoring her concerns about Kubra trying to kill her. After joking with Piper about who would give Bayley a handjob in exchange for burgers, the two once again rekindle their relationship. When Aydin's remains are found, Alex expresses disappointment that he may not be identifiable. She attempts to confess to Piscatella, but is prevented from doing so after Healy turns Lolly in for Aydin's death. Alex starts spreading notes around the prison identifying Aydin; after Piper discovers her planting a note in the garden, she tells Alex to gather the notes so she is not implicated. At the end of the season, Alex and Piper attempt to burn the notes in a garbage can, but after they light up the notes, inmates participating in the riot kick over the garbage can, spreading the notes all over the floor, although the notes are not discovered due to the riot.
In the fifth season, Alex and Piper help MCC executive Linda Ferguson avoid being taken hostage by the rioters by disguising her as a prisoner. She then joins Piper in organizing a non-participation movement in the exercise yard. Later, she and Piper are kidnapped by Piscatella, and bear witness to his torture of Red. During the torture, Piscatella brutally breaks Alex's arm, not knowing that the incident was secretly filmed by Gina, one of Red's girls, and uploaded to the internet. Whilst hiding in the bunker, Piper proposes to Alex, and she joyfully accepts. The bunker is then stormed by the CERT officers.
In the sixth season, Alex is absent for several episodes, having last been seen being dragged lifelessly out of the bunker by the CERT officers. However, it later emerges that the officer that had discovered her had, in fact, knocked her unconscious, and she was later taken to the hospital to get treatment for her arm. Upon her return, she reveals herself to a shocked and hugely relieved Piper, who had believed she was dead due to a misunderstanding of a message from Red, and the news that an inmate had died during the riot (whom Alex reveals was actually Maureen Kukudio, whose wounds had become infected). The two are happily reunited, and Alex helps Piper deal with Madison Murphy, her bullying bunkmate. Wanting to straighten out after her release from prison, Alex makes an application to business school. However, she finds herself being drawn into Madison's new operation, which she eventually has to join full-time after Madison starts threatening Piper's leaving date, becoming a right-hand woman for Carol Denning, Block D's gang boss, by impressing her with her prior career in the drug trade. She is genuinely thrilled when she learns of Piper's early release but organizes a surprise wedding with Nicky and Lorna so that Piper can have her prison wedding before leaving. Alex is then made to join the kickball team, where a knife fight is planned. However, the fight does not go ahead, and Alex enjoys the game.
In the seventh season, being a target of Madison, she decides to make her go to the SHU. Once it happens after she gets Badison to fight with Taystee, Hellman wants Alex to sell drugs for him while Badison is in the SHU, she has no choice but to do it, the CO threatening her with severe consequences if she doesn't. While trying to get Hellman busted with drugs in his locker, she is seen by McCullough who tells her to work for her instead. Artesian helps Alex get out of Hellman's business and makes her sell phone chargers for her. The two also meet regularly in a closet for business and intimate moments.
Alex and Piper's relationship struggles as both are not doing well but don't want to admit it to each other. Alex suggests to Piper that they should have an open relationship so Piper can release her stress. In the meantime, Alex gets closer to McCullough and the two start an affair. When Alex ends the affair to save her relationship with Piper, McCullough confronts Piper after work and tells her about it. Later, McCullough confesses her feelings for Alex to the warden Tamika Ward to get Alex transferred to Ohio. Seeing how bad the situation is with their relationship and because of the transfer, she breaks up with Piper and tells her she wants to set her free. Despite Alex's attempts to let Piper go, Piper is determined to stay with Alex and moves to Ohio so that they can continue their relationship.
Sam Healy
Michael J. Harney
Sam Healy (played by Michael J. Harney ) – Healy is an experienced corrections officer and supervisor at Litchfield Penitentiary who has a master’s degree in social work and acts as prison counselor to many of the inmates. He is initially presented as someone who, though rigid, genuinely wants to help the inmates under his care. Due to his preference for avoiding confrontation, Healy is contemptuously referred to as "Samantha" by Caputo, who feels that Healy is not tough enough on the inmates. Healy generally appears weary and often tells the inmates what they want to hear so they will leave him alone – he later admits to his own counselor that he is dissatisfied with his job, having gone into it with such idealistic notions of changing the world, but his experiences have left him cynical. Despite this, he still shows a sense of justice, such as forging evidence to show that Suzanne (who was going to take for the fall for an assault she did not commit) was in fact innocent. Healy has an outspoken personal vendetta against lesbians for unknown reasons, cautioning Piper at the beginning of the series not to be involved with lesbian activity. While early on he appears particularly sympathetic towards Piper and even acts biased in her favor, he increasingly dislikes her as he hears rumors of her alleged lesbian activities. His hatred of lesbians, first presented as a quirk, is later revealed to be a deep-seated pathological problem when he explosively sends Piper to solitary confinement purely because she was dancing closely with Alex. In the fourth season, it is revealed that his hatred of lesbianism was imbued in him by his father, who believed that it was a disease akin to schizophrenia. His increasing disdain of Piper culminates in his acquiescence to Tiffany Doggett's attempt to murder her in the first-season finale.
During the second season, Healy makes amends with Piper, supporting her idea of a weekly prison newsletter and getting her a furlough to visit her dying grandmother. He also attempts to start a group counseling program with Tiffany, but cancels it due to poor attendance, further adding to his emotional exhaustion. At home, Healy is in a troubled and seemingly-loveless marriage with a Ukrainian mail-order bride , who speaks little English, and her mother. It is implied that Healy lied about himself to her on the Internet, and she is only staying with him because she has two years left until she gets her green card . In the third season, he enlists the help of Red to mediate between the two and bridge the language gap, however Red ends up lambasting his wife and defending Healy as a "good man". Following this, Healy and his wife appear to split, while Healy then forms a closer bond with Red. It is also implied they have mutual romantic feelings for one another; but Red initially flirts with him so that she can be reassigned on her job in the kitchen, much to Healy's dismay. Later, it seems that Red and Healy may still have hidden feelings for each other, as evidenced by a shared look during Lorna Morello 's wedding. Red rejects the idea of developing their relationship, saying "their ships passed too late in the night", despite Healy's attempts to admit their feelings for each other. At times, Healy also finds himself at odds with new counselor Berdie Rogers and her alternative methods, feeling that she is encouraging the prisoners to engage in deviant behavior.
Healy's background is further explored in the fourth season. His mother suffered from severe mental illness, causing frequent stress to young Sam. When she began electroconvulsive therapy , her erratic behavior subsided. However, she confided to Sam that she wished to stop the therapy, as they caused her to feel "fuzzy" and forgetful. Sam protested against this, saying that he preferred her medicated. Following this, his mother left the home and never returned, with Healy still uncertain of her fate decades later. This experience causes problems between him and the schizophrenic Lolly, with Healy believing that her confession to murdering a guard is only a delusion. At the end of the fourth season, increasingly dissatisfied with his job and unsure if he is able to be effective, he contemplates suicide by walking into a lake, but returns to shore when he hears his phone ring. Later, rather than returning to work, he voluntarily checks himself into psychiatric care, and is later seen in the facility while watching Caputo's statement on television. He makes no appearance in the fifth season, but does make a brief appearance in the sixth season, when Caputo seeks his advice over how to challenge MCC for their treatment of Taystee and the other inmates, but his advice proves unhelpful, simply suggesting Caputo just let it go.
Claudette "Miss Claudette" Pelage
Claudette "Miss Claudette" Pelage (played by Michelle Hurst ) – Miss Claudette is a very strict and feared inmate at the prison. She is often grumpy and holds her bunk-mates to very high standards. Her mysterious origins and fearsome reputation bred numerous legends, with some inmates humorously noting they never see her in the bathrooms. When Piper is assigned to share a cubicle with her, she reacts rudely due to her obsession with cleanliness and dislike of the messy situations Piper brings with her, but softens to her over time. It is later shown that Miss Claudette was inducted into forced child labor and sent to the United States from an unknown French-speaking country (possibly Haiti ) to pay off a familial debt. She was brought to America by a boy called Jean-Baptiste with whom she develops a close friendship and later falls in love. Years later she ran her own illegal cleaning service using similar child labor. She kills a customer who beat and abused one of her cleaning girls, which is the basis for the rumor amongst the prisoners that she is in prison for murder. It is not clear if she was convicted for her business, the killing, or both. She also becomes heartbroken after Jean-Baptiste marries another woman.
Miss Claudette never gets mail, has not received a visitor in a decade of being incarcerated, and initially refuses help with her case as she has nothing to live for outside. However, when she receives a letter from Jean-Baptiste (whose wife has since died) she decides to appeal her conviction. Initially optimistic, her appeal is denied, and in a fit of anger she nearly strangles a prison guard in grief, and is immediately transferred to a maximum-security prison with an extended sentence. She does not reappear in subsequent seasons.
Galina "Red" Reznikov
Kate Mulgrew
Galina "Red" Reznikov (played by Kate Mulgrew ) – Red is a Russian inmate who runs the prison's kitchen as the master chef and is the behind-the-scenes leader of the prison's white population. She gets her name from both her ginger hair and her Russian heritage. In her earlier life, she and her husband had migrated from Russia and ran a struggling restaurant in Queens , eventually getting involved with the Russian mafia bosses who frequented their establishment. Red angered the mob bosses by punching one of their wives in the chest (rupturing a breast implant ) after being excluded by their group, but later impressed the same boss by offering sound advice that allowed her to swiftly climb the ranks of the organization. Red is feared and respected by most of the prisoners, and has a lot of influence with Healy. Out of all of the girls in her group, she is closest to Nicky, and loves her as if she were her own daughter. She is always accompanied by Norma and Gina, who cater to her needs and work with her in the kitchen. Red runs a smuggling business out of her kitchen, using a food company she helped the Russian mafia set up, but refuses to import drugs of any kind. She actively uses her resources to help some of the inmates overcome drug addictions, although they have only "two strikes" before she abandons them because "Russians don't play baseball." When Mendez begins to force her to use her connections to bring in drugs, she hatches a plan to have him removed from the prison.
Red is initially pleasant to Piper until she unknowingly insults her cooking, and in response Red punishes her by starvation. Piper eventually repairs their relationship by making a lotion to help soothe Red's injured back. Red also has an odd obsession with a chicken that is allegedly seen on the prison grounds from time to time, as she wants to cook "real food" and also wants to absorb its "power." Towards the end of the first season, she is decommissioned from the kitchen by Caputo after he discovers Mendez's drug smuggling operation, which is blamed on Red. Caputo assigns Gloria as the new master chef, and the kitchen is then run by the Latina inmates. In an attempt to take Gloria and her "girls" out of the kitchen, Red sabotaged one of the ovens, causing Gina to get injured, thus straining her relationship with her friends severely. Red eventually becomes Piper's new roommate and befriends her, while at the same time she attempts to come to terms with her loss of friends and status, in the process befriending the "Golden Girls" — the older women in the prison.
Upon discovering a disused sewage drain in the prison greenhouse, Red restarts her smuggling business and reunites her shattered circle of friends. She has history with Vee, a returning prisoner who had befriended her when Red first went to prison years before the series began, only to beat her violently and try to take over her smuggling operation. Vee's appearance in the prison puts Red in competition with her. Following repeated threats from Vee against Red's girls and her family outside prison, Red attempts to strangle Vee during a blackout , but cannot bring herself to finish the job and instead agrees to a truce. However, Vee sneaks up on Red in the greenhouse and beats her violently with a sock with a padlock inside, sending her to the prison hospital. She at first keeps her silence to the authorities about Vee as her attacker, preferring instead to plot her revenge, but has a change of heart after speaking with Sister Ingalls.
Throughout the second season, visits from her son reveal that Red's family business is failing and the family itself is having money troubles. When Piper is granted furlough, Red asks her to stop by the shop, and Piper sees the business is closed down. Upon returning to prison, Piper lies and tells Red that the business is doing well. Red eventually discovers that Piper lied about the business's prosperity and berates her for attempting to cover it up. After divorcing her husband for failing to keep the business open, Red starts a friendship with Healy and uses this to get back into the kitchen. Healy convinces Caputo to let her back into the kitchen, but shortly after she takes over the kitchen, it is revealed that MCC has begun to order pre-packaged foods as a cost-saving measure, severely diminishing the quality of the food and limiting her ability to cook traditional meals.
In the fourth season, Red is distraught when she discovers that her new bunkmate has sleep apnea, and snores very loudly. This, together with the new breakfast timetable, severely affects Red's ability to sleep. She makes numerous attempts to silence her bunk mate, and eventually resorts to taking sleeping pills. In addition, she finds herself having to assist Alex, Lolly and Frieda in covering up Aydin's death. She is overjoyed when Nicky returns from max. However, shortly afterwards, some of Red's possessions disappear, and she later discovers that Nicky had stolen them to fund her relapse into drug addiction. She finds Nicky sitting on the floor in the showers and is heartbroken, feeling that she failed Nicky, and that her harsh policy on drugs contributed both to Nicky's relapse and to Tricia's death. After Nicky agrees to sober up again, Red goes to the drug dealers and threatens to tamper with their food if they sell drugs to Nicky just in case. After learning that Piper was branded with a swastika, she helps alter it to a window. When Aydin's body is found, Red is one of the first suspects, and Piscatella deliberately prevents her from sleeping in an attempt to force a confession. In response to the death of Poussey, Red tells her family to start building a new garden, as the last had been destroyed to make room for a new building, to keep them busy and out of trouble.
In the fifth season, Red learns whilst digging around in Caputo's office that CO Captain Desi Piscatella had previously murdered an inmate at the male prison where he used to work by boiling him alive. Horrified, and high on amphetamines from some pills she took, Red becomes obsessed with finding ways to take Piscatella down, and eventually finds what she believes are humiliating pictures of him, though she later discovers that he is not embarrassed by them at all. Eventually, she decides to try and force him to confess, so she steals CO Humphrey's phone and texts Piscatella encouraging him to storm the prison. He sneaks in wearing full riot gear, and starts kidnapping Red's girls. Red finds them whilst looking for Frieda's bunker, and is violently tortured by Piscatella, who rips the hair from her scalp. They are saved by the inhabitants of Frieda's bunker, who subdue Piscatella. After subduing him, Red initially wants to kill him, but is restrained. Later, she breaks free, but instead releases Piscatella. The bunker is then stormed by the CERT team, and Red is amongst those caught up in it.
In the sixth season, Red – now with a huge bald spot, which she covers with a rag – is held in Max, and forced to share a cell with Madison Murphy. Learning that Piscatella is dead, and that the Federal agents investigating the riot think that one of the inmates in the bunker did it, she attempts to get the message to the rest of her girls through charades, but it does not work. When she uses Madison to get the message out, Piper misunderstands, thinking it is Alex that is dead, and names Red as one of the instigators of the riot out of anger. Frieda does the same, in order to be sent to the safer B Block. Red is initially angered by their betrayal, but after discovering that Nicky could face an additional 70 years if she does not name Red as one of the instigators herself, she once again puts Nicky first and tells her to do so. With ten years added to her sentence, Red becomes obsessed with getting revenge on Frieda, and ingratiates herself with Carol Denning, the boss of C Block, becoming a trusted member of her team, knowing that she bears a vendetta against Frieda herself. Carol also gets her stylists to help fix Red's hair, which is dyed blonde. She is almost ambushed by an attack team from Carol's sister, Barb's rival gang, but Nicky manages to prevent it from happening. After finally reaching out to, and getting a visit from the rest of her family, Red is elated, but on the way to the visitation room, she sees Frieda, and violently attacks her, being sent to SHU, where she believes that Carol is more interested in defeating Barb than killing Frieda, and vows revenge against her herself.
In the seventh season, Red is eventually released from the SHU when it is closed down; however, it soon becomes clear she is not herself. She is sent to work in the kitchen of the nearby immigration centre, where she begins making simple mistakes and blaming them on others. Gloria and Nicky notice this and try to help cover them up, but when Red cuts herself with a knife, Nicky admits to the doctor Red's recent memory problems. Red is diagnosed with dementia , which was exacerbated by her recent stay in the SHU. Red is moved to B Block and initially is friendly to Frieda as she has forgotten who she is, although later attempts to kill her upon remembering that she missed seeing her family. Red's final appearance in the show shows her lovingly singing in Russian to Lorna, who was having mental issues of her own, due to the death of her newborn son.
Larry Bloom
Jason Biggs
Larry Bloom (played by Jason Biggs ) – Larry is a Jewish freelance writer trying to establish a journalism career, and Piper's anxious fiancé. He is blindsided at the beginning of the series when his then girlfriend Piper reveals to him her former life as a lesbian who smuggled cash for a drug cartel 10 years ago. Larry is initially vocally supportive of Piper, and proposes marriage to her before she goes inside. As the series progresses, he begins to lose interest toward her, becoming angry when he learns that Piper's former lover is in the same prison and that she did not tell him about it. Later on, he begins writing a newspaper article titled "One Sentence, Two Prisoners" about the experience of having a fiancée in prison. This article is published in The New York Times and allows him to move up in the journalistic world. He is close to his parents, who are strongly opposed to his marriage plans. After a conversation with Alex, Larry's controlled anxiety gets the better of him, and he breaks off his engagement with Piper. During the second season, he begins an affair with Piper's best friend Polly after becoming a more supportive partner than her husband, who was frequently gone for trips. Shortly after this, Larry and Polly reveal the affair to Piper and asked for her blessing in their relationship. At the end of the second season, Piper asks Larry and Polly to arrange for Alex to be thrown back in prison for violating her probation. Although Larry expresses doubts, Piper is able to appeal to Polly who agrees to help. While he did not appear in the third or fourth seasons, he appeared in a flashback during the fifth season, which reveals he has a tattoo of the Kool-Aid Man on his butt. When Piper mentions him to other inmates during the riot, one of them notes she's never heard his name and has no idea who he is. He appeared as a recurring character in the seventh season, in which he is still in a relationship with Polly and helping raise her child. Piper, now released from prison, asks to have dinner and catch up with him and Polly. They reveal they're expecting a child together. In the season finale, Piper shows up at Larry and Polly's townhouse. They briefly reflect on their relationship and Piper asks for advice on the next step to take in her own life. Larry tells her to "do what new Piper would do" and appears to have come to terms with the ending of their relationship and be genuinely supportive of Piper's path forward.
Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren
Uzo Aduba
Suzanne "Crazy Eyes" Warren (played by Uzo Aduba ) – Suzanne is a mentally unstable inmate with a violent history, albeit generally passive and friendly. An African-American, she was raised by an adoptive middle class white couple who later had another daughter named Grace during Suzanne's childhood. For her race and mental illness, Suzanne was often shunned by her parents' community and her little sister's friends. Her parents tried to provide her with the best care growing up, but, despite their love, Suzanne felt pushed by her mother to accomplish things that she was afraid to do.
Suzanne is a lesbian who develops an obsession with Piper when she first arrives at Litchfield, giving her the pet name "Dandelion" because of Piper's blonde hair. She is initially portrayed as creepy and unpredictable due to her obsession with Piper, stalking her around the prison and submitting a request to bunk together. After being rejected, she urinates in Piper's cubicle. As the show progresses she acts more like a regular inmate, and is revealed that despite her mental illness, she is rather intelligent with a flair for reciting literature and poetry verbatim, often writing her own compositions. She received her nickname "Crazy Eyes" due to her tendency to widen her eyes when she talks. Suzanne is unaware of why exactly people call her "Crazy Eyes," but it is shown that she is hurt by the nickname. During the second season, it emerges that she gets stage fright, and on the night of Piper's altercation with Tiffany, had come outside in the midst of a panic attack , and mistaking Piper for her adoptive mother, punched her in the face, inadvertently making it look like a more even fight, saving Piper from severe punishment.
When Yvonne "Vee" Parker enters the prison and forms an African-American gang, Suzanne falls for Vee's charms and maternal influence, being exploited into becoming Vee's "muscle." While zealously loyal to Vee, Suzanne violently beat or threatened any inmates who crossed her, almost acting on command. Later, Vee attempts to coldly trick her into taking the fall for Red's severe beating, as a distraught Suzanne believes she may have done it unconsciously due to her violent history. During the third season, she is encouraged by the new counselor Berdie Rogers to be more creative, causing her to start writing several science fiction erotic stories that become a hit among the women in the prison. Suzanne reveals that she has no sexual experience and is completely naïve in regard to sex, having never actually had a girlfriend before, and that the stories are based on other sources. Eventually, the stories make their way to the staff, causing Rogers to get suspended. Meanwhile, Suzanne becomes nervous upon discovering that one of her fans, Maureen Kukudio, is interested in her romantically. Suzanne backs out of a possible sexual encounter, but is later seen forming a close bond with Maureen towards the end of the season.
In the fourth season, Suzanne becomes put off when Maureen turns out to be quite strange, and abandons her in the woods. For most of the season, she and Lorna attempt to find out who is defecating in the showers, before Nicky eventually deduces that it was Angie, and that she was doing it to smuggle drugs inside the prison. Through her conversations with Lorna, Suzanne is eventually convinced that she gave up on Maureen too quickly, and eventually approaches her to suggest they give the broom closet another go. Maureen agrees, but deliberately leaves Suzanne unsatisfied in retaliation for abandoning her in the woods. When Aydin's remains are discovered, Suzanne is one of the suspects because of her history of mental health problems, and is taken for questioning. In flashbacks, Suzanne lives with Grace and Grace's boyfriend, Brad. She works as a greeter at a hypermarket and befriends Dylan, a young child. When Grace and Brad leave for the weekend, she goes to the park, sees Dylan, and brings him to her apartment to play video games. Dylan became scared and called 911, and while fleeing from Suzanne, he climbs out of a window and falls off of the fire escape of her apartment.
While in the waiting room, Maureen approaches, seeking a reconciliation, but Suzanne goes and sits elsewhere. She then gets into a verbal dispute with white supremacist inmate Kasey Sankey after laughing at her when Officer Humphrey pulled her chair, and he immediately tries to escalate it into a full-on fight. Kasey declined to do so, but an embittered Maureen volunteers to fight Suzanne instead. In the subsequent fight, Maureen takes her taunting too far, and Suzanne violently tackles her to the ground and proceeds to beat her severely, before she is eventually dragged off. The incident unhinges Suzanne, and shortly afterwards, when she takes part in a non-violent stand-in in the prison canteen, the sight of Humphrey causes her to go into a full-on meltdown. Officer Bayley attempts to restrain her and take her to psych, inadvertently making Suzanne become more erratic. Poussey attempts to intervene, and is pinned to the ground by Bayley's leg while at the same time attempting to wrestle with Suzanne. As a result, Poussey is suffocated and dies on the canteen floor. Traumatized by the event, Suzanne attempts to deal with it by piling books on top of herself in order to find out what it felt like not to breathe. She eventually attempts to do so by pulling several bookshelves on top of herself, but luckily, a grieving Brook happens to be nearby, and she quickly alerts the COs. Suzanne is taken to the medical facility, where she discovers that her neighbor in the next bed is Maureen.
At the start of the fifth season, while continuing to recover in medical, Humphrey is brought in there next to them to be treated from his gunshot wound. She leaves medical, and rejoins the other inmates. Noticing that the place in the cafeteria Poussey died is not being respected, she becomes upset and makes a circle around the area after clearing the other inmates away from it. Later on, she attempts to speak to Poussey's spirit with some of the other inmates. Due to the change in her routine with the guards no longer in control, as well as a lack of medication, she begins to act crazier than normal, eventually resulting in her being handcuffed to a bunk and her face being painted. She is released by Lorna, who has taken control of the prison pharmacy, and Lorna decides not to give Suzanne her medication. While in the bathroom washing her face, she discovers Maureen inside of a stall with her injuries infected, and Suzanne takes her back to medical, where she discovers Humphrey is not breathing. Suzanne attempts to take Humphrey in a wheelchair to Taystee to show her, unknowingly putting negotiations at risk. Black Cindy and Alison take control of the situation, and Cindy ends up giving her some lithium to put her to sleep. Later, she is revived, and she ends up in Frieda's bunker prior to the riot team breaching the bunker.
In the sixth season, it is revealed that Suzanne and Black Cindy had hidden from the CERT team in the bunker, and borne witness to the team scheming to pin Piscatella's death on the inmates in the bunker. They escaped the bunker and hid in a supply closet, giving them plausible deniability for having been there. However, due to having gone several days without her medication, Suzanne is unable to concentrate, or to keep her story straight, and begins hallucinating. Eventually, after finally getting her medication back, she remembers enough to tell the officers that neither she nor Cindy were in the bunker, and to explain why she previously suggested she had been. She is then released into B Block, one of the safer blocks, and becomes Frieda's cellmate. She is initially unsure about re-approaching her old friends, but eventually is persuaded to by Frieda, and makes amends with them. When kickball is brought back to the prison, Suzanne proves to be a star player, and at the end of the season, joins the team on the outdoor field, completely unaware that a knife fight is due to take place. However, when her kick goes high, one of the opposing team's members puts her knife away to catch Suzanne out. This causes both blocks to forget about the fight and immerse themselves in the game, which prevents a bloodbath.
Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson
Danielle Brooks
Tasha "Taystee" Jefferson (played by Danielle Brooks ) – Taystee is the black representative on the WAC. She works in the prison library. With coaching from Poussey and a makeover from Sophia, Taystee is paroled from the prison. However, as she has been in institutions most of her life and finds it hard to adapt to the rough life she finds outside the prison walls, she re-offends in violation of her parole and is subsequently sent back to prison. Following her return, she is assigned to the recently vacated bunk of Miss Claudette as Piper's roommate.
Taystee is quite intelligent and well-read, with a strong ability to remember information and an aptitude for business and mathematics that initially helped her become involved in Vee's drug ring. Owing to her time spent in the prison law library, she has accrued a wide knowledge base concerning the law. Taystee's childhood was a rough one, spent in foster homes, and she was eventually taken in by Vee to help with her heroin business. She has known Vee on the outside for 15 years and becomes a member of her prison gang in the second season. Eventually, when Poussey's actions damage Vee's business, Vee decides to cut her losses and appease her by expelling Taystee from the group. Finally seeing Vee for what she is, Taystee later rallies the other black inmates to turn on her former idol. During the third season, Taystee finds herself becoming the leader of her group and ends up having to be the one to keep them in control. Later on, in the season, she helps Poussey save Brook Soso after a suicide attempt and welcomes her into their group.
During the fourth season, Taystee finds herself being assigned as Caputo's secretary. She uses her new position to influence some of the decisions Caputo makes on behalf of the inmates, to include convincing him to play The Wiz during movie night. She also convinces Caputo to give her a wristwatch, which none of the other inmates have, and it is later broken by one of the guards. While Caputo was gone, she successfully guessed his computer password and used his computer to surf the Internet. After Poussey died, she was devastated, but refused to take the day off from being Caputo's secretary, offering to call the police for him and trying to convince him to call Poussey's dad. Unknown to Caputo, she was present during the press release announcing Poussey's death and was angered when he stated Bayley was not being arrested and when Caputo failed to mention Poussey's name. Following this, she went through the halls shouting that Bayley was being let off, causing an uprising among all of the inmates.
At the beginning of the fifth season, after the inmates take control of the prison, Taystee punches Caputo in the face and holds him and Josh from MCC hostage. She attempts to force Caputo to make a statement on video stating that Bayley murdered Poussey, but he refuses to and she finished the statement herself. Frustrated that the video did not get the views she wanted, she handed Caputo to the Spanish inmates. Following this, she negotiates with the white supremacist inmates for possession of Judy King, who she plans to use to release a statement about their treatment in the prison to the press to the protest of Janae. During Judy's statement, Taystee interrupts her and speaks about how they are treated herself, as well as revealing Judy's special treatment, before releasing Judy and going back into the prison.
Taystee ends up being the prison's spokesperson for negotiations, and she presents the list of demands voted on by the other inmates, disappointed that Bayley's arrest was so low on the list. She ends up negotiating with Figueroa, who was sent on behalf of the governor and has Caputo by her side during the negotiations. After a video of Piscatella torturing Red, Alex, and others goes viral on the Internet, the governor agrees to meet all of their demands except for the arrest of Bayley due to his alleged murder of Poussey being outside of the state's jurisdiction. Taystee refuses to accept the remaining demands without the demand for Bayley's arrest being met and kicks Figueroa and Caputo out. After Maria leads the guards out of the prison, the state orders the riot team to take back the prison after Maria reveals that the guards were not released by Taystee. After Taystee fails to stop the guards from breaching, she flees to Red's bunker and after seeing Piscatella she grabs Frieda's gun and almost shoots him for contributing to Poussey's death, before being talked down. After Piscatella is released, she and the other inmates in the bunker stand together as the riot team breaches the bunker.
In the sixth season, Taystee is being held in max and is abused by the guards who suspect her of killing Piscatella. She is unaware of his death until after Black Cindy reluctantly testifies against her. She also comes face to face with her former friend, Tamika Ward, who is now a CO at max, and the two clash over being on opposite sides of the bars. In a flashback, Taystee and Ward are working at a fast-food restaurant and are smoking marijuana during a period they had no customers. Later that night an old classmate of hers, Michael Spence, enters the restaurant and attempts to rob them. After claiming she is unable to get into the cash register (she was afraid the management wouldn't believe her if he robbed them and would punish them instead) she gives Michael her "Gordons" (a pair of counterfeit Air Jordans ) and then she and Ward walk home joking with each other. Back in the present, she is offered a plea deal by the public defender to plead guilty to murdering Piscatella and get life imprisonment. However, she is inspired by the members of Black Lives Matter and the ACLU who attend her hearing, and rejects the plea deal, deciding to plead not guilty. As the trial goes on, she starts to wonder if she made the right decision, and reaches out to Caputo for help. Caputo initially tries to find the CERT leader Herrmann who helped cover up CERT's role in Piscatella's death and then seeks to draw negative publicity to MCC in the hope of eliciting sympathy from the jury. He also provides moral support to Taystee by encouraging her to take the stand in her defense, which results in her speaking about her desire to see former CO Bayley tried for Poussey's death. Ultimately, however, Taystee is found guilty of Piscatella's murder.
At the beginning of the seventh season, she appears extremely angry and hopeless due to her wrongful conviction. At one point, she attacks Madison after a brief encounter between the two. She appears to accept the fact that she is going to spend the rest of her life in prison and begins to become suicidal. Ward, who was promoted to the warden, gave her back her old job as the secretary for the warden. At one point Suzanne wrote a letter detailing the true circumstances of Piscatella's death at the hands of the CERT officers but she throws away the letter. Ward finds the letter and encourages her to try and use it to get her conviction overturned, but she was not successful. Later in the season, she starts to tutor Tiffany while she tried to prepare for the GED exam. Near the end of the season, she attempted to commit suicide by hanging herself from her bunk bed, but does not complete the act and later finds Tiffany on the floor overdosing. After Tiffany's death, she discovers that she successfully got her GED. In a flashback that took place during the events of the first season while she was out on probation, she is joking around with Poussey over the phone. After several attempts, she successfully gets in touch with Judy and talks to her about doing a loan program for inmates being released from prison to help them get back on their feet. With Judy's help, she is able to get the Poussey Washington Fund started and at the end of the series, she is briefing several inmates about to be released about the fund.
Nicole "Nicky" Nichols
Natasha Lyonne
Nicky Nichols (played by Natasha Lyonne ) – A former drug addict, now Red's most trusted assistant, Nicky is a witty and acerbic Jew from New York City, with a loud mouth. She swiftly befriends both Piper and Alex, expressing curiosity about what happened between the two of them outside of prison. She is estranged from her mother, a wealthy but extraordinarily selfish socialite who now lives in Brazil. When she was a child, Nicky was raised by a nanny and lived in a separate house from her mother. Her father was always cheating on her mother when she was growing up, leading to a deep resentment between her parents and causing her father to almost never look after her. This estrangement from her parents was what initially led to Nicky's drug addiction. Upon arriving in prison, Red had helped her through her worst bouts of cold turkey . For this reason, Nicky has disowned her mother, and now looks up to Red as a mother figure, to the point where she openly calls her "mom" in the presence of other inmates, and Red in turn openly treats her as if she were her daughter. Nicky was involved in a friends-with-benefits relationship with Lorna until Lorna broke it off, which Nicky is bitter about for some time, but she later develops a brief interest in Alex. Nevertheless, Nicky continues to make numerous attempts to get back together with Lorna throughout the series, suggesting that her feelings for her may be romantic. Nicky has a scar on her chest from having heart surgery as a complication of a bacterial infection in her heart, which came from using a dirty needle. Having been clean for two years, Nicky uses sex with the other inmates as a coping mechanism, becoming something of a nymphomaniac in the process. During the second season, Nicky stages a sex-based point scoring competition with Big Boo, during which Nicky even makes advances on Officer Fischer. She gets revenge on Vee for Red's slocking by stealing her stash of heroin, causing her to again face her addiction. In the third season, she attempts to get the stolen heroin out of the prison. She decides to work with Luschek so he could sell it on the outside and split the profits with her. During a surprise inspection, drugs are discovered under Luschek's desk and he blames her for it, causing her to get sent to max. On her way out, she exchanges brief goodbyes with Lorna and Red, and as the prison van pulls up at the facility, Nicky expresses her satisfaction to Tiffany that she will never be able to hurt them or anyone she cares about again, lamenting that, even after kicking her drug addiction, she may never lose her self-destructive tendencies. In the fourth season, Nicky is surviving in Max, and celebrates three years sobriety. She is initially shown ending a fling with Stella Carlin after discovering that she is using drugs again, but shortly after, falls off the wagon and starts using them herself. She has also been sending Luschek hate mail, and angrily castigates him when he comes to visit her, attempting to apologize. Eventually, with the help of Judy King, Luschek secures her return to the regular prison, and she has an emotional reunion with Red and Lorna. However, as a result of her relapse, she begins to steal from Red to purchase drugs from the various dealers across the prison, and at the same time makes numerous failed attempts to convince Lorna to restart their relationship. When Red confronts her and breaks down in tears at watching her adoptive daughter destroy herself, as happened with Tricia, Nicky reluctantly agrees to clean herself up again. Unbeknownst to her, Red uses her influence to get all of the prison drug dealers to cut Nicky off, while Pennsatucky provides her with emotional support. She concludes the season clean, but admits to Lorna that she is happy and a "junkie addict liar."
In Season 5, Nicky hides out in the pharmacy with Lorna during the riot and acts as a doctor/therapist to the inmates, helped by her knowledge of drugs. She gives up trying to get back together with Lorna (claiming that she is hopelessly in love with her and knows that Lorna will never love her back), but is later convinced by Lorna into having sex. Later, when Lorna claims that she is pregnant with her husband’s baby, Nicky ends their relationship after realizing that she can not give Lorna the mental help she needs. She and Alex decide to get makeovers from Flaca and Maritza, resulting in her getting bangs and her hair straightened. She is later seen having sex with an unknown blonde inmate while Lorna looks on sadly. Nicky is then kidnapped by Piscatella while caring for Red, and is held hostage with other members of Red's Family. After Piscatella is tied up in Frieda's Bunker, Nicky returns to Lorna and finds out that Lorna is actually pregnant. She then calls Lorna's husband Vince and tells him that Lorna is really pregnant, a very loyal person who cares about him, and that he needs to take Lorna back. The season ends with her telling Lorna to surrender to law enforcement for her safety before leading Taystee, Cindy, and Suzanne down to the bunker, where the fate of everyone in the bunker remains unknown.
In Season 6, Nicky is threatened with 70 extra years of drug charges and is forced to say that Red had a part in organizing the riot and kidnapping Piscatella. She and Red remain on good terms however, as she talked to Red first and warned her. She is placed in D Block in Maximum Security, where she is reunited with Lorna. She becomes friends with the leader of D Block, Barbara Dennings, and helps her get sober. However, when the war between C Block and D Block starts to threaten Red’s life, Nicky begins to try and separate herself and Lorna from the problems. She marries Piper and Alex in the season finale in a surprise wedding that she and Alex planned. Nicky then convinces Lorna to hide from the kickball game and stay out of the cell block war. When Barbara and Carol don't show up, she convinces the rest of D Block that the fighting is pointless, and the kickball game continues with nobody harmed.
Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett
Taryn Manning
Tiffany "Pennsatucky" Doggett (played by Taryn Manning ) – Doggett is a former drug addict (meth) originally from Waynesboro, Virginia . Her nickname is a reference to " Pennsyltucky ," a slang term for poor rural areas in central Pennsylvania . Tiffany has very bad teeth due to drug abuse and initially appears to be a fundamentalist Christian . Frequently preaching about God, her religious rants are often laced with racism and hostility. She also caused the ceiling of the prison's chapel to collapse when she tries to hang an oversized cross from an overhead pipe. For some time, Tiffany believed that she was blessed with " faith healing " abilities, after being tricked by the other inmates, and eventually gets sent to the psych ward when she attempts to forcibly "heal" a visiting paraplegic juvenile delinquent. Despite this, it is revealed Tiffany was sent to prison for shooting an abortion clinic worker in broad daylight for making a snarky comment about her having had five previous abortions. The local press believed that it was instead because of her religious beliefs – leading to her receiving funding, support, and even a fan base from some anti-abortion religious groups.
Tiffany dislikes Piper after she is placed on the WAC committee despite Piper not having run for the position, and also has a long-running hostile relationship with Alex, with the two of them clashing frequently. Although it is Piper who gets Tiffany released from the psych ward, Tiffany declares a violent vendetta against Piper, eventually attempting to kill her after Piper rebuffed her religious beliefs, but instead, Piper beats her up badly. After the beating, she appears to have gotten over her vendetta, presumably because Piper's beating allowed her to get a new set of porcelain teeth at the expense of the prison. Tiffany loses her religious fervor, becoming more easy-going and moderate in her beliefs after attending regular counseling sessions with Healy. Nevertheless, her old friends are now unafraid to stand up to her, and abandon her, leaving her on her own. Ultimately, she finds an unlikely friend in Big Boo, who has also been abandoned by her friends, and Tiffany subsequently cuts her hair short on Boo's advice.
After the prison's van is stolen, Tiffany replaces Lorna as the prison's van driver and begins a friendship with Charlie "Donuts" Coates, a new guard who initially seems friendly but exhibits unsettling behavior when they are alone. Later, after Coates gets reprimanded by Caputo and put on probation for missing count, he rapes Tiffany in the prison van. Through flashbacks, it is shown she has a warped view of sex due to her upbringing, having prostituted herself for six-packs of soda, and that she was repeatedly raped in the past to the point she no longer fights back. At one point Tiffany had developed a non-abusive romance with a boy called Nathan, but the relationship ended after he was forced to move away with his parents to Wyoming . Big Boo – now her closest friend – devises a plan to get revenge for Coates' actions, but they decide not to go through with it. To prevent future rapes, Tiffany fakes a seizure while driving and gets off van detail. However, she sees that Maritza Ramos is her replacement, realizing that she may have provided Coates with a more naïve and vulnerable victim.
In the fourth season, Tiffany remains worried that Coates is raping Maritza, and continues to avoid him. Throughout the season, Coates becomes perturbed when Tiffany continually acts coldly and angrily towards him and eventually confronts her to ask why. She responds by asking him whether he is having sex with Maritza, and when he is confused by the question, she tells him that she wants to make sure he is not raping her, as he did with her. Coates is genuinely shocked by this disclosure. He later offers her an apology, and Tiffany decides to accept and forgive him. Unfortunately, this costs Tiffany her friendship with Boo, although she later makes amends and convinces Boo that she forgave Coates for herself, and not for him. Later, when Coates tells her that he is planning to quit his job, due to the horrors that he has witnessed at the prison, she tries to persuade him not to go and kisses him. He initially returns it but stops himself from initiating sex, telling her that he does not want to make the same mistake again and that he is leaving anyway.
During the fifth season, after the other guards were taken hostage, Tiffany hides Coates in the laundry room from the other inmates. While hiding, she is giving Coates food and the two are kissing. Leanne and Angie discover Coates, and after Tiffany grabs Humphrey’s gun she throws it to Coates. The gun goes off, shooting Leanne’s finger off, and he runs out of the prison. The other inmates put her on trial for assisting a guard, and Boo steps up as her lawyer to defend her. She is put on probation to the ire of Leanne and Angie, and the two of them bully her to force her to violate her probation. At the end of the season, Tiffany has escaped the prison in the confusion of the riot and was hiding in Coates' house. She hugs Coates while she has a gun in her hand and then asks him to join her on the couch to watch TV.
At the beginning of the sixth season, Tiffany was hiding in the trunk of Coates' car as he and Officer Dixon take a "road trip" that intervenes on their romantic trip. While parked in front of a hotel, she eventually gets tired of hiding in the trunk, goes up to their hotel room, and gets in bed with Coates. Later, she puts on a disguise and she, Coates, and Dixon go to an amusement park, where she and Coates are mistaken for a gay couple and harassed before Dixon steps in. They go to a bar and see on TV that a manhunt was put out for her and Coates decides to try to take Tiffany to Canada to try and keep her out of prison. They camp in the woods near the border, and after Coates falls asleep she goes to a local police station to turn herself in so Coates isn't implicated in her escape. Once Tiffany is back in prison, she is being held in solitary. After getting new MCC Senior Vice President Linda Ferguson to come to her cell, she negotiates her way into Florida in exchange for not revealing that Linda had sexual relations with Boo during the riot. At the end of the season, Tiffany is playing kickball with the other inmates after convincing Suzanne to join her.
In the seventh season, Tiffany tries out a number of the prison's new educational programs, out of little more than boredom, but is underwhelmed by them all. Eventually, she joins the General Education Development (GED) program. She initially takes to the class well, largely because of the enthusiasm and empathetic teaching style of the tutor, Elmer Fantauzzo. When she fails her first test, she is about to give up the class, but Elmer takes her to one side and tells her of his belief that she has dyslexia . Having been told that she is stupid by her emotionally abusive father for most of her life, Tiffany is filled with hope at the realization that she simply has an impairment to her reading abilities, and that with the correct tutoring and extra time on the exam, she could end up getting her GED after all. Unfortunately, after Linda refuses further funding for the programs, and Elmer quits after Daya's gang attempt to blackmail him into smuggling drugs for them, Tiffany is left with the unqualified Taystee as a tutor. However, Taystee familiarises herself with dyslexia learning techniques and soon has Tiffany back on track. On the day of the exam, however, Tiffany is horrified to learn that Luschek - who assumed responsibility of the course after Elmer quit - failed to put in an application for her extra time, due to his lack of care. As such, she is forced to do the exam at the normal time. Convinced that she has failed, Tiffany explodes at a remorseful Luschek for his selfishness, and for ruining everything for her. Despondent, she goes into the laundry where Daya and her gang are taking fentanyl . Daya and some of her gang leave, but one of them stays behind to take some more, and Tiffany asks for some. Shortly after, Taystee is heading to her cell to commit suicide when the woman exits the laundry hurriedly and advises Taystee to leave as well. Taystee enters to find Tiffany unresponsive on the floor after overdosing and screams for help whilst cradling her in her arms. Tiffany is pronounced dead at the scene, and her body is taken away by the coroner; Tiffany ultimately leaves the prison in a body bag. It is left ambiguous as to whether Tiffany intentionally committed suicide, or simply overdosed whilst in a state of despondency and reckless abandon. However, her death prompts Taystee to reconsider her suicidal ambitions, and Luschek to take the fall for Gloria's mobile phone, preventing her from getting more time added to her sentence. Suzanne later leads the residents of the Florida wing in a memorial service for Tiffany, and Taystee is both proud and saddened to discover that Tiffany had successfully passed her GED.
Dayanara "Daya" Diaz
Dascha Polanco
Dayanara "Daya" Diaz (played by Dascha Polanco ) – A Puerto Rican inmate with artistic talents. She is the daughter of Aleida Diaz, with whom she has a strained relationship, as her mother often ignored her and her sisters as young girls in favor of going out and partying. Daya is often criticized by her fellow Hispanic inmates because she cannot speak fluent Spanish. She developed a romantic relationship with prison guard John Bennett and became pregnant with his child. Knowing that Bennett could be imprisoned for impregnating her, Daya joined forces with Red to trick Mendez into having sex with her so that he can be blamed for her pregnancy. During the second season, she is shown to be increasingly hormonal and emotional due to the pregnancy, a contrast from her sweet demeanor in the first season. She begins to believe that Bennett should serve time for her pregnancy in order to allow them to be together and raise their child after they are both released.
In the third season, Bennett proposes to her, and she expects them to have a relationship after she is released. However, after a meeting with Cesar, Bennett appears to abandon Daya and the baby. Distraught and hopeless, she decided to give her child up for adoption to Mendez's mother Delia. Instead, Aleida tricks Delia into thinking the baby died during childbirth, while in reality the child, who Daya named Armaria, was given to Cesar. However, shortly after Cesar gets Armaria, his home is raided by the DEA and Daya's daughter is taken away. Daya was concerned about the fate of Armaria during the fourth season, after finding out Cesar was sent to prison and was worried that she would get lost in the foster care system. With her mother being released, Daya decided that she wanted to start hanging out with women closer to her age, resulting in her going to the salon and working with Maria and her group, in spite of the concerns of Gloria, who promised Aleida that she would take care of Daya. At the end of the fourth season, she is in the middle of the riot that was started when Taystee informed the rest of the inmates that Bayley was not arrested for Poussey's death. Officer Humphrey attempts to pull out a smuggled gun and is pushed over by Maritza, causing it to fall in front of Daya. She grabs it and takes Humphrey and Officer McCullough hostage, while most of the other inmates present loudly cheer her on and urge her to shoot Humphrey.
At the beginning of the fifth season, Daya, while trying to decide what to do with Humphrey and McCullough, gets annoyed at Humphrey and shoots him in the leg while he is trying to appeal to her in Spanish, pointing out that she does not understand him. Following the shooting, the inmates take over the prison and Daya is presumed to be in charge, due to her possession of the gun. Later that night, she was hit from behind and the gun was taken from her. The following morning, she pretends to still have the gun until it is discovered Gloria took it from her. She decided to distance herself from the other inmates and go outside with the inmates that are attempting to take no part in the uprising, taking this time to paint Bennett on the garden shed. Due to a media interview featuring Judy King and her mother, Judy reveals that a guard was shot during the riot, causing negotiations to end the standoff to halt until the shooter is turned over. Not wanting to be the reason negotiations fail, and growing fed up with Aleida's control after being ordered to lie that the shooting was in self-defense, she decided to turn herself in. Prior to surrendering, she called Delia and revealed that her daughter is alive. She asks Delia to adopt her and give her a better life, and after Delia tells her yes and she ensured that Delia knew how to correctly pronounce Armaria's name, she ends the call and goes outside the prison to surrender.
In the sixth season, with Humphrey now dead, Daya has accepted a plea deal to plead guilty to his murder in return for life imprisonment, thereby avoiding the death penalty. However, she is repeatedly beaten, attacked and otherwise hated by the CO's for being a "guard killer." Due to the frequent beatings from the guards, she is struggling with a broken hip. Daya receives help from Dominga "Daddy" Duarte, the right-hand woman of D-Block gang leader Barb Denning, who had taken a shine to her. Unfortunately, she becomes addicted to opioids when Daddy gives them to her to help with her physical pain. After Daddy accidentally wrecks her own drug smuggling operation, Daya goes into withdrawal, and in a desperate bid to obtain drugs, steals from Barb's personal stash. When Daddy confronts her about it, Daya kisses her, and the two become romantically involved. Daya then volunteers to smuggle drugs in through Blanca in return for helping her obtain some of her boyfriend's semen so that she can artificially inseminate herself, but ends up getting jumped by some of the members of Blanca's block gang. She then persuades Aleida to help her smuggle in drugs via her new boyfriend Rick Hopper, who is the captain of the guards at the prison. She becomes a fully-fledged member of Barb's gang, but her newly acquired addiction to heroin distresses her mother.
At the beginning of the seventh season, she continues her relationship with Daddy, but she becomes upset when she walks in on her having sex with another inmate and then claiming that it was just business. Intending to teach Daddy a lesson, she gives her some bath salts under the assumption she would have a similar episode as Barb but she dies from an overdose instead. Immediately after Daddy's death, she takes over Daddy's gang and becomes even more ruthless in her methods. In an attempt to devise different methods to get drugs into the prison, she at one point threatens Elmer Fantauzzo, Tiffany's GED prep course teacher, by implying she would target his son if he doesn't smuggle drugs in for her. When Aleida is returned to Litchfield after her parole violation Daya immediately attempts to assert dominance and then intentionally sets her and Hopper up to be caught having sex in the SHU as a distraction so she could recover her contraband that was confiscated earlier by the guards. At the end of the series, she reveals to Aleida that she got her little sister Eva involved in her drug smuggling operation and threatened to get the rest of her younger siblings involved. This revelation causes Aleida to punch Daya in the throat and begins choking her, fully intending to kill her. However, if she is successful or not is not shown on-screen.
Polanco states that Daya survives after a final scene in which Aleida attacks her; Polanco stated that OITNB writers revealed this to her. [3]
Lorna Morello
Yael Stone
Lorna Morello (played by Yael Stone ) – A hyper-feminine and often racist Italian-American inmate, with a strong accent that inexplicably mixes regional features from both New York City and Boston . [4] Lorna is usually sweet and positive, though she can also be very paranoid and manipulative. She seems to suffer from some sort of mental illness. She is the first inmate that Piper talks to since she was in charge of driving the van that transports inmates, and she helps Piper acclimate in her first few days. She had a casual sex relationship with her friend Nicky Nichols but broke it off due to feelings that she was cheating on her "fiancé" Christopher. It is eventually revealed that Christopher was a man whom she had obsessively stalked and threatened at the same time that she was running a mail-order scam, and the reason she is in prison is that she placed a car bomb under his car. Lorna also gets caught in the middle of Pornstache and Red's drug-smuggling operations. When she is left alone during a driving errand while Miss Rosa is at a chemotherapy appointment, she drives to Christopher's house and breaks in.
While there, she takes a bath wearing his fiancée's wedding veil and falls asleep, waking up just in time to escape before she is seen. Christopher suspects her for the break-in and later visits the prison to confront and threaten her, finally shattering her obsessive delusions. At the end of the second season, Lorna allows Rosa to steal the van after finding out that she only had a few weeks to live so that she would not die in prison. In the third season, she becomes depressed and lonely after being relieved of her duties as the van driver and losing Nicky, who was sent to Maximum Security at the beginning of the season. To cope, as well as to get extra commissary money, she decides to start writing to multiple men. After visiting with several different men, she starts a relationship with a man named Vince "Vinny" Muccio. As the two get closer, Lorna manipulates Vince into gathering some of his friends and beating Christopher up. Eventually, Lorna and Vince get married in the prison's visitor center and they consummate their marriage in the visitor's snack room. In the fourth season, Lorna is angered when nobody has any reaction to the news that she is married. It is soon pointed out to her that she actually knows almost nothing about her new husband, and she realizes that it may well be true when Alex asks her what his favorite color is and she cannot answer. She later discovers while talking to Vinny on the phone that he lives with his parents, but is not perturbed. Nevertheless, she begins to annoy and disturb the inmates with her open phone sex conversations, including in the visiting room. She is overjoyed at Nicky's return from max but declines when Nicky tries to convince her to restart their relationship. In the later part of the season, she begins to suspect that Vinny is cheating on her with her sister, despite her having asked her sister to go and visit him herself, and ends up angrily accusing both of infidelity. Subsequently, when Red pairs her with Nicky to search the grounds in order to keep them busy, she has to fend Nicky off once again, but eventually confesses through tears that she is destroying her relationship and is powerless to stop herself.
In Season 5 she takes refuge in the pharmacy with Nicky and helps distribute medicine to the inmates. She is shown to be visibly shaken when Nicky confesses her love for Lorna to Brook Soso. She eventually convinces Nicky to have sex with her out of horniness, which she later blames on pregnancy hormones, despite not having taken a pregnancy test. She tells Vince, who is waiting in the crowd outside the prison, that she is pregnant, but he immediately gets into his car and drives away. With both Nicky and Vince gone, Lorna enters into a state of denial and refuses to give any other inmates medicine and tries to convince them that they don't need it. She finally takes 12 pregnancy tests to confirm that she is pregnant, but has to be convinced by Nicky that the tests are all actually positive and not just another delusion. At the end of the season, she surrenders with the majority of the inmates and her fate is left unknown. In the sixth season, it is revealed that she ended up in D Block at max, and she is reunited with Nicky. Lorna is back together with Vince and constantly talks about being pregnant, and she eventually gets wrapped up in the war between C Block and D Block. She becomes convinced to participate in the plan to attack C Block during the kickball game but then decides to remain out of the war and in a closet with Nicky. However, Nicky is forced to go outside and play kickball, leaving her in the closet.
During the game, Lorna goes into premature labor. At the beginning of the seventh season, it is revealed that Lorna gave birth to her son Sterling, but he later died due to pneumonia. Vinny tells Lorna that Sterling died, but she becomes delusional and insists that he is still alive while telling her friends Vinny is keeping their son away from her. She then starts saving pictures of infants she is finding on a search engine and posts them on social media accounts she created for Sterling while claiming that those are pictures of her son. Eventually, Sterling's social media accounts are taken down, causing her to panic. When she tells Vinny about it during a visit he reveals that he reported the accounts as fraudulent and he then tells Lorna he wants a divorce due to her inability to accept Sterling's death.
Gloria Mendoza
Selenis Leyva
Gloria Mendoza (played by Selenis Leyva ) – Red's opposite number among the Hispanic and Latina inmates, though with no organized crime connections. She is a mother of two boys. She organizes domino games and looks out for the other inmates, either by giving advice or by performing Santeria spells (which she refers to as "Catholic plus") for them. She is often critical of Daya's inability to speak Spanish but still accepts her as one of her own. Despite this, she tricks Daya into drinking a concoction that makes her feel sick, at the request of Aleida. When Red is put under investigation after her smuggling operation's cover is blown, Gloria becomes the new head cook, and some inmates prefer her breakfast cooking. Red tries to sabotage Gloria's kitchen operations, but fails to discourage her replacement. At the end of the first season, it is shown that Gloria is starving out Red in a similar way that Red did to Piper at the beginning of the series.
During the second season, her backstory reveals that she was a frequent victim of domestic abuse. As she was planning to run from her abusive boyfriend, she was arrested for fraud for allowing customers to exchange food stamps for money at the store she ran and keeping some of the money for herself. She is shown as compassionate and easily susceptible to other's feelings, as she forgave her boyfriend repeatedly, and fell for Vee's charms at the beginning of the season. Upon learning that Norma is plotting to poison Vee, Gloria convinces her to use Santeria to get back at her instead. She also spends the initial part of the season competing with Aleida to be a motherly figure to Daya, but after embarrassing her in front of Bennett, she realizes that it is a job they both do well.
In the third season, she is upset after discovering that her son is becoming disrespectful and is failing his classes. She demands that he comes to visit with his homework every week and asks Sophia to allow him to ride with her son when he is doing his weekly visits. After Sophia cuts off the relationship in response to what she saw as Gloria's son being a bad influence, the two have a confrontation in the bathroom, resulting in Sophia pushing Gloria to the ground. Gloria quits working in the kitchen and later feels guilty because Aleida started spreading rumors about Sophia that caused her to get attacked in her hair salon and put in the SHU allegedly for her own safety. In the fourth season, she is shown working with Sister Jane Ingalls to get Sophia out of SHU. When Sophia returns, Gloria attempts to make amends with her. Before Aleida is released from prison, she tells Gloria to be a mother figure to Daya and to keep her out of trouble. Gloria is clearly concerned when Daya begins spending time with Maria's crew.
At the beginning of the fifth season, she becomes extremely concerned about Daya after she shoots Humphrey in the leg, and attempts to keep him alive at all costs so Daya does not face a murder charge. She takes the gun from Daya, but ends up losing the gun to Angie after dropping it on the ground. She supports Daya when she decides to surrender for shooting Humphrey, and ends up getting into an intense argument with Aleida over it. When Frieda reveals her secret bunker in the prison, she joins her down there, but ends up leaving after she receives text messages about her son being in the hospital. After being given a tip from Caputo to call for help from his office, she is told by MCC that if she gets the hostages out, they will ensure that she is able to see her son. Maria finds out about her plan, but while she does not reveal it to any of the other prisoners, Maria ends up leading the hostages out of a hole in the fence to take credit for releasing them while Gloria is taken prisoner for releasing the guards. At the end of the season, after finding out that her son survived surgery, she returned to Frieda's bunker while the riot team is taking back control of the prison.
Cindy "Black Cindy" Hayes
Adrienne C. Moore
Cindy "Black Cindy" Hayes (played by Adrienne C. Moore ) – A bubbly, laid-back and perpetually cheerful inmate, 'Black' Cindy is seen often with the other black inmates. During Taystee's time on the outside, she is seen more frequently joking around with Poussey. Her back story is explained more in the second season, where it is revealed that she worked for the TSA and occasionally stole items from the luggage of travelers. It is shown that she also had a nine-year-old daughter named Monica who was raised by her mother under the pretense that Cindy was her older sister. She is shown to shirk her responsibilities; in one instance, she took her daughter out for ice cream, only to leave her in the car for hours after she spontaneously decided to hang out with some friends. In the third season, she decides to pretend to be Jewish as a response to the inferior food quality resulting from the budget cuts so she can get better tasting kosher meals. After the prison brings in a rabbi to discover who is really Jewish and ends up being outed as a faker, she decides to convert for real and completes her conversion by performing a ritual immersion, using the lake behind the prison as a mikveh . In the beginning of the fourth season, she gets involved in an escalating turf war with her new inmate, Alison Abdullah, who is an observant Muslim, during which the two frequently trade barbs about their respective religions. However, they begin to get along and Abdullah joins Cindy's group of friends.
Joseph "Joe" Salvatore Caputo
Joseph "Joe" Salvatore Caputo (played by Nick Sandow ) – One of the administrative officials in the prison. Caputo is initially portrayed as a sleazy character who believes in keeping the inmates dehumanized and who masturbates in his office immediately after his first encounter with Piper. Later, it becomes clear that he genuinely seeks to rehabilitate the inmates and run the prison properly and ethically. He does not tolerate corruption, inefficiency, and sexual exploitation, later telling Bennett while berating him for impregnating Daya that he masturbates to control any urges to sleep with one of the inmates. It is shown through flashbacks in the third season that Caputo's desire to do the right thing has always been met with ingratitude and bad results for him. Prior to working at the prison, he quit his band to raise his girlfriend's daughter – who was conceived with one of his bandmates while they were separated – only for them to become successful while he got stuck in a low-paid job in the prison service, and his wife left him for her daughter's father. Throughout the first season, Caputo appeared to have romantic feelings for the new recruit to the staff, Susan Fischer. However, when she did not return the feelings, Caputo became upset and fired her during an argument. He is easily the most competent of the prison staff, being more than capable of dealing with crises without being appeasing or oppressive – on one occasion, upon finding out that there is a hunger strike in the prison, he goes to the strikers directly and tells them straight that most of their demands are either unreasonable or are being resolved independently, without then sending them to the SHU. In addition, he is unafraid to challenge people who are being unreasonable, routinely lashing out at Figueroa for her austere methods, and Healy for his lesbian witch hunt. He also plays bass guitar in a band called "Side Boob," and attempts to grow plants as a therapeutic hobby. Caputo is also seen to be very ambitious, and desired to move up the ladder to eventually become warden. When Piper finds evidence of Figueroa embezzling funds from the prison, Caputo uses it to force her resignation and he becomes the new assistant warden.
Although Caputo wished to be seen as a more providing and kinder warden than his predecessor, he soon learned that Litchfield was to close with the prisoners transferred and all the staff fired. Desperate to save his job and those of his co-workers, he convinces Figueroa to give him details on how to make Litchfield desirable to the Management & Correction Corporation, a private investor. This works, and although Litchfield is saved, Caputo became a figurehead who reported to Danny Pearson, the son of one of MCC's senior executives, and is forced to endure severe budget cuts like low-quality pre-packaged food and his staff being reduced to part-time while under-qualified staff with minimum training were brought in to fill the void, resulting in many serious mistakes. Around this time, Caputo begins an affair with Figueroa in order to relieve his self-hate at all the compromises he is being forced to make. Due to the incumbent staff angry at their hours and wages being cut as well as being expelled from their union due to working for a private company, Caputo suggests they form their own union and agrees to lead it. When Sophia is seriously assaulted by other inmates while the CO on duty runs off in a panic, she threatens the prison with a lawsuit. As a result, Sophia is taken into "protective custody," which is actually just her being thrown into isolation as punishment for her threat to sue. Caputo and Pearson argue with the latter's father against this unfair treatment, and his frustration results in Pearson quitting. Later, while in bed with Figueroa, she reminds him that his constant efforts to help others have only ever held him back, and tells him that he should start looking after his own interests more – that, instead of fighting for his employees, none of whom have shown him any gratitude for his efforts, he should instead try and advance his own interests within the corporation. In response, Caputo filled Pearson's position and immediately broke up the union causing most of the older, more experienced staff to immediately go on strike.
At the beginning of the fourth season, he is forced to call for reinforcements from max to replace the guards that walked out while the prisoners escaped and started playing in the lake outside of the prison. During the crisis, he is informed that Judy King arrived and is instructed to give her special treatment by MCC, partly to ensure she is given no opportunity to sue the prison after her release, and partly to create leverage over her in the event that she decides to do so. He appoints Desi Piscatella, one of the reinforcements that came from max during the strike, as the new captain of the guards after the crisis is over. During a meeting at MCC, he recommends using veterans to supplement personnel and to house them near the prison in the existing housing to save money. He also meets Linda, an executive he starts a relationship with and appoints Taystee as his secretary at Linda's suggestion. He is repeatedly confronted by Crystal, Sophia's wife, and eventually uses a smuggled cell phone to anonymously show proof that Sophia is in the SHU, resulting in her being returned to general population. He proposes to Linda that the prison should offer college classes to the inmates, only to be disappointed when Linda informs him that MCC replaced the common core classes with labor-intensive classes that are just a front to make the inmates do unpaid labor. After Aydin's remains are found in the garden, he orders the guards not to interrogate the inmates and to let the FBI handle the situation when they arrive. Following Caputo's departure, Piscatella promptly ignores his orders and the following morning, he threatens to pull all of his guards if Caputo attempts to suspend any of them for their actions. After Poussey's death, he sends Piscatella home and attempts to convince MCC to call the police. He is ordered to wait until MCC can find a way to relieve the company of any blame for wrongdoing, and then finds out that the company wants to turn Bayley into a scapegoat. Prior to a press conference to announce Poussey's death, he calls her father to inform him of her death. Following this, against orders from MCC, he absolves Bayley of any intentional wrongdoing while neglecting to mention Poussey's name during the press conference, causing the prisoners to riot after Taystee overhears the press conference and spreads the word to the other inmates.
During the fifth season, Caputo is taken hostage along with the other guards after the inmates take over the prison. Taystee forces him to film a statement naming Poussey as the deceased inmate, but he refuses to follow orders to state that she was murdered by Bayley, which resulted in Taystee completing the statement herself. He is locked up with the other guards, and when the guards came up with an escape plan to take place when the inmates were feeding them, he stalled due to Linda being one of the inmates bringing them food. Eventually, he is locked into a Porta-Potty while pleading with whoever could hear him to release him. He sends Gloria to his office so she can call Jack Pearson about getting furlough so she can see her son in the hospital. Later on, he tries to help Taystee during her negotiations with Figueroa, although he was unable to convince her to surrender in exchange for what the state was offering because they claimed that charging Bayley with murder for Poussey's death was not within the state's jurisdiction. Following this, he goes to the operations center outside of the prison, where he learns that the CERT officers are preparing to storm the prison due to Maria releasing the majority of the guards in an attempt to cash in on Gloria's deal with Pearson. After the officers state that they were still missing inmates despite previous sweeps, he informs them about the abandoned pool that Frieda converted into a bunker. He becomes upset upon learning that they were given authorization to use deadly force to capture the remaining inmates.
Carrie "Big Boo" Black
Lea DeLaria
Carrie "Big Boo" Black (played by Lea DeLaria ) – A prison inmate and open lesbian, she has had several "wives" during her incarceration. Tricia and Boo have had problems in the past fighting over a girl. She has Piper helping her write a letter for her appeal and takes the missing screwdriver from Piper's bunk unbeknownst to Piper, which she uses to aid in masturbation. She later returns the screwdriver to Piper when Piper becomes stressed over the fact that Tiffany is threatening to kill her. During the first season, Boo is often accompanied by a dog she named "Little Boo." She got rid of the dog by the second season, saying things were getting "weird." It is implied Boo considered using the dog to stimulate herself sexually. She later participates in a competition with Nicky to see who can have sex with the most inmates. Boo has little loyalty to anyone and, trying to ingratiate herself with the powerful Vee, betrays Red by telling Vee about the tunnel. As a result, she is shunned by Red's family, and Vee rejects her for snitching. Afterward, she strikes up an unlikely friendship with Tiffany — which soon develops to be a close bond — and, when Red is hospitalized following an assault by Vee, Boo helps Nicky locate and hide Vee's drug stash. During the third season, she is inspired when she realizes that Tiffany is getting donations from numerous religious groups and decides to pretend to renounce homosexuality in order to get a similar support base. However, when she is speaking to a reverend that openly disparages homosexuals she is unable to continue her ruse and angrily insults him in retaliation.
In flashbacks, it is shown that, as a teenager, her parents — particularly her mother — had strongly disapproved of her tomboyish dress sense and appearance and attempted to force her to be more feminine. By the time she was forty, she had adopted a "butch" self-image which she protected militantly, but at the same time struggled to contain her inner anger and rage at the world brought on by these experiences, and she had become completely estranged from her parents. At one point, in a conversation with Tiffany, she expresses the view that one should not allow one's beliefs to destroy relationships, as she herself holds deep regret and guilt for having never made peace with, or even attempting to say goodbye to her mother before she died. Later in the series, she attempts to console Tiffany after discovering that she was raped by Coates. She comes up with a plan to get revenge by anally raping him with a broomstick but Tiffany is unable to go through with it. She later witnesses Piper framing Stella as revenge for stealing the money from the used panty business and cannot help but be impressed by her ruthless action.
During the fourth season, she continues her friendship with Tiffany, but she becomes angered when Tiffany proposes forgiving Coates for raping her. This continues after the riot, but despite that, she agrees to defend Tiffany in the "inmate court" that took place after she allowed Coates to escape, with Leanne getting her finger shot off in the process. She takes an interest in Linda Ferguson, believing her to be an inmate, and has several sexual encounters with her. However, she looks through Linda's phone and sees pictures of her with Caputo. She attempts to blackmail Linda for $5,000 in exchange for her silence, and when that fails, she outs her to the other prisoners as an MCC executive. When the CERT has the prisoners rounded up, she leads other inmates in repeating Linda's declaration that she is an MCC employee to prevent her from getting away. During the sixth season, she is moved to Ohio and she watches with delight when Linda's hair is cut off moments before the guards realize she is not a prisoner and release her. She makes one more appearance in the series finale when copies of Judy's book are being passed out among the inmates in the Ohio facility.
Marisol "Flaca" Gonzales
Marisol "Flaca" Gonzales (played by Jackie Cruz ) – One of the Hispanic inmates, she is close friends with Maritza. She has a teardrop drawn under one of her eyes as well as eyeliner in the style of Amy Winehouse and bangs in a blunt style; [5] according to Cruz the teardrop is in the wrong location. [6]
She is shown to be rather misinformed, if not totally dim at times, genuinely believing that black people cannot float due to their bone density. This leads to Maritza stating that her head is full of "caca" and Aleida referring to her as "Flacaca." She appears to be a goth , wearing Gothic makeup and being obsessed with such bands as The Smiths and Depeche Mode . She is also somewhat aggressive, getting into a brawl with Taystee over an ice-cream cone. She and Maritza have a very close friendship, and on Valentine's Day in the second season, the two have an intimate conversation about their lack of love in the prison and after playfully telling Maritza she would kiss her and giving her a peck on the lips they end up passionately kissing. After initially laughing at what has just happened, a shocked Flaca becomes upset and begins to cry, while Maritza consoles her. During the third season, Flaca's backstory is revealed as a high-school student that sold fake acid to students. One student ended up believing it so much that he jumped off the roof of the school and ended up nearly dying. Flaca was thus arrested for fraud and endangerment, despite her belief that she did nothing illegal as the blotters were only placebos. At the prison, she becomes a part of Piper's used underwear business. Discovering that Piper was making a large amount of money selling the panties on the outside, she organizes a protest with the other women to get a larger cut of the profits. Piper agrees to her demands but fires her in revenge. Later, she is able to convince Piper to allow her to participate in the business again so that she can use the money to help pay for her mother's lymphoma treatment.
During the fourth season, she left Piper's used panty business and joined Maria's rival business. At one point in the season, she had a discussion with Maritza about having to choose between eating dead flies and a baby mouse in a fictional scenario, and later she had to comfort her after she revealed CO Humphrey forced her to act out the scenario for real by gunpoint. After Poussey's death, she and Maritza overheard Kasey and her gang discuss plans to fight Poussey's old friends and she then started practicing how to react when the media comes to the prison. Following the start of the riot in the fifth season, she and Maritza start a beauty channel on YouTube and are captured while live streaming. The two are escorted out of the prison with multiple fans waiting for them outside, and shortly after they are taken outside she becomes distraught and starts crying when she is separated from Maritza and forced to board a bus without her. While boarding the bus, Maritza tells her that she loves her.
She is moved to max along with the other inmates after the riot at the beginning of the sixth season. She gets assigned to the prison's radio show with Black Cindy. At one point while answering an anonymous letter written by Cindy she reveals that Maritza was sent to a prison she claimed was 1500 miles away (she was actually sent to an Ohio prison) before insulting the author of the letter. At another point, Cindy was replaced by Gloria and after listening to her speak about the Fantasy Inmate game the guards were playing she reveals that the microphone wasn't turned on. She ends the season providing commentary for the kickball game between C and D block with Cindy. During the seventh season, she is picked for a work detail in the kitchen at PolyCon's new immigrant detention facility and to her surprise, she discovers that both Blanca and Maritza were arrested by ICE and detained there after being released from prison. At Maritza's request, she contacts her mother in an attempt to get Maritza's U.S. birth certificate but ends up finding out she doesn't have one because she was actually born in Colombia and isn't a U.S. citizen after all. After Maritza is deported she decides to use her position at the kitchen to help as many detainees she can.
Cruz stated that Flaca is "a different type of Latina" who is "[m]ore realistic" compared to a hyper-photogenic "sexy, beautiful, Sofia Vergara type, with the accent." [5] Cruz explained, "Maybe the way she was raised might be similar to others, but what she likes is very awesome." [5] According to Cruz, Flaca was originally going to be used to say a few lines in each episode, and that Aleida was supposed to consider Maritza her "daughter" with the two of them being closer together. According to Cruz, the writers liked Cruz's performance and also liked Flaca and Maritza's chemistry. Therefore, they asked for her character to become more prominent. Cruz stated that she is real-life friends with Diane Guerrero, Maritza's actress, and suggested that this may have contributed to the on-screen friendship. Cruz added that in regards to Flaca's background, she had believed "Flaca was a little more gangster, but you can see she's not" and that Flaca "was very sweet, very vulnerable, a good person" who was forced to adopt a tougher persona upon being incarcerated. [6]
Maritza Ramos
Diane Guerrero
Maritza Ramos (played by Diane Guerrero ) – A Colombian-American inmate. In contrast to her rougher, more hardened cellmates, Maritza is quite demure and has a playful, sassy personality. She is often seen with Flaca, with whom she has a rivalry and close friendship; she is generally portrayed as somewhat more intelligent than her friend. On Valentine's Day, she and Flaca are having an intimate conversation in the kitchen, and when Flaca gives her a friendly peck on the lips, the two end up passionately kissing. They initially laugh in shock, before Flaca breaks down in tears, and Maritza consoles her, looking visibly shaken herself. She has a child on the outside.
In the third season, she is distraught when Flaca is accepted to another work detail but reunites with her friend when she joins Piper's used panty business. At the end of the season, she replaces Tiffany as the prison van driver after Tiffany faked a seizure to get away from Officer Coates.
In the fourth season, it is revealed that before her incarceration she was a small-time con artist who worked at an upscale nightclub, wherein she would fill empty bottles of expensive vodka with water, deliberately drop them and then panic about being fired in order to claim the price of the original drink from the people that she convinces had tripped her. One of her victims sees right through her and offers her in to his own, more elaborate confidence trick to steal expensive cars, which involved pretending to be a car saleswoman to entice middle-aged men to go on a test drive, while simultaneously pretending to be their trophy wife to get the keys, and stealing the car once the drive was over. On her first attempt, a salesman gets in the car with them, and when both men grow suspicious, she improvised by pretending to be travel-sick, before getting into the car without them and driving off.
Back in prison, when Maria starts a rival panty-smuggling business to Piper's, she uses Maritza to smuggle the panties out of the prison by hiding them in the wheel arches of the van and transferring them to Maria's cousin when she drops the COs off at their house. She also becomes friendly with McCullough, the CO who supervises her. When the COs spot the smuggler, she pretends he is a gardener and says "Follow me" in Spanish to him, not knowing that CO Humphrey can understand her. He reveals that he knows she's up to something, so she decides to draw the attention of the COs to her contact, threatening him into not returning. Humphrey overhears her talking with Flaca about whether she would rather eat ten dead houseflies or one live baby mouse, so, during a later shift change, he takes her in his house, holds her at gunpoint, and forces her to partake in a real-life version of that choice. Maritza eventually chooses the live baby mouse, and later shares the horror of the experience to Flaca. After Poussey's death, she and Flaca overhear the white supremacist inmates discussing retaliation against Poussey's friends, following this, the two decide to practice how to react to the press if they are interviewed.
During the uprising at the end of the season, she sees Humphrey attempting to unholster a gun, and she pushes him to the ground before he can use it. Following the start of the riot, Maritza and Flaca obtain smartphones, and begin to use them to film vlog posts detailing their makeup regime within the confines of the prison system, something that gradually earns them a following on YouTube which, by the time the riot comes to an end, has become big enough that many of their fans have crowded outside the prison to wave banners in support and in the hope of seeing them when the riot breaks up. As the CERT officers storm the prison, Maritza and Flaca film their last video, and refuse to co-operate with the officers. One of them fires a pepper bullet and blinds Maritza just long enough to restrain her.
Outside, as the inmates are being loaded onto their buses, Maritza is stopped from getting on the same bus Flaca was getting on. Distraught at being separated from her friend, she shouts to her that she loves her. While Maritza does not appear in the sixth season, Flaca mentions on her prison radio show with Cindy that she was sent to a prison 1500 miles away while responding to Cindy's anonymous letter.
Maritza reappears in the seventh season at a nightclub in New York while on parole. She wins a dancing contest at the club, which causes her to get noticed by some NBA players. After sleeping with one of them, he offers to fly her to Los Angeles for a weekend, but she declines due to her friend reminding her that her parole prohibits her from leaving the state. While out at another night club, she is arrested in an ICE raid due to her not having any identification on her proving she is a U.S. citizen and is detained at the PolyCon immigration detention facility with Blanca. Borrowing money from Blanca, she buys a phone card to call a lawyer but her card runs out of money before she can give them any useful information. She reunites with Flaca when Flaca is chosen for a cooking detail with the immigrant detainees and asks her to contact her mother for her U.S. birth certificate. Unknown to Maritza, her mother informs Flaca that she was actually born in Colombia , and is not a U.S. citizen after all. Gloria gives her a toll-free number she can use to contact a pro bono immigration lawyer and she gives the number to the other detainees despite threats that the facility can shut the phones down to stop them from calling, which is noticed by two ICE agents. Despite her attempts to get help from a lawyer, she is eventually given orders for deportation and is last seen being put on a chartered aircraft to be deported along with several other migrants.
Aleida Diaz
Elizabeth Rodriguez
Aleida Diaz (played by Elizabeth Rodriguez ) – Daya's mother. She was incarcerated for helping her boyfriend Cesar with his drug dealing business and taking the blame for him. In flashbacks, it is shown that she had little concern for her children and was obsessed with her boyfriend. She says during a visitation that she is upset that he will not visit her. She treats Daya rudely in the prison, and goes so far as to attempt to seduce Bennett to make Daya angry. She later shows a softer side and advises Daya to have her baby, even going so far as to concoct a plan to allow Bennett to keep his job. She also finds herself competing with Gloria to care for Daya during the more difficult times of her pregnancy, finally forcing her to take on a maternal role in her daughter's life. She has high status among the other Hispanic inmates. During the second season, she battles with Gloria to be a mother to Daya, and manipulates Bennett to bring in contraband from the outside hidden in his prosthetic leg. During the third season, she attempts to convince Daya to give her unborn child to Pornstache's mother Delia so that she would have a better life and to get a monthly payment from her. Later, she decides that it would be better for Daya to keep her baby and tells Delia that Daya's baby died during childbirth while in reality Cesar picked up the child. Despite this, her cruel and vindictive side is shown when she spreads deliberately untrue and transphobic rumors about Sophia to the other inmates in response to a fight between her and Gloria, resulting in Sophia being attacked by the other inmates, something which weighs heavily on Gloria's conscience. During the fourth season, Aleida is informed that she is eligible for parole and she asks Gloria to watch over Daya after her release. After she is released, she is picked up by Cesar's girlfriend Margarita. While in a restaurant, Margarita tells her that Cesar got her pregnant, and after becoming upset at the revelation, she yells at a man she believes was profiling her. She gets into an argument with Margarita in a clothing store after finding out that she was not planning to stay faithful to Cesar while he was in prison, and walks out on her. Later that day, after finding out that her cousin Jazmina spent her money sock on bail and an ER visit, she goes back to Margarita's apartment and states that she has nowhere else to go. At the end of the season, she is watching the press conference announcing the death of an inmate with Margarita, and becomes concerned for Daya's well-being since Caputo did not mention the deceased inmate's name on the air.
After being released from prison, Aleida struggles to find employment, due to her criminal record and lack of qualifications. When the riot breaks out, Aleida appears in several disastrous TV interviews. Eventually, she does an alongside Judy King, and angrily lashes out at her, revealing the special treatment King received in prison. However, she is horrified when King reveals that one of the guards, Thomas Humphrey, was shot and, while she does not remember the shooter's name, Aleida realises she's describing Daya. She hysterically telephones her daughter, and when Daya explains what happened, Aleida demands that she lie, and say that Humphrey threatened her. Finally fed up of her mother's controlling treatment of her, Daya hangs up on her. When Aleida arrives at the prison, she is horrified to see that Daya has surrendered herself to the authorities.
In season 6, still struggling to find work, Aleida eventually resorts to joining "Nutri Life," a Multi-level marketing company based on Herbalife Nutrition , hawking nutritional supplements. She visits her children in foster care, and discovers that only her youngest daughter wants anything to do with her, as her teenage children all remember life under her controlling hand. Determined to get her children out of foster care, and facing the threat of eviction, Aleida begins selling the product outside the prison. This leads to her dating Rick Hopper, the captain of the guards at Max, who starts buying large amounts of protein shake from her. When Daya approaches her to open a drug smuggling route into the prison, Aleida is initially furious, but relents when she faces eviction and has to move in with Hopper. Upon discovering what she is doing, Hopper eventually agrees to help Aleida smuggle more in. Later, when visiting Daya, Aleida is horrified to discover she is addicted to the heroin she has been smuggling in, but realises that she has no other choice but to keep smuggling.
During the final season, she lands back in jail after finding her other daughter Eva with her older boyfriend as he's snorting cocaine, then brutally assaulting him and smashing the window of what she thought was his car. After going back to prison, Hopper is fired after they are caught having sex by the warden and several guards. She then attacks and tries to kill Daya upon learning that Daya had gotten Eva involved in her drug smuggling.
Poussey Washington
Samira Wiley
Poussey Washington (played by Samira Wiley ) – An often good-natured and joking inmate, who is best friends with Taystee. During the first-season finale, she is revealed to have a great singing voice, and performs an improvised rendition of Amazing Grace . Flashbacks during the second season revealed that she is a military brat and that her father James, who was an officer in the United States Army , was stationed at United States Army Garrison Hohenfels , Germany with her. While in Germany, she had a sexual relationship with Franziska Mertensacker, the daughter of her father's German superior officer Jürgen Mertensacker. One evening while Poussey and Franziska were having sex in Franziska's room, Jürgen walked in on them. A short time after being caught Poussey's father received orders to leave Germany, with it being implied that Jürgen had a hand in getting her father reassigned. This led to Poussey trying to kill him before being stopped by her father, who subsequently defended her homosexuality from him. In the present, it is implied that she is in love with Taystee, who does not return her feelings on account of being straight but does make an effort to be gentle with her about this. After failing to get her to market her moonshine, Vee begins to antagonize Poussey, mostly out of jealousy of her closeness to Taystee, and partly out of implied homophobia. She separates Poussey and Taystee, causing a rift in their relationship.
She is one of the few black inmates not to fall for Vee's charms and begins a long campaign to fight her throughout the season. Vee's numerous efforts to force her to back down, including gentle coaxing, threats and even a violent beating from Suzanne are unsuccessful. Eventually, Poussey causes irreparable damage to Vee's tobacco business by smashing up an entire batch of tobacco and pouring bleach on it, and Vee, realizing that no amount of intimidation will stop her, and killing her would be an overreaction, decides to remove her reason for fighting her by ejecting Taystee from the gang. The two later reconcile after a physical fight in the library and work together to turn the other black inmates against Vee. In the third season, she has become obsessed with trying to discover who was stealing her moonshine and starts to set traps to catch what she believed was a squirrel stealing it. Feeling depressed, lonely and in need of a girlfriend, she joins Norma's "cult," although she later ends up leaving when she becomes unsatisfied with them. While in the library to help herself to some of her hooch, she discovers Brook passed out from a drug overdose. Realizing that Brook will be taken to psych if the truth is known, she takes the foils and gets Taystee and Suzanne instead of the CO's. On Taystee's recommendation, they induce vomiting to purge the medication and try to keep Brook from falling asleep at breakfast the next morning. Once Brook has recovered, the African American gang welcomes her into their circle of friends. Poussey later confronts Norma's cult for the way they treated Brook and threatens Leanne.
During the fourth season, her relationship with Brook becomes romantic and she becomes excited at the prospect of meeting Judy King, the cooking show host Poussey was a big fan of who was sent to Litchfield for tax fraud. After several awkward moments between them, Poussey finally sits down with Judy in the cafeteria due to Brook arranging a meeting between them, only to discover that Brook had said numerous racist things about Poussey's personal life when describing her to Judy, including telling her that Poussey's mother was a crack addict. Eventually, Poussey accepts Brook's apology, the two begin anew, and it soon becomes clear that they have fallen in love. Poussey later finds herself helping Judy after her friends were angry about a racist puppet show that Judy filmed in the 80s, that ended up being leaked on YouTube . Judy later offers Poussey a job once she gets out of prison, ensuring she will have something to look forward to. During a protest in the cafeteria, Poussey is caught in a scuffle with Officer Bayley, who tries to restrain her while fighting off an erratic Suzanne by pressing her into the ground and putting his knee over her. Unable to breathe in this position, Poussey dies of asphyxiation, shocking the other inmates and leaving Bayley traumatized. Due to MCC trying to remove liability from the company for her death, they order Caputo not to call the police until they can find a way to make the incident look like Poussey's fault, before deciding to switch blame to Bayley and portray him as a rogue guard when they have difficulty conjuring up such an image of her, as she came from a respectable family, her charge was for a non-violent offense, and she was a model inmate. As a result, her body stays in the cafeteria overnight and is not removed until the following afternoon. [7]
Following her death, Poussey is featured in several flashbacks. She first appears in a series of flashbacks at the end of the fourth season shortly after her death, which chronicled her spending the day in New York with her friends by showing her riding a bus into New York, before going into a nightclub and getting her phone stolen. After chasing and failing to catch the phone thief, she gets lost and after being dismissed by multiple people she is taken to an alternative club by two people she met before she got back in touch with her friends. She then rides a subway towards her friends' location before catching a ride the rest of the way with some men dressed as monks for Improv Everywhere riding bicycles. While smoking marijuana with one of them, she tells him that she lost her chance to go to West Point after her incident with Franziska's father in Germany and that she was planning to move to Amsterdam in a few weeks. She appears in another flashback during the riot showing her first meeting with Taystee in the prison library, and the two joke around with each other before becoming friends. In the final flashback during the seventh season, she is speaking to and joking around with Taystee over the phone during the short period of time Taystee was out on probation during the first season. At the end of the seventh season, Taystee and Judy start the Poussey Washington Fund in her honor to provide microloans to inmates after they are released from prison. [8]
She was named after the town of Poussay in Northeastern France, where her father was stationed when she was born, and often finds herself on the receiving end of mockery by the other inmates because of its alternative pronunciation.
Reviewer Joanna Robinson commented that Poussey's death was inspired by that of Eric Garner . [9] [10] Reviewer Crystal Bell likened Poussey's death to the deaths of Sandra Bland and Michael Brown , because of the following details: Caputo did not say Poussey's name during the press conference, and her body was left on the cafeteria floor for almost an entire day, respectively. [11]
Prior to production on the fourth season began, Kohan and the writers informed Wiley that her character was going to die, but no other cast members knew. Wiley kept this secret during much of the production. [12] According to Wiley, the writers decided Poussey would die because she was a character who was "really loved and people really cared about." [13] According to Lauren Morelli , Kohan stated that a character who would have a bright future outside of prison ought to be chosen since viewers would understand the loss of that person's potential. A character the viewer never expected much from would thus not have the same impact. [13]
The Poussey Washington Fund introduced in the series finale was announced as a real-life initiative to help formerly incarcerated women after they are released from prison. [14]
Maria Ruiz
Maria Ruiz (played by Jessica Pimentel ) – An inmate of Dominican descent who acts as the Hispanic representative for WAC, and was pregnant at the beginning of the series. When she goes into labor she is taken to a hospital, and later returns to the prison after having her newborn daughter Pepa taken away from her, which elicits sympathy from her fellow inmates. She describes Daya and Aleida's relationship as a "cautionary tale" and states that a minute with them is better than Plan B , as she would never talk to her daughter the way Aleida does toward Daya, or allow her daughter to talk to her the way Daya does Aleida. During the second season, she is visited several times by her stoic, quiet boyfriend Yadriel and her child. When it appears she will be transferred to a prison in Virginia, she begs him to be a good, proactive parent and speak to their child more and later confides in Piper that she is afraid he will be too weak to be faithful during her entire sentence. However, in the second-season finale, she is last seen being visited by her boyfriend and her daughter, happy to see that he is taking a deeper role as a father and apparently plans to stay true to her. During the third season, she is devastated when Yadriel decides not to bring Pepa to the prison anymore, with him saying that he does not want her to think that is normal for her mother to be in prison as she got older.
In the fourth season, it is revealed that her father was a drug dealer who cared for her enormously in the early years of her life. She first met Yadriel when she saw him throwing his drugs into a bush while being pursued by the police, and later returned them to him. Their subsequent relationship angered her father, both because Maria was effectively dating his competition, and because, as an intensely patriotic Dominican, he did not approve of his daughter dating a Mexican. Eventually, after an explosive argument, the two permanently fell out. In the present, Maria began to organize a new gang amongst the other Dominican inmates, in order to fight back against the overt racism of the guards. After attempting to get involved in Piper's business, Maria was angered by her rude response and formed a rival business of her own, which immediately snapped up many of Piper's employees. When Piper blows the whistle on her, Piscatella tells Maria that he will recommend that three to five years are added to her sentence. As a result, Maria responds by having her gang seize Piper, take her to the kitchen and brand her with a swastika, which also serves as retaliation for her accidental creation of the white supremacist gang. Maria's gang start distributing drugs instead and secures her a position of power in the prison. However, as the guards begin to get increasingly violent and draconian, Maria starts to use her power to help protect and rally the other inmates. Upon the discovery of Aydin's body, she is separated from the other inmates, along with Ouija and Blanca, for further questioning. She is initially amused by Officer Humphrey's prank on Kasey Sankey but is shocked when he then escalates it into a fight between Suzanne and Maureen Kukudio. When Suzanne becomes unhinged and almost beats Maureen to death, Maria finally has enough and, with Ouija's help, manages to pull Suzanne off Maureen and comforts her.
During the fifth season, Maria takes advantage of the prison riot to strengthen her gang's position. She offers Daya guidance in handling her newfound status, due to her being the one with the gun, but continues to suggest she give it to her. She also organizes a meeting of all the inmates with the intended purpose of humiliating and degrading the guards that have been taken hostage. However, after a conversation with Caputo, Maria discovers that, contrary to her own understanding, Piscatella could not unilaterally extend her sentence, that he never got a chance to make his recommendation to extend her sentence before the riot began, and even if he had, she would have had to personally attend a court hearing before any extension could be made. With the realization that her sentence was not extended, Maria abandons the other rioters and joins Piper and Alex's riot abstention crew to stay out of trouble. Upon learning that Gloria had made a deal with MCC to get furlough in return for releasing the hostages, Maria betrays her confidence and releases them herself in hopes that she would get time taken off of her sentence. Initially outraged after being told by Nita Reddy that MCC does not have the authority to reduce her sentence, she gains some hope after Nita promised her that she would see what she could do. A short time later, she was allowed an outside visit with Yadriel and Pepa while CERT was clearing out the prison.
Following the events of the previous season, she is transferred to max and was investigated as one of the suspects for planning and starting the riot. She runs into Gloria during a recreation period and Gloria attacks her for revenge after her betrayal during the riot. COs Garza and Hellman broke them up and then took them to the shower to spray them with a water hose. They then forced her and Gloria to kiss each other in front of them for their enjoyment, while claiming that it was to make sure that there was no more animosity between them. Throughout the season, she is dealing with her interrogations as a leader of the riot and faces her sentence being extended by ten years. She has a run-in with CO McCullough during a cell shakedown, and after Maria triggers her with her attitude McCullough slaps her. Later on, while cleaning the bathroom, her head is pushed into the toilet from behind, and she is taken to Psych due to it being a suspected suicide attempt. Deciding to take a different path than what she was previously doing, she joins a prayer group. During a session, she was selected to lead a prayer and after completing it fellow group member Beth Hoefler confessed to pushing her head into the toilet. Maria becomes enraged and compares the attack to Beth's murder of her children, but she does not retaliate against her and instead leaves the group. At the end of the season, she tries to prevent the planned cell block war during the kickball game from starting by asking McCullough to force the cell blocks to mix their team members together. Hesitant at first, McCullough eventually complies and the women end up completing the game without fighting.
Maria lived with Yadriel after her family disowned her for associating with him. [15] According to Pimentel, Maria originally "kept her head down, did her work and didn't get too involved." While she initially had visits with her child, those were taken away when she became "a gangster with an -er." [16]
Blanca Flores
Blanca Flores (played by Laura Gómez ) – A Dominican inmate. The other inmates thought she was insane, as she appeared to have animated conversations in Spanish with the Devil while inside a restroom stall. Piper later discovered that Blanca is actually of sound mind, and had actually been speaking to her boyfriend, "Diablo", with a cell phone that she had hidden behind a tile in the stall while feigning madness so nobody would suspect anything. Upon discovering the phone is missing, however, her grief and anger lead to a violent tantrum that is mistaken for a breakdown, and she is taken away to psych. She has finally returned by the second season and stopped pretending to be insane, revealing herself to be plain-speaking, blunt and low key, and later attempts to blackmail Bennett into getting her a new phone. During the third season, against Gloria's orders, she attempts the test which will get her into the new work detail and is forced to put up with Flaca's constant pestering and fidgeting. Later, she is embarrassed when Flaca reveals her participation to Gloria in anger.
During the fourth season, she joins Maria's Dominican gang. When the guards stated frisking the Latino inmates for contraband, she discovers that the guards would not frisk her if she stank, and as a result, the other Latina inmates would follow suit. Officer Stratman orders her to bathe, and when she refused he ordered her to stand on a cafeteria table for several days. During flashbacks, she was working as a carer for Millie, an old woman, who misread her name as "Bianca" and continued to address her by that name. While working for Millie, she met her boyfriend Diablo, who was working as Millie's gardener. After their relationship started to grow, Millie fired Diablo, stating that she thought he was a distraction for Blanca. Sometime after Diablo was fired, Blanca had sex with him while Millie was in the same room watching helplessly. At the end of the season, she represented the Latina inmates in expressing condolences for Poussey's death to the black inmates. Throughout most of the fifth season, she teams up with Red to try and take down Piscatella by exposing the details of reports that he murdered an inmate at the male prison he worked at before transferring to Litchfield. The two devise a plan to lure Piscatella into the prison during the riot to try and torture information out of him but she is caught and subdued by him and held hostage along with Nicky, Big Boo, Piper, and Alex. She and the rest of the group are forced to watch Piscatella physically and emotionally torture Red but are saved by Frieda and the rest of the women hiding in the abandoned swimming pool. In the last scene of the season, she is seen with the remaining prisoners still inside the hideout as the CERT officers raid the building and blow the entrance to the hidden bunker.
In the sixth season, Blanca is held in Max alongside the other ten inmates who were in the bunker. Wanting to protect herself and ensure that Maria is held as a riot instigator rather than herself, Gloria convinces Blanca through coded prayer to name her in her interview. She complies, thinking this will be the only way to protect herself. The agents investigating initially consider ruling her out as a suspected instigator, as there is little evidence of her playing an active role in the riot, but when some information is discovered on her file, they change their mind. As a result, Blanca is also held as one of the three instigators, but unlike Red and Maria, her sentence is not extended, for reasons that are not yet clear. Despite her relief, she becomes worried after visiting the prison gynecologist, as she realizes that her body clock is running out, and she wants nothing more than to have a child. Nicky offers to help Blanca artificially inseminate with a makeshift syringe, and some of Diablo's sperm which Daya helps to smuggle in, though the attempt results in her being beaten up by her wing. The insemination fails, but Blanca is going to be released early, which would allow her to try again with Diablo in person. She excitedly tells Diablo, and he tells her he will see her the next day. The next day, however, Blanca is led down a different corridor than Piper and Sophia and instead of getting released she is handed over to ICE for possible deportation.
Joel Luschek
Joel Luschek (played by Matt Peters ) – The sarcastic, uncaring, and barely competent young prison guard who runs the electrical shop. He displays blatant racism, and generally does not care what the women in the shop do as long as they leave him alone, though he is good friends with Nicky. His method of teaching repairs tends to consist of handing his inmates a printed manual for the broken appliance and giving them a few minutes to read before sending them off. He buys a new screwdriver and replaces it in the tool crib to cover up his mistake in failing to properly train Janae, thus ending the search for the missing screwdriver, and endangering the prison population by allowing a dangerous object to remain at large.
During the second season, he enters a relationship with fellow staff member Fischer, but his nonchalant attitude toward her causes it to end.
In the third season, he agrees to help Nicky smuggle heroin out of the prison so he can sell it on the outside. Before he can smuggle it out, Angie and Leanne find it and attempt to keep it for themselves. Luschek finds it on them and threatens to kill them if they tell anybody else about it. During a surprise inspection of his shop, drugs are found under his desk and to protect himself he blames Nicky, causing her to be transferred to max.
In the fourth season, new celebrity inmate Judy King turns herself in to Luscheck after the other guards walked out. Striking a friendship with her, he ends up letting Judy know about his guilt for turning Nicky in and getting her sent to max. After receiving multiple letters from Nicky, he visits her at max, and is promptly berated for his actions. Later, he discovers that Judy pulled some strings to get Nicky out of max, and ends up being forced to have sex with Judy as payment. During lockdown, when Luschek is sent to guard Judy, he ends up having a threesome with her and Yoga Jones while high on ecstasy.
Frieda Berlin
Frieda Berlin (played by Dale Soules ) – A blunt, curmudgeonly German American woman who is a member of the "Golden Girls", (the collective nickname of a group of seniors in the prison who befriend Red in the second season) alongside Irma, Jimmy and Taslitz. When the group threatened Gloria's kitchen staff, Frieda mentions that she is in prison for cutting off her husband's penis, demonstrating her tougher edge over the staff, whose crimes are drug and larceny related. Later, when Red rebuilds the prison greenhouse and garden, Frieda assumes primary authority over it, often having to fend off inmates trying to help themselves to the produce. In the fourth season, after finding Aydin's body in her greenhouse, Frieda advises Alex and Lolly to dispose of it by chopping it up into pieces and hiding it in the soil beneath the garden. Seeing that Lolly is becoming extremely erratic, she later tells Red and Alex that she plans to kill her to prevent her from accidentally exposing them, but is prevented from doing so when Red reminds her that doing so will likely lead to her being returned to max, also revealing that Frieda is a former biker. In Officer Bayley's flashback, Bayley and his friends threw eggs at her while driving by her outdoor work detail near the prison after he was fired from his ice cream job.
In the fifth season, after the riot results in the inmates taking over the prison, she used homemade blow darts to shoot Strautman and Blake in the kitchen. Convincing them that the darts were poisoned, she tricks them into releasing them, before forcing them to join the other guards that were being held hostage. Flashbacks from her childhood revealed that Frieda had a very close relationship with her father, a paranoid survivalist who, during the early years of the Cold War , feared that America's tension with the Soviet Union would ultimately escalate into a full-on war. Because of this, he built an underground bunker near their home and would take her on long camping expeditions, during which he would intentionally abandon her in the middle of the woods to teach her how to find her own way home. The survival and resource gathering skills that he taught her throughout her childhood would later come in useful for her in her prison years. Following her father's footsteps, she builds her own bunker in the prison using an abandoned swimming pool, which she used to get peace and quiet, and she had stocked with supplies she has been gathering for several decades. She opens her hidden bunker to fellow inmates fleeing the riot and revealed that she knew guards that worked at Litchfield as far back as the 1970s. Later on, when Piscatella is torturing some of the other inmates, she helps capture him and they hold him hostage until Taystee enters the bunker and grabs Frieda's pistol. After Taystee is talked out of executing Piscatella and he is released, Frieda is standing with the other inmates while waiting for the CERT officers to breach her bunker.
In the sixth season, she is moved to max with the other inmates that were in her bunker. Shortly after arriving, she slit her wrists, stating that she can't be in max, but she was saved and sent to medical. She considered several other methods to try and kill herself until she was transferred to B-Block, the neutral and peaceful block of the prison known as "Florida." Flashbacks from the 80s revealed that prior to her stay in minimum security, she was in max. While there, she used to distribute contraband with Carol Denning, the current leader of C-Block. She betrayed Carol and turned in her contraband to the warden in exchange for a transfer to minimum security while the Denning sisters got extra time. On her way to B-Block, Carol spots Frieda after a CO is removing an unruly inmate. While in Florida, she was afraid that Carol, now knowing that she is back in max, would try to kill her for revenge. For her protection, she requested that Suzanne becomes her roommate because she felt Suzanne wouldn't kill her and she cut herself and stated that another inmate she suspected was paid to kill her did it so she would be taken away.
Natalie Figueroa
Alysia Reiner
Natalie "Fig" Figueroa (played by Alysia Reiner ) – The former corrupt executive assistant to the warden . At the beginning of the series, Figueroa claims to be a women's advocate for the prisoners, but is generally unconcerned with them and refuses to get involved in their problems. Arrogant and condescending, she puts on a tough facade to disguise her own insecurities and somewhat fragile personality. Sometimes, she shows odd displays of humanity and sensitivity, usually when the rest of the prison staff are being insufferable. Figueroa tries to avoid any scandals or media attention about the goings-on at the prison, and her desire to cover up incidents allows Mendez to get away with his schemes (although it later works in favor of the inmates). She is revealed to have been embezzling funds from the prison's budget for her husband Jason's state senate campaign, a secret which is in danger of being exposed due to the publicity the prison is getting from Larry's articles and radio interview.
She spends the second season a step ahead of Larry and a reporter's hunt, focusing on her husband's campaign to become a state senator and on getting pregnant. She is shown to be particularly uncaring, brought on by the stress of keeping the embezzlement under wraps, and her marriage is generally loveless and lacking physical affection. She is devastated and heartbroken when she sees her husband kissing his male campaign manager Gavin, and she is taken completely by surprise that her husband is a closet homosexual. Shortly after, Caputo confronts her with evidence of her embezzlement. She performs oral sex on him in an attempt to buy his silence, only to find out afterward that Caputo has already given copies of the evidence to the warden. Figueroa manages to avoid being fired or charged, resigning with a commendation for her services by the warden because he didn't want a scandal from the embezzlement and didn't want to make a political enemy of her husband.
During the third season, she has moved to Albany after her husband won his state senate campaign. She helps Caputo by giving him information on a private contractor that would take over the prison when it is being threatened with being closed down. She also begins an affair with him. Near the end of the fourth season, she speaks to Caputo and ends up letting him know that MCC is planning to put even more inmates into the prison after building a new facility to house them. Fig also appears at length as a negotiator for MCC during the riot at Litchfield, where she often is out-matched on facts by Taystee and has a frosty reunion with Caputo. While she is receptive to most of the prisoners' demands, she ends any possibility of making a deal when she hears that CO Humphrey is dead. Unknown to her at the time, Humphrey wasn't actually dead at this point, but he died not long afterward as a result of an inmate-caused stroke.
Following the events of the riot, she becomes the warden of the prison in the sixth season, to the ire of Caputo. Due to her position, she has an uneasy working relationship with Linda, who is now the senior vice president at MCC. Fig and Caputo continue to have casual sex, but when Caputo is being transferred to Missouri he insists on taking her out before he leaves. After Caputo quits, resulting in him no longer going to Missouri, she gets closer with him and their relationship elevates past being casual. At the end of the season, when Caputo crashes the event where the renamed PolyCon Corrections reveals their upcoming immigration detention centers, she tells him that she's only with her husband Jason at the event for show. She then helps him treat his injuries from when Herrmann hit him at the courthouse and consoled him over his grief about Taystee's guilty verdict.
By the beginning of the seventh season, Fig and Caputo have moved in together. Linda transferred her from Litchfield to PolyCon's new immigration detention facility, but she soon realizes that most of the power she had as the warden has been stripped at the detention facility due to restrictions put in place by ICE. As time goes by, she frequently becomes frustrated with the policies put in place by ICE, and she becomes especially upset upon witnessing some underage immigrants inside of an on-site immigration court without parental representation. She and Caputo were planning on trying to have a child together, and she was expecting to start In vitro fertilization treatment to assist her to get pregnant. However, she later found out detainee Santos Chaj was impregnated by one of the coyotes that raped her after they got her into the country because she couldn't pay their entry fee. After being denied permission to take Santos to an abortion clinic she told her doctor she herself was pregnant but didn't want the child so she could get a medical abortion pill to give to Santos, which resulted in her no longer able to get IVF treatment for herself. While the issues at the detention facility were going on, she was also trying to prevent Caputo from engaging with former CO Fischer after Fischer accused him of sexually harassing her during her time as a guard, but Caputo failed to adhere to her advice. At the end of the series, she and Caputo decide to look at children for adoption instead.
See also
They made it very clear to me that I don't die. I thought that she did. But the writers told me, "She doesn't die, but she gets knocked out really well."
"We'd joke about flirting with each other, and then it was like, they'd write that in a scene. We hang out all the time, we're actual friends. Actually, I don't know if that's the reason, I'm just guessing. [Laughs.]"
^ Vilkomerson, Sara. " Orange Is the New Black actress on shocking season 4 scene ." Entertainment Weekly . June 20, 2016. Retrieved on June 23, 2016. "The way Poussey dies felt reminiscent of Eric Garner,[...]it's an homage, in a way, of Eric Garner's death."
List of Orange Is the New Black characters
| 415 |
48 | who plays red on orange is new black | https://collider.com/orange-is-the-new-black-red-ending-kate-mulgrew/ | Kate Mulgrew Had a Good Reason to Dislike Red's Ending in 'Orange is the New Black'
Summary
Kate Mulgrew, who played Red on OITNB, was disappointed with her character's ending due to a personal connection.
As the show progressed, Red's screen time decreased naturally with the introduction of new characters.
Mulgrew admits to struggling with ego and ambition in wanting more screen time.
Over seven seasons, Kate Mulgrew appeared on Netflix’s hit series Orange is the New Black as Galina “Red” Reznikov, a tough-as-nails character who was just as dedicated to leading the kitchen in the daily preparation of meals as she was to her “girls” as their prison mom. There are many characters who audiences meet in Season 1, who, by the end of Season 7, have their worlds completely flipped upside down. At the end of the day, series creator Jenji Kohan wasn’t in the business of passing out happily-ever-after endings, sending some of her characters to horrific fates with immigration services and watching others move onto the next chapter of their lives behind prison bars . For Red, viewers watched as the strong-willed and determined woman slowly descended into a bottomless pit of confusion due to early-onset dementia.
For many fans, this seemed like the most devastating and unfair way to wrap up the tale of the prison’s fiercest inmate who had been through so much both on the inside and outside the penitentiary. Over the weekend at Fan Expo Boston , a fan asked Mulgrew about how she felt about Red’s final season and the character’s fate when the credits rolled after the series finale. Like many of us, the award-winning actress was less than pleased with Red’s farewell. She explained:
“I dislike it. And I told Jenji I didn't like it. No, I didn't like it. Jenji knew that my mother died that way. I didn’t see it in Red. I have to be honest with you, I didn't see it in her strength, her mettle, her courage, her sharpness, her acuity, her heart, her sensitivity, her strategic sense, I didn't see it in her culinary gift. It wasn't represented. Was she at any point represented as an eccentric personality? Not really. [Putting on a Russian accent] Of course, she was deeply eccentric, she was a rotten prisoner with red hair and chopping people’s heads off and doing stuff like that, trying to find the chicken. [Drops accent] But she herself was not.
So, I thought it was a little hurried… If you’re gonna go that way, then let me have a minute with the audience to play it, you know what I mean? I felt a little…disappointed, I suppose, but that’s fair, it’s alright. Acting is largely just working. You never get what you really want because you’re not the boss. Unless you’re, you know, George Clooney.”
Kate Mulgrew Explains Why Red Appeared Less as 'Orange Is the New Black' Continued
Close
The first season of Orange is the New Black hit screens in 2013 and immediately became Netflix’s most talked about and watched original series of all time. While there were plenty of faces involved in the show’s early days, it was characters like Taylor Schilling ’s Piper Chapman, Laura Prepon ’s Alex Vause, Samira Wiley ’s Poussey Washington, and Mulgrew’s Red who shared the most screen time. But, as the production grew in popularity, the story began to branch out and, by Season 4, there were fewer moments with the original gals as others stepped into the spotlight.
Explaining that this was simply the natural progression of things, Mulgrew told a fan:
“There were four of us, maybe five series regulars, in Season 1. There were eight or 10 in Season 2, 15 or 20 in Season 3, 30 in [Season] 4, 50 in [Season] 5. You get the picture? When you're a series regular, you have to be written for because they're paying you a lot of money, right? So Red always was central, she never lost her centrality, she never lost her critical presence. [It] was naturally diminished over time. But I had three great seasons and, as you know, it was a game changer. Orange is the New Black because Jenji Kohan knows how to break the law. Cindy Holland, who was then vice president in charge of programming, was genius.”
This isn’t to say that Mulgrew was thrilled about being featured less and less, blaming her ego for her pangs of jealousy:
“Was I sad about not having lots to do in 4 and 5? Of course, because we are full of ego. We're truly full of ego. I’d really love to die without it. That’s my goal in life. I mean it just hangs on, I mean, I’ve [been] an actress [for] 50 years and did plenty [I’d like to think] I'd say ‘That was good. I'm done.’ But you never do. You say ‘Why am I not in more scenes? Why am I not [in frame at the moment]? What the hell is going on? I need to see the President about this.’
I really hate my ego and my vanity and, frankly the ambition has not been favorable either. What I like is my talent, my depth, my decency and my absolute capacity to commit to a character 150%.”
You can stream all seven seasons of Orange is the New Black now on Netflix in the U.S. Stay tuned to Collider for more news out of Fan Expo !
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48 | who plays red on orange is new black | https://orange-is-the-new-black.fandom.com/wiki/Galina_Reznikov | (indirectly)
Job
Bunk Mate
Litchfield
Contents
Personality[
Red's influence in Litchfield is rivalled by few others. She rules her block of the prison with an iron fist (and a large amount of illegal red hair dye), albeit fairly. Her intolerance to drugs and complex smuggling ring shows her motherly nature and strong-will. She is cunning, pragmatic, and persuasive. She uses these traits to win the respect of Russian Mafia members that even her husband, Dmitri Reznikov , is unable to win over. Dmitri acts as a foil (opposite despite similar backgrounds) for Red, appearing weak and easily bullied, traits Red desperately avoids.
Red thrives off of her power in the kitchen at Litchfield. Her passion for cooking and need to be in charge of everyone around her is what sustains her through the drudgery of prison life. In spite of her domineering nature, Red is a woman of unwavering integrity who holds herself to the same moral code that she does for everyone else. When Piscatella is interrogating over the dead body in her garden, she steadfastly refuses to name the people involved even when it's made clear that she could be wrongfully charged for the murder.
Her downfall, though, is her obsessions. Season One shows her fixated on a chicken. She abandons her normal pragmatism and rationality to chase after the chicken she had previously believed to be a myth. (“ The Chickening ”) Her need to feel accepted by fellow Russian wives is constant and causes her to lose her cool, leading her to lash out and accidentally pop one of their fake breasts. Her overreaction to their rejection is part of how she ends up in prison because she had a debt to pay off. (“ Tit Punch ”)
She pours her heart and soul into her maternal nature, but, she also focuses her obsessive energy on hatred and revenge. In Season One she obsesses over Pornstache , deciding she wants him “taken down.” She spends Season Two frightened of and preparing herself against Vee . Piscatella becomes her rival/obsession in Season Four . Her hatred for him is so strong that in Season Five she lured him into the prison during the riot, putting herself and everyone else in danger. Season Six shows her hatred now directed towards Frieda . She even abandons her family visit with her son and grandchildren (that she’s never met) because she sees Frieda and runs after her in an attempt to get revenge. (“ Double Trouble ”) She also writes off all the people who name her, calling them “ghosts who should die again with pain.” (“ I'm the Talking Ass ”)
Physical Appearance[
Red has short hair, which is usually dyed red and is styled in a large coif with hair products, giving her her nickname. Before prison, she used to wear her hair long, and it was naturally red in youth.
She also usually wears red lipstick, golden earrings, and spikes out her black eyeliner, just below and above the eye. Her overall appearance is “harsh”, as Piper describes her in Season 3.
She wears a chef’s apron with the nickname “Red” stitched into the pocket in Season 1. When she loses her position in the kitchen, Red starts wearing a grey hoodie. Her vibrant hair is dull and flat at this time, symbolizing her unhappiness over losing her job.
Red wears reading glasses that hang around her neck on a knitted purple string.
In Season 5 she is scalped and most of her hair is gone. Norma wraps a cloth around her head, similar to a bandana. In Storm-y Weather she is wearing a bulletproof jacket.
In season 6 , it appears her bandana has been confiscated and she is called a clown by fellow inmates. However, after her friendship with Carol Denning begins, she is given a new blonde look.
Biography[
For a list of episodes featuring Red's flashbacks, see here .
In the 1970s, Red was a factory worker in Soviet-era Russia. Her boyfriend Dmitri also worked at the factory as a guard, but Red grew bored of their relationship and complained to her friend Nadezhda that he was "a hamster in jackboots". Later, Red blew off a date with Dmitri to go to a secret party with Nadezhda, the attendees of which were university students who rebelled against repressive Soviet society by copying American clothing and dance moves. There, she met the party's host, Pavel, who financed this underground lifestyle by selling Levi's blue jeans (contraband and symbols of "Western decadence", to the Soviet authorities). Red and Pavel began a passionate relationship, and she and Nadezhda contributed to his illicit business by dyeing and selling the jeans. Red fancied herself and Pavel as pioneers of change, until their friends, including Nadezhda, began to disappear - presumably picked up by the KGB in connection with the jeans business. While Red wanted to organize a demonstration for their freedom, Pavel insisted they destroy the jeans and lay low, prompting Red to storm out in disgust at Pavel's sudden timidity when threatened. Back at the factory after Red and Pavel's break-up, Dmitri made a last-ditch attempt to win back Red by proposing they move to the United States together - as the government was allowing Jewish individuals to leave the country, they could pay an agency to "discover" long-lost Jewish relatives and thus obtain visas. Though initially reluctant to marry Dmitri in order to emigrate, Red agreed. (" The Tightening ")
Years later, having settled in the US and remained married, Red and Dmitri owned Dmitri's Russian Market in Astoria, Queens. Dmitri befriended some members of the Russian mob who frequented their business. Red, on the other hand, struggled to befriend their wives. She once went out on an organized walk with the ladies and tried to fit into their group, but the wives patronized her and refused to laugh at her jokes. After discovering that they had excluded her from their next walk, an upset Red confronted and punched the wife of the mob boss, Marina , in the chest, accidentally rupturing a breast implant. Red and Dmitri were forced to pay back a $60,000 debt to the mob boss, Ganya , which led to Dmitri being forced to undertake some extremely unpleasant jobs; for example, implied corpse storage at their business (" Tit Punch ").
Red, after rupturing a mob wife's breast implant (" Tit Punch ").
She later impressed Ganya by offering sound business advice that allowed her to swiftly climb the ranks of the organization - namely, that cafés and restaurants come and go, but businesses such as hospitals and prisons will always exist and are therefore better choices for racketeering (" Moscow Mule ").
Sometime later, at another meeting with Ganya, he and Red discuss Mikhail having a line on the Serb importer, sending a young boy, Ilya, to go with Mikhail and find a man to coax a confession out of him. Before Ganya leaves, Red asks about new business, but Ganya tells her they will discuss that another day. She mentions how a person named Olga mentioned that certain "Retirement Communities" keep popping up all over the place. Ganya says that they can also discuss that next time, and tells her to make some Tea Cakes for the next meeting. He leaves. While Red closes up the store, she tells Ilya that she is the genius behind the operation and that Ganya and his mafia forget that all the time. She mentions a sort of "Prison Contract" stating that was all her idea, and that they present them as their own. She then asks Ilya about the Serb, asking him if he is ready for such a big job. He doesn't answer but asks something about marriage if it's too late to marry Sonya Chekova. His mom thinks Sonya's father could get him a job at a Gem society, but Red says "You don't want to be a Diamond cutter at Zale's", and says that he can do better with Sonya and her underbite. He mentions Vlad having to finish one of Sonya's dates with a tire iron but Red doesn't want to know about that. He presses on. She said maybe she has another job for him, but Ilya says he can handle it. Ilya's mom arrives and he leaves. Red then closes up the shop.
At the next meeting with Ganya, Red says she thinks the plan isn't a good idea. Ganya is very angry and says "Enough is enough" saying it is not her place to question him on how he conducts his business. Red snaps back saying that is why she is sitting at that table, to give advice. Ganya sits back down, and listens, while Red says to not use Ilya for the operation, saying how he is still a boy and is therefore innocent. She says to use other men like Konstantin, who are eager to prove themselves and don't focus on Family as much.
One day later, while talking to Dmitri, Ganya walks in stating that she was right about Ilya, and couldn't use him. He leaves. Red goes to open the Freezer, and finds a body bag, with Ilya revealed inside. Red steps away in complete disarray and sits down on the floor.
Arrival at Litchfield[
Red seemingly arrived at prison at the same time as both Anita DeMarco and Vee (although Vee revealed she had been to Litchfield previously). She explained to Vee that she had connections with Neptune's Produce , a business of Ganya's that supplied the prison with groceries. Vee subsequently suggested that Red use them to smuggle contraband into Litchfield.
Red began working in the kitchen with Norma and successfully smuggled items in for some time. When Vee discovered Red's growing business, she asked for a cut of the business. After Red refused, Vee and her girls violently attacked Red, breaking some of her ribs and puncturing a lung.
Red is feared and respected by most of the prisoners and has a lot of influence over CO Healy . She is close to Nicky and is always accompanied by Norma and Gina. They both cater to her personal needs - such as Norma shaving Red's legs - and work with her in the kitchen.
Red runs a smuggling business out of her kitchen, but she refuses to import drugs of any kind. When Mendez begins to force her to use her connections to bring in drugs, she hatches a plan to have him removed from the prison. She also uses her resources to help some of the inmates overcome drug addictions - as she did once with Nicky and also Tricia - although they have only "two strikes" before she abandons them, which eventually causes Tricia to overdose after her relapse.
She is initially nice to Piper until Piper unknowingly insults her cooking, and in response Red serves her a bloody tampon on her breakfast tray. Red continues to punish her by starvation in order to force her to appreciate her food. Piper eventually repairs their relationship by making an ointment from chilis given to her by Suzanne to help soothe Red's sore back.
Red also has an odd obsession with a chicken that is allegedly seen on the prison grounds from time to time, as she wants to cook "real food" and also wants to absorb its "power". Toward the end of Season One, she is decommissioned from the kitchen by Caputo (after he discovers Mendez's drug smuggling operation, for which Red is blamed) and assigns Gloria as the new Head Chef. In an attempt to take Gloria and her "girls" out of the kitchen she sabotages one of the ovens, inadvertently causing Gina to be badly burnt, which strains her relationship with her "daughters", who isolate her.
Due to Mendez poking around in her kitchen, Red's smuggling business is exposed. She is stripped of her position as head cook, along with the rest of the women working in the kitchen. They are replaced by Gloria and the rest of the Latinos. Red feels as though she has hit rock bottom, as she viewed working in the kitchen the only worthwhile thing for her to do in prison.
Red is jealous and angry because of losing the kitchen. She loses most of her friends and influence in the prison and she is forced to become Piper's new bunkmate. At the same time, she attempts to come to terms with her loss of friends, and in the process joins the " Golden Girls ," a group of older inmates. Upon discovering a disused sewage drain in an abandoned greenhouse in the prison grounds, Red restarts her smuggling business with the help of her son Vasily , using the garden greenhouse as a front.
When Piper is granted a furlough, Red asks her to stop by her market to check on how things are doing. Piper sees the business is closed down, and the space is for lease, but upon returning to prison she lies and tells Red that the business is doing well.
Her old rival Vee has been incarcerated once more at Litchfield, and, although their relationship is initially cordial to the outsider, Vee very quickly begins to undermine Red, leading to a season-long rivalry between the two. In the episode, " It Was The Change ," Red attempts to strangle Vee to death but stops. Soon after, they agree to come to a truce. However, at the end of the episode, Vee slocks Red in the greenhouse, causing trauma to her face and arm and putting her in the prison's hospital ward. Red initially refuses to name Vee but is persuaded to by Sister Ingalls . This, coupled with statements from Vee's rebelling gang, leads Vee to decide to escape down the greenhouse tunnel to avoid extra sentencing and having her sentence tripled for Felony Escape. Vee is then run over by Rosa Cisneros and is presumed dead at the end of Season Two.
At the time of " A Whole Other Hole ", she had been at Litchfield for at least twelve years.
After realizing she doesn't have much time left on her sentence, Red seals up the greenhouse sewage drain with concrete and begins to concern herself with what she will do with herself upon release. Red is visited by her husband and sons on " Mother's Day ". Red's family is concerned when they see the injury sustained when Red was attacked by Vee, but Red assures them she is okay. Red asks her family about the store and is concerned because Mother's Day is usually a large sales day for the store. The family lies and tells them everything is fine and the store is doing well enough that they could afford to close for the day. However, she can sense the lie and she confronts Piper. Red decides that she wants nothing more to do with her husband after this and wants to be divorced., and is also furious at Piper for lying.
After Healy asks Red to translate for his Ukrainian wife, Katya , in an attempt to mend their relationship, Red berates the woman, calling her a "mail-order bride," and defending Heal by saying that he "He is handsome and at least he’s still trying!" Due to her kind words, Healy begins flirting with Red, giving her roses (in a seed packet for the garden). Noticing his change in attitude, Red asks Piper to soften her makeup in order to look “less-harsh”. Healy and Red subtlety start flirting until Healy finds out it was a ploy for Red to once again get work duty in the kitchen. He is hurt and their relationship is somewhat strained afterward.
When Nicky is sent to Max because of the drug crimes she committed with Luschek , Red is seen as the caring mother that she was in Season One, and is deeply concerned by Nicky’s departure.
Red does eventually replace Gloria Mendoza as Head Chef (Thanks to Healy’s interference with Caputo ). Red is placed in a lowly position washing dishes at first, then takes over when Mendoza quits. She was, however, only allowed one day before MCC 's new boil-in-the-bag meal plan was implemented, and prison food quickly becomes unbearable - so much so that a new currency of ramen packets to add taste to the "food" is introduced. Red is adamant that everyone in the prison know that the meals are not her doing, and eventually she starts cooking special dinners with vegetables from the garden she started with the Golden Girls , to which tickets are available by lottery.
At the wedding of Lorna Morello , Red is asked to be a witness. Sam Healy is also present, and they share a meaningful look during the ceremony. They are both in tears when Lorna and Vinny say their vows. After the ceremony, Red gives Healy her paper bouquet from the service and tells him: “Our ships passed too late in the night”, implying that they can never be a couple. This suggests that Red did have some romantic inclinations towards Healy after all.
Season Four[
Red begins the season seething with jealousy about the presence of celebrity chef inmate Judy King , especially after Judy is invited by Healy to pick the food growing in the greenhouse, and Red is then told Judy will be joining the gardening group. She tampers with King's food, adding a laxative to her meals.
Red's attention turns to Alex after Alex seeks her help and confesses her and Lolly Whitehill 's killing of Aydin Bayat and his subsequent burial in the garden. Alex tells her Frieda Berlin helped them dispose of the body, and wants to kill an increasingly erratically-behaving Lolly before she confesses, so Red becomes involved in a bid to redirect Frieda's attention elsewhere.
When new construction foreman Leon McDonald attempts to remove the garden for more space for a construction site, he inadvertently digs up the dead body. CO Piscatella holds an interrogation against Caputo 's orders, questioning any inmates with violent pasts. During the investigation, Red, Alex, and Piper meet in Frieda's bunk to discuss what to do if they're questioned. The group believes Frieda will be investigated due to her murderous past, of which Frieda says she murdered four people one year. A CO comes to collect the questioned inmates, and instead of Frieda, Piscatella wants Red. It is revealed that there were five dead bodies found in Red's refrigerator outside of prison, and later, during an inspection of Red's bunk and office, the COs find the keys of the murdered officer. Although Red merely claimed the keys after the event, this is considered enough evidence to convict her. However, Healy reveals Lolly confessed to him some time ago and she is taken away to the psychiatric ward. Piscatella reveals his hatred of Red during this period and it becomes the start of his brutal campaign against her.
As the investigation comes to an end, Red attempts to sleep but Piscatella punishes her by ordering her to stay awake at all times.
Prompted by Taystee , the leaders of the various factions within the inmate population arrange to come together to discuss how to get rid of the abusive COs; Red says that Piscatella, as the captain, needs to go. They meet in the library - Red, Maria Ruiz for the Spanish Harlem , Taystee for the Black Girls , Kasey Sankey for the White Power Group and Stephanie Hapakuka for the "others'. They discuss various options. Red suggests killing Piscatella, but Hapakuka said she was in prison in Hawaii before being transferred to Litchfield and there the prisoners had staged a peaceful protest, which worked. The group agrees on the course of action, but discussions fall apart when they cannot agree on who should lead it.
Piscatella later catches an exhausted Red dozing in her kitchen office, and drags her out and makes her an example in front of the Litchfield inmates. He then tosses her on the ground to the shock and disgust of all the inmates. As he exits the cafeteria, Flores stands on a table in protest (as she had previously been made to do so as punishment for deliberately not showering). Piper joins, followed by Taystee, Alex, and the rest of the women in the cafeteria. Red joins them. The entire inmate population peacefully protest and tell Piscatella that they will not get down until he resigns. Piscatella orders the COs to drag the inmates off of the tables. In the ensuing chaos, Poussey Washington is accidentally suffocated to death by CO Bayley .
In the aftermath, Red reads a gardening book Poussey recommended to her to Alex, Piper, Morello, Nicky, Frieda, Norma, Gina, and Anita. She says they will rebuild the garden in Poussey's memory and gives them all jobs to do. After they have all left, she confides in Frieda that a good way to keep her prison family out of trouble is to keep them busy.
She also goes to see Sam Healy , telling him that they (the inmates) need him now more than ever. Sam is deranged, having attempted to commit suicide the previous evening. No more between Red and Healy is seen as he goes to a psychiatric hospital.
When Caputo announces Poussey's death on the news, but does not name her and defends Bayley, Taystee incites a riot. Red joins all the inmates (except Piper, Alex, Sophia, Gloria, and Chang) as they race towards his office, but they stop in the hallways when they meet Judy King - who is being released early - flanked by two COs. One CO, Thomas Humphrey , brandishes a gun but Maritza sees and pushes him over. The gun slides over to Daya who aims it at him as the inmates scream at her to shoot him. Red exclaims "Shit, here it is" about the event that is sure to change Litchfield forever.
As the situation in Litchfield devolves into a full-blown riot and all the inmates carve out their own footholds in a newly guard-less prison, Red secludes herself in Piscatella's office to search for information to use in her campaign to oust him. She is joined by Blanca, who stays and helps. Fueled by a "natural" energy supplement found in one of the lockers, the two comb through all the files in the office, initially turning up nothing damning against him. They do, however, find an album of Piscatella's "tablescapes" - elaborate table arrangements incorporating various themes and perfectly matched decorations and fabrics - which they hang around the prison, outing Piscatella as gay. Eventually finding Piscatella's file, the two women are horrified to find out that an inmate died while Piscatella was the guard on duty at his old prison, though he himself never faced charges. Furious that he was allowed to work at Litchfield in spite of this, Red and Blanca resolve to get rid of him by forcing him to publicly confess to murder.
Red and Blanca plan to lure Piscatella inside the prison by texting him with a cell phone belonging to CO Humphrey, then catch him in a booby-trap. In order to unlock Humphrey's phone, they need his thumbprint. Humphrey, having been shot by Daya and then suffered a stroke after Maureen Kukudio blew air bubbles into his IV system, is lying catatonic in medical. While Blanca distracts the attending nurse, Red attempts to unlock the phone, but bungles the job and ends up just cutting off the tip of Humphrey's thumb to keep for easier access. After setting up a rendezvous with Piscatella via text, the two women show up - visibly jittery and with a piece of severed thumb in tow - at the pharmacy cage to ask Nicky and Lorna for needles to use in their booby trap. Nicky inspects the "energy supplements" that Red and Blanca have been taking, which turn out to be prescription-grade amphetamines, and immediately dismisses Red and Blanca's plan as crazy. Despite Red's protests that Piscatella is coming inside the prison, Nicky insists that Red relax and sleep off the drugs.
Unbeknownst to the inmates, Piscatella does indeed sneak inside the prison, despite Lorna-posing-as-Humphrey texting him not to. In horror movie slasher-style, Piscatella stays hidden and starts to snatch members of Red's "family" one-by-one, stowing them in a storage room. Only Red remains on guard. Finally, she stumbles upon the storage room and attempts to free Piscatella's captives, now including Nicky, Carrie "Big Boo" Black , Blanca, Alex, and Piper. Red is captured as well and humiliated in front of the others, with Piscatella hacking off large chunks of her hair while heaping verbal abuse at her. The group is saved by Frieda, Gina, Erica "Yoga" Jones , and Anita DeMarco , who have been riding out the riot in a bunker of Frieda's design - the entrance to which is hidden in a locker, fortuitously in the same storage closet where Piscatella has been torturing the captives. Piscatella himself is temporarily knocked out with a blow dart and restrained, but Nicky stops Red from harming him.
A short time later, law enforcement in SWAT gear storms the prison to stop the stand-off. Located in the bunker - actually an old, long-drained swimming pool in a basement area - Red and many of the others initially remain hidden as no one thinks to look there. However, after a tip from Caputo, the SWAT team makes their way toward the hidden refuge with the intent to clear out the bunker through any means necessary. With time running short and the threat of violence hanging over all of their heads, Red frees Piscatella in an act of mercy and waits with the others for the team to arrive. Red's fate - and the fate of the others in the bunker - are unclear as the SWAT team's first stun grenade goes off.
In Season 6, we first see Red dressed as a Russian clown in one of Suzanne Warren ’s fantasies, and Red introduces a clown called Denial. When the fantasy is over, it shows Red in her prison cell in Ad-Seg along with Black Cindy , Frieda , Taystee , Piper , Blanca , Nicky , and Gloria .
In her interrogation, Red discovers that Piscatella is dead. She tries to warn the girls but Nicky is the only one who gets the message. Piper misinterprets Red's message and thinks that Alex is dead. Red is angry when Nicky says she has to testify against her. However, she later gives Nicky her blessing. Piper, Nicky and Frieda betray Red during their interrogations, and do not consult her prior. After her and Nicky talk,
Red is forced to sign a plea, crying while signing it. Red is sent to C-block. Piper tries to apologise and Red doesn't really speak. She later also loses Blanca as a friend as she got angry that Blanca didn't get any more time. She rings Vasily, stating she doesn't trust anyone anymore. (" State of the Uterus ")
She begins hanging out with Alana Dwight and Zirconia , calling them nobodies which they agree with. There, she tries to find the woman that Frieda betrayed 30 years ago so that they can get revenge on her together. She meets Calloway , Claire St. John , Mandy Walsh Baker before insulting Carol by accident in front of Sally Jo . She learns that it's Carol , the leader of C-block. Later, Red walks into C-Block and Carol and Sally Jo stare at her. She walks briskly away and hides in her cell with a book. Red gasps when Jo enters and states that Red needs to come with her. Red states she's busy and Sally Jo takes the book and rips it in half. Red follows her. She escorts Red with Carol to the Salon and guards the door once Red enters. She watches as Carol and The Brown Twins interrogate Red. Red explains herself and her hair is fixed by the twins. Her and Carol become friends because of their shared hate of Frieda. (" Gordons ")
Red's son Vasily comes to visit her and tells her about how her husband is seeing someone else. He also tells her that the rest of the family doesn't want to see her either. She shares this with Carol who promotes Red to be her new partner. Red is offended after Silka Webb states that Junkie's always blame someone else (about Barb), she was likely indirectly standing up for Nicky. She says that family always blames the family. Carol says the problem with family is expectations. Carol says forget unconditional love that hate keeps her warm at night. Red says that in Russia they have a saying, "Those who love you will make you weep, those who you hate will make you laugh." Carol says she doesn't even have to translate because she hears her loud and clear. Carol makes Silka Webb move so that Red can sit across from her declaring that Red is her partner now. (" Break the String ")
Red and Carol are in the showers when Carol offers her some alcohol thats hidden in an shampoo bottle. Red doesn't like it as it tastes like shampoo but Carol says thats necessary if the COs check. Carol proposes to prank Alana, Red stands up for her saying that would be "just mean" and Carol says it's meaner to pretend to be nice first. She lies to Alana, saying she's getting out, Alana rushes out excited and thanks Carol. Red later is called over by Nicky and sneaks around to see her. Red states she hates Badison. Nicky warns her about Carol, but Red calls Carol real and they argue about Carol and Barbara.(" Chocolate Chip Nookie ")
Red and Carol think of ways to kill Frieda, Carol decides to get a Florida Girl to kill her, but Red wanted something more dramatic. They later go to the salon together and are targeted by D-Block. Nicky tries to protect Red when CO Ginger discovers the note. CO Young takes Carol to AdSeg. (" Well This Took a Dark Turn" ")
Red gets angry at Carol, who arrives back from AdSeg, saying she needs to kill Barbara and that she has better things to do than kill Frieda. This upsets Red who insults Badison in front of her. She complains about Carol abandoning killing Frieda at night to Alana. Alana in return tells Red about how breaking her nose multiple times has fixed her snoring, and how she lost her smell. She advices Red to let go of anger, but Red ignores her advice.
Then Red tells Alana that Carol was lying about the early release, and Alana shows a rare moment of anger, calling Carol a bitch. (" Double Trouble ")
Later, Red and Alana are playing cards when D. Stefanovic tells Red her (grand)children are there to visit her, Alana tells her the kosmos is rewarding her for letting go of anger. Red is very excited, and talks to Kelly Lee Glenna about how she has never seen them, their age and how she is worried as she don't know what they like. She sees Frieda and frantically decides to attempt to strangle her, crying and asking why, until Stefanovic pulls her away and takes her to SHU. As Red cries, Frieda is given dirty looks by the inmates. Vasily, his girlfriend and children wait but sadly don't get to see her. (" Double Trouble ")
Red later talks to Gloria through SHU's vent. (" Be Free ")
Red is in still in the SHU after attacking Freida in season six. Gloria, who is in the cell beside her, talks to her and encourages her to exercise and keep her spirits up, but Red appears to be very depressed. They bond over their love of cooking. (" Beginning of the End ")
Red is released from the SHU when the new warden Tamika Ward shuts it down. She is asked to run the kitchen at the ICE detention facility, but refuses, suggesting Gloria for the job instead. Gloria later speaks to Red in the laundry room, asking her why she didn't want the kitchen job. Red responds that she doesn't think she can do it because the time she spent in the SHU changed her. Gloria convinces Red to join her in the kitchen, saying it'll be like old times. Red mentions bringing Norma and Gina back and Gloria has to remind her they were transferred to a different prison. (" And Brown Is the New Orange ")
In the kitchen, Gloria teaches Nicky how to cut onions, and Red can be seen watching her and copying her actions. She then starts to take charge of the kitchen, giving the other inmates orders. She speaks to Nicky in the van on the way back to the prison, saying it felt good and that "people need a purpose". Later on in the episode, she forgets what she was saying mid-sentence when telling Nicky to be careful with the chicken. (" How to Do Life ")
Red appears to be irritated with Gloria when she prioritises helping Blanca and Maritza over the kitchen work. She puts too much salt in the stew, and blames Gloria, saying she put in the correct amount. She then gets upset as she feels like no one else cares about making sure the food is cooked well. Later, she notices some pasta left out and asks Lorna what it's for, who replies that it was for the casserole. Red claims she already put some in, but then quickly goes over to the oven when no one is watching to add the pasta. The other kitchen staff comment on the uncooked pasta, and Red gets angry, taking it out on Nicky and Gloria and blaming them for being incompetent. (" Minority Deport ")
While cooking, Red is seen to be checking a list of instructions she has written. Lorna tries to talk to her while she is cooking, but Red doesn't seem to be able to pay attention to anything she says. Later, when Nicky and Shani Abboud go into the freezer to have sex, they find Red shivering in the corner. (" Me as Well ")
Nicky asks Red why she was in the freezer, who claims that she was just looking for something and wasn't in there for that long. Nicky brings up her concerns about Red's wellbeing, but Red appears to not want to discuss it. The next day, she tells Nicky she is feeling much better and was just tired. She asks Nicky to send a letter to someone from her past. Shani sees Nicky with the letter, and they have a conversation about Red where Shani suggests that she may have dementia. Nicky speaks to the woman the letter was addressed to over the phone as she couldn't find an address to send it to. It is revealed that Red sent her the exact same letter ten years ago. Nicky suggests that Red should see a doctor, and Red gets angry, calling her opening the letter a "betrayal", and declaring that she is done with Nicky. (" Baker's Dozen ")
Red is taken to medical after cutting her hand. Nicky goes with her, but Red tells her to leave her alone. Nicky speaks to the staff at medical, and tells them about Red's memory issues and mood swings. Nicky is later called back into medical, where a doctor diagnoses Red with early onset dementia, which has rapidly progressed due to delirium as a result of being kept in the SHU, as well as an untreated urinary tract infection. Nicky cries and hugs Red, as they both apologise to each other. (" The Thirteenth ")
During Tamika's party, Nicky finds Red sitting alone. They talk about Morello, and Nicky asks Red how she became such a good prison mom. Red responds that she didn't always know what to do, but she figured it out. She gives Nicky advice on how to deal with Morello, telling her that "there's strength in admitting what you can't do". She then asks Nicky to get Norma, Gina and Tricia so they can start preparing dinner. (" The Big House ")
Red is transferred to the Florida block and bumps into Frieda Berlin. Berlin makes Red drop her tray of food.
Red apologises to Frieda, and Frieda is taken aback by this. They end up eating lunch together and become friends again for a few hours before Red remembers what Frieda did to her. Red then proceeds to run after Frieda who closes her cell door, with Red saying "I'll kill you!". In the final moments of the series, Red is seen comforting Morello in a haunting scene, as Nicky takes over her role of "prison mom" - taking charge of the ICE kitchen and helping the detainees through detox, while wearing red lipstick and nail polish. (" Here's Where We Get Off ")
Relationships[
Family[
Dmitri Reznikov (ex-husband) - She married Dmitri because he promised to take her to America, although she was quite reluctant to do so. Later, while living in America, it was likely his involvement with the mafia that got Red arrested. Though they didn’t divorce, Red all but cut him out from her life, and it is revealed in Season 6 that he is seeing someone else.
Kolya (grandson)
Unnamed granddaughter
Friends[
Nicky Nichols - Her most loyal girl and an ex-junkie who Red reformed prior to the series. Nicky and Red refer to each other as mother and daughter and are extremely close. However, when Tricia is forcefully ejected from the family for drug use and subsequently dies from an overdose, Nicky turns on Red in a moment of rebellious outrage by telling Mendez how the older woman smuggles in her goods. In Season Four, Nicky starts using drugs again in Max before being transferred back to Minimum Security. Red is at a loss as to how to help Nicky, as her previous method with Tricia resulted in Tricia's death. Nicky later looks out for Red in season 5 when she is withdrawing from pills. In S6 , Nicky is faced with many years unless she testifies against Red. She informs Red who is angered, but eventually Red gives her her blessing to testify. Later, they are in different cell blocks and Nicky looks out for Red by alerting CO Copeland of the planned hit on Carol and her.
Norma Romano - Part of Red's "family, Norma is a mute woman who is Red's longest-standing friend in the prison. She frequently acts as a servant as well as a friend, doing personal care such as shaving Red's legs. In Season Three, their relationship is strained when Norma becomes head of a cult within the prison, and the dynamics of their friendship are altered.
Gina Murphy - Friend and helper in the kitchen, and part of Red's "family". Their relationship is almost destroyed when Red inadvertently causes Gina to be seriously burned in a kitchen fire, however, the two eventually reconcile when Red finally apologizes.
Miss Claudette - Friend and occasional helper in the kitchen, the two bond over their mutual jadedness towards the younger inmates' drama. Claudette is perhaps the only inmate who can rival Red's cooking skills.
Lorna Morello - Also one of Red's girls, she can be considered second only to Nicky in terms of the Russian's command. During the WAC elections, Red had put her bid in for Lorna rather than Nicky, surprising the latter.
Piper Chapman - (strained) Despite her initial dislike of Piper, the two become closer when forced to share a bunk in Season Two. Red often offers Piper sage and bluntly honest advice. Piper betrays Red in season 6, and later apologises. Red doesn't seem to hate her, but still is very angry with her due to it.
Alex Vause - Alex and Red enjoyed a cordial relationship before Season Four when Alex came to Red for help in keeping Aydin 's murder a secret. Although Red initially questions Alex as to why she should help, saying Alex isn't one of her girls, she eventually aids Alex. In " Toast Can't Never Be Bread Again ", Alex is seen in a gathering of Red's family, suggesting that she has been accepted into Red's Family .
Gloria Mendoza - Red's replacement for her job in the kitchen and later friend in Season 2-4. Bestfriends in Season Seven .
Tricia Miller - Like Nicky, she was a recovering addict who considered Red her prison mom. After Tricia's body is found, Red feels it was her fault because it was made to look like an overdose.
Sam Healy - They have been friends for a long time with the hint of a deeper relationship in Season 3. They have helped each other in the past; Red has translated for his Ukrainian wife and he, in turn, has given her special privileges in prison.
Alana Dwight - They hang out after Red's family betrays her and also when she stops being friends with Carol. She also stood up for Alana when Carol wanted to play a prank on her.
Zirconia - They hang out after Red's family betrays her
Carol Denning † - Carol and Red became friends when Red searched for the person that shared the same anger and resentment towards Frieda.
Calloway - They bonded over the hate of alphabet soup.
Enemies[
Piper Chapman (former) - Piper unknowingly insulted her cooking on her first day in prison. Red starves her out for a few days until Piper creates a lotion made of pepper juice for her aching back which mends their relationship.
George Mendez - Red's arch nemesis in Season One. When a picture of an inmate's vagina is accidentally leaked and found on a porn site, Mendez, also known as Pornstache, is forced to stall his drug dealing business in the prison whilst searching for the source of an unauthorized camera or cell phone brought in by an illegal smuggling ring. Worried that it might be drawn back to him, Mendez looks to alternative means and decides to merge his own dealings with Red. However, due to Red's harsh views on drug use, Mendez must find a way to coerce her into cooperation: by finding out how exactly Red manages to bring her goods into Litchfield. With Nicky's help, Pornstache figures out that it is through Neptune's Produce (using previous connections to the Russian mob) and manages to force Red into accepting a merging of their interests, much to her disgust. Red retaliated by orchestrating a plan to pin the pregnancy of Dayanara Diaz on Pornstache, so that the actual father, John Bennett , would not get discovered. After Joe Caputo discovers Pornstache and Daya having sex, Pornstache is placed on administrative leave, and Red lets him know that she was involved in his suspension. He returns to the prison temporarily but is subsequently fired and arrested when it is discovered by the prison administration that Daya is pregnant.
Yvonne "Vee" Parker † - An inmate who came to Litchfield around the beginning of Red's sentence. Vee advised Red to take advantage of her connections with Neptune's Produce, a vendor for the prison. Red was hesitant to break the rules since breaking them is what put her in prison in the first place. Vee explained the situation as one of survival, and Red took her advice. Red trusted Vee as a friend, but Vee betrayed her in order to take control of the operation for herself. When Red refused to give up control, Vee and her gang attacked her and broke some of her ribs. Vee was released some time later. In Season Two, Vee has been incarcerated once more at Litchfield, and, although their relationship is initially cordial to the outsider, Vee very quickly begins to undermine Red, leading to a season-long rivalry between the two. In the episode, " It Was The Change ," Red attempts to strangle Vee to death but stops. Soon after, they agree to come to a truce. However, at the end of the episode, Vee slocks Red in the greenhouse, causing trauma to her face and arm and putting her in the prison's hospital ward. Red initially refuses to name Vee but is persuaded to by Sister Ingalls . This, coupled with statements from Vee's rebelling gang, causes Vee to escape down the greenhouse tunnel to avoid being transferred to Max and getting her sentence tripled for Felony Escape. Vee is then hit by Rosa Cisneros in the prison van as she is escaping as well and is presumed dead at the end of Season Two. Red then fills up the tunnel used for smuggling contraband and that Vee used for escape with cement and then writes "RIP V".
Black Girls (former) - Rivaled with them in S2 while they were under Vee's leadership.
Desi Piscatella † - In Season Four, Piscatella targets Red, among others. After she refuses to co-operate with his investigation into the body found in the garden, he forces her to stay awake for days. His treatment of Red and the other inmates causes the inmates to rebel in " The Animals ". In Season Five, Piscatella captures Red and some of her family and subjects them to torture.
Frieda Berlin - Frieda betrayed Red during interrogation.
Blanca Flores - Red is angered when she hears that Blanca got no extra time for actually inciting the riot, where as Red got time for that when she didn't.
Memoir[
In the memoir " Orange is the New Black: My Year in a Women’s Prison " on which the television series is loosely based, the character of "Red" is based on a real-life prison inmate who is nicknamed "Pop," also Russian :“the imposing fiftyish wife of agangster who ruled the kitchen with an iron fist” — and Kerman becomes one of Pop’s “children.”"Pop" was in charge of the kitchen at Danbury Federal Correctional Institution, the prison where author Piper Kerman served a one year sentence for drug smuggling and money laundering. Like in the TV series, Kerman also insulted Pop's cooking, but received nothing more than a reprimand:
"Listen, honey, I know you just got here, so I know that you don’t understand what’s what. I’m gonna tell you this once. There’s something here called “inciting a riot,” and that kind of shit you’re talking about… you can get in big trouble for that… so take a tip from me, and watch what you say."
— Pop
Kerman and "Pop" eventually got along and created a strong bond. The Memoir is, in fact, dedicated to "Pop". The character of "Red" is one of only a handful of characters from the TV series to be loosely based on a real-life person.
Trivia[
Red's father used to call her solnyshko, which means "little sun" in Russian, as mentioned in " (Don't) Say Anything ".
She doesn't like Polish people, as mentioned in Riot FOMO
It is revealed she is developing dementia after the isolation in the SHU accelerating it.
Red is the first character to tell the "eggplant" joke, the others being Cesar Velazquez , Nicky Nichols and Josh .
Red is the show's tritagonist. With other words, the third most important character for the story.
Memorable Quotes[
"I'm missing half my zucchini. These girls don't realize I'm here to provide food, not dildos. I'm all out of cucumbers, carrots, beets -- God knows what they're doing with those. I can't hold on to anything cock-shaped."
— Red
"You've gotta hit rock bottom before you know which direction to go in."
— Red
" Real Russians have no proverbs. We have vodka and Misery. Oh wait... That is a proverb."
— Red
— Red
— Red
"What do you want? A medal? A sticker that says, 'Great Job'?"
— Red
"All I wanted was to eat the chicken that is smarter than other chickens and to absorb its power."
"2 strikes, that's all she gets. Russians don't play baseball.""
— Red
"I married a pillow. Soft, lumpy and always lying behind my back."
— Red to Healy
— Red to Piper
"Happily ever after was invented for the storybooks so kids reach breeding age without killing themselves."
— Red to Healy while discussing marriage
"When God gives you a swastika, he opens a window. And then you remember... there is no God."
— Red
"You're one of those people who wants the world to be perfect but you're not willing to lift a finger to help it along."
"Honey, you don't drink poison and wait for it to kill your enemy. Stop hitting walls, and plot your revenge."
"Oh, you finally grew a dick, did you?"
— Red after Nicky tells her of her plan to impregnate Blanca .
Gallery[
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48 | who plays red on orange is new black | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Mulgrew | Kate Mulgrew
37 languages
American actress (born 1955)
Born
Thomas James "T.J." Mulgrew Jr. (father)
Joan Virginia Mulgrew (née Kiernan) (mother)
Katherine Kiernan Maria Mulgrew (born April 29, 1955) [1] is an American actress and author. She is best known for her roles as Captain Kathryn Janeway in Star Trek: Voyager and Red in Orange Is the New Black . She first came to attention in the role of Mary Ryan in the daytime soap opera Ryan's Hope .
Mulgrew is the recipient of a Critics' Choice Award , a Saturn Award , and an Obie Award , and has also received Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations. She is a member of the Alzheimer's Association National Advisory Council and the voice of Cleveland's MetroHealth System . Beginning in 2021, Mulgrew reprised her role as Janeway in the animated series Star Trek: Prodigy .
Early life
Mulgrew was born in 1955 in Dubuque, Iowa , to Thomas James "T.J." Mulgrew Jr., a contractor, and Joan Virginia Mulgrew (née Kiernan), an artist and painter. [2] She was the second of eight children. [3] She attended Wahlert High School in Dubuque. [4] She was born with a full set of teeth. [5] [6]
At the age of 17, Mulgrew was accepted at the Stella Adler Conservatory of Acting in New York, conjoined with New York University in New York City. She supported herself by working as a waitress. [7] She left NYU after one year. [8]
Mulgrew's early career included portraying Mary Ryan for two years in the ABC soap Ryan's Hope (1975). She became a fan favorite and remained associated with the show long after its cancellation. She remained friends with former co-star Ilene Kristen and presented a special Soap Opera Digest Award to Ryan's Hope creator Claire Labine in 1995. While in Ryan's Hope, she also played Emily Webb in the American Shakespeare Theatre production of Our Town in Stratford, Connecticut . She played ambitious country singer Garnet McGee in a November 1978 episode of Dallas . In 1979–1980, she played Kate Columbo in Mrs. Columbo , a spin-off of the detective series Columbo created specifically for her, which lasted 13 episodes.
In 1981, Mulgrew co-starred with Richard Burton and Nicholas Clay in the Arthurian love triangle Lovespell as Irish princess Isolt, who casts a spell on Mark, King of Cornwall, and his surrogate son, Tristan. In the same year she also co-starred with Pierce Brosnan in the six-hour miniseries Manions of America , about Irish immigrants in 19th-century America. In 1985, she appeared in Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins as Major Fleming. In 1986, she appeared in a run of Cheers episodes as Janet Eldridge. [9] In 1987, she appeared in Throw Momma from the Train as Margaret, Billy Crystal 's character's ex-wife.
In 1992, Mulgrew appeared on Murphy Brown as Hillary Wheaton, a Toronto -based anchorwoman brought in to replace Murphy during her maternity leave, but who turned out to have the same problem with alcoholism as Brown dealt with at the beginning of the series. Also in 1992, Mulgrew had a guest-starring role as a soap opera star in Murder, She Wrote , episode number 170, "Ever After". At around the same time she guest-starred in three episodes of Batman: The Animated Series as the terrorist Red Claw.
Star Trek: Voyager (1994–2001)
In 1994, Mulgrew received a call to take the part of Captain Kathryn Janeway in Star Trek: Voyager . She had auditioned for the role (originally named Elizabeth Janeway) when producers announced casting. She submitted a videotaped audition which she made in New York City in August 1994. Unhappy with the tape, she auditioned in person a few weeks later. That day, film actress Geneviève Bujold was selected to play Janeway (suggesting Nicole as the character's new first name), but left the role after two days of filming, realizing that the amount of work required for an episodic television show was too demanding. Mulgrew was then offered the role, which she accepted, and later suggested Kathryn as the character's final first name. [10]
Mulgrew made history in the Star Trek franchise when she became the first female captain as a series regular in a leading role. Voyager was the first show broadcast on the new UPN channel, the only series renewed after the channel's first programming season, and its only show to run for seven seasons. Mulgrew won the Saturn Award for "Best TV Actress" in 1998 for her performances as Janeway. [11]
Mulgrew voiced the character of Janeway for various Star Trek video games: Star Trek: Captain's Chair, a virtual-reality tour of various Starfleet vessels for home computers; the Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force series; Star Trek: Legacy , which featured all of the captains up to that point (2006); and Star Trek Online .
About her years on Voyager, Mulgrew said:
I'm proud of it. It was difficult; it was hard work. I'm proud of the work because I think I made some minor difference in women in science . I grew to really love Star Trek: Voyager, and out of a cast of nine, I've made three great friends, I managed to raise two children. I think, "It's good. I used myself well." [12]
Speaking about the best and worst part about playing a Star Trek captain, she said:
The best thing was simply the privilege and the challenge of being able to take a shot at the first female captain, transcending stereotypes that I was very familiar with. I was able to do that in front of millions of viewers. That was a remarkable experience—and it continues to resonate. The downside of that is also that it continues to resonate, and threatens to eclipse all else in one's long career if one does not up the ante and stay at it, in a way that may not ordinarily be necessary. I have to work at changing and constantly reinventing myself in a way that probably would not have happened had Star Trek not come along. I knew that going in, and I think that all of the perks attached to this journey have been really inexpressively great. So the negatives are small. [12]
During Voyager, Mulgrew also played Titania in the animated series Gargoyles (with fellow Star Trek actors Marina Sirtis and Jonathan Frakes ) and Victoria Riddler in the television film Riddler's Moon .
Since Voyager and her subsequent Star Trek appearances, Mulgrew has appeared at Star Trek conventions and events around the world.
She returned to voice the role of Janeway as a training hologram and the real Vice-Admiral Janeway (commanding the USS Dauntless and USS Voyager-A) in the animated series Star Trek: Prodigy . [13] [14]
After Voyager (2001–2012)
Mulgrew (l.) with an early photograph in Prague , 2011
When Voyager came to an end after seven full seasons, Mulgrew returned to theater, and in 2003 starred in a one-woman play called Tea at Five , a monologue reminiscence based on Katharine Hepburn 's memoir Me: Stories of My Life. [15] Tea at Five was a critical success and Mulgrew received two awards, one from Carbonell (Best Actress) and the other from Broadway.com (Audience Award for Favorite Solo Performance). Mulgrew kept active in doing voice-over work for video games, most notably voicing the mysterious Flemeth in the Dragon Age video game series, a role she described as "delicious". [16]
Mulgrew returned to television in 2006, guest-starring in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit . Mulgrew performed in The Exonerated at the Riverside Studios in London, England.
In early 2007, she appeared in the NBC television series The Black Donnellys as Helen Donnelly, which lasted for one season. She also performed the lead role in an off-Broadway production called Our Leading Lady written by Charles Busch in which she earned a nomination from the Drama League for her performance. [17] Also in that year, Mulgrew played Clytemnestra in New York for Charles L. Mee's Iphigenia 2.0. She won the Obie Award for outstanding performance. [18]
In June 2008, Mulgrew appeared in Equus on Broadway, playing Hesther Saloman, a public official who is empathetic toward the play's central character. The play opened on September 5, 2008, for a limited 22-week engagement through February 8, 2009. [19] Also in 2008, Mulgrew filmed the 30-minute courtroom drama The Response, which is based on actual transcripts of the Guantanamo Bay tribunals. It was researched and fully vetted in conjunction with the University of Maryland School of Law and was shot in three days. Mulgrew portrays Colonel Sims and the other cast members, the crew, and she agreed to defer their salaries to cover the production costs. The film has been screened at a number of sites and is available on DVD. [20]
In 2009, Mulgrew appeared in the NBC medical series Mercy , playing the recurring role of Jeannie Flanagan (the mother of the show's lead, Veronica). [21] Released in 2010, the film The Best and Brightest , a comedy based in the world of New York City's elite private kindergartens, featured Mulgrew as the Player's wife.
Mulgrew with Patrick Stewart appearing at Destination Star Trek London in 2012.
Also in 2010, she starred as Cleopatra in William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra at Hartford Stage. [22]
In 2011, Mulgrew appeared in the feature-length documentary The Captains . The film, written and directed by William Shatner , follows Shatner as he interviews each of the actors who succeeded him playing a lead-role Starfleet captain within the Star Trek franchise. [23] During that same year, on another science-fiction series, she began a recurring guest-starring role on the third season of the series Warehouse 13 , as the mother of one of the main characters. [24]
From July 2011 to December 2013, Mulgrew appeared as the main cast member on Adult Swim 's NTSF:SD:SUV:: as Kove, the leader of the titular terrorism-fighting unit and ex-wife of series lead Paul Scheer 's character.
Orange Is the New Black and other work (2013–present)
Mulgrew starred as inmate Galina "Red" Reznikov in the Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black , the role for which she was nominated for her first Primetime Emmy Award in 2014. [25] The popular character was re-signed for seasons two through seven. On working in the series, she was reunited with her Mercy co-star Taylor Schilling .
In 2014, Mulgrew narrated a documentary film, The Principle , that aims to promote the discredited idea of the geocentric model . Mulgrew said that she was misinformed as to the purpose of the documentary, going on to say "I am not a geocentrist, nor am I in any way a proponent of geocentrism... I do not subscribe to anything Robert Sungenis has written regarding science and history, and had I known of his involvement, would most certainly have avoided this documentary." [26] [27]
Mulgrew starred in the fall 2024 Off-Broadway production by the Irish Repertory Theatre of The Beacon by playwright Nancy Harris . [28]
Personal life
Mulgrew became pregnant while acting in the lead role of Mary Ryan in Ryan's Hope. "I was single, alone, and flooded with terror. But I knew I would have that baby", Mulgrew said. She placed her daughter for adoption three days after giving birth in 1977, [6] [29] [30] then in later years, searched for her. "The first man who wanted to explore this with me", said Mulgrew, "was Tim Hagan, who later became my husband." [31]
In 1998, Mulgrew received a call from the daughter she had placed for adoption. Her name is Danielle, and she had started searching for Mulgrew a year earlier. In her 2015 memoir Born with Teeth (which refers to Mulgrew having been born with a full set of neonatal teeth ), Mulgrew tells of her reunion with her daughter in 2001. [32] [33] [34] In 2019, Mulgrew released a second memoir titled How to Forget. [3]
Mulgrew married Robert Egan in 1982. They have two children. The couple separated in 1993. Their divorce became final in 1995. [35] [36]
Mulgrew married Tim Hagan , a former Ohio gubernatorial candidate and a former commissioner of Cuyahoga County, Ohio , in April 1999. [37] In an interview on April 15, 2015, Mulgrew stated that she and Hagan were divorced in 2014. [31]
Mulgrew is Catholic [15] [38] and an opponent of capital punishment. She has previously stated that she is an opponent of abortion and received an award from Feminists for Life , an anti-abortion feminist group and is quoted as saying, "Execution as punishment is barbaric and unnecessary", "Life is sacred to me on all levels", and "Abortion does not compute with my philosophy." [39] However, following the U.S. Supreme Court's decision on Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization , Mulgrew came out with the following statement about women's choice:
"Choice is what lifts us above other animals. If that fundamental right is restricted or removed we are then reduced as a species.
For myself, abortion was not an alternative, but neither was the possibility of living in a society and under the jurisdiction of a coterie of aging Republican men who somehow think they can understand what it is to have a womb. They can't. We must fight for nationwide access to contraception, especially in communities where poverty and race dictate privation. Choice is the fundamental right of every human being, especially women and people who are able to give birth.
We also need more women on the Supreme Court, and we need the conversation between men and women to be better curated than it has ever been before." [40]
Mulgrew is a rape survivor. [6] [9]
Mulgrew is a member of the National Advisory Committee of the Alzheimer's Association . Her mother, Joan Mulgrew, died on July 27, 2006, after a long battle with the disease. [41]
Mrs. Pescoe
2005
Perception
Mary
2008
2016
Susan
Deborah Sampson
Television film
Kendall Murphy
Television film
1994–1995
Voice, episode: "Half Shell Heroes: Blast to the Past" [43]
2017–2018
1976
Kitty Strong
1986
1987
1989
1992
2002
Anastasia
The American Dream and The Sandbox
Mommy
2008–2009
Tea at Five
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Mulgrew, Kate (April 14, 2015). Born with Teeth: A Memoir. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN
.
Mulgrew, Kate (May 21, 2019). How to Forget: A Daughter's Memoir. William Morrow. ISBN
"Kate Mulgrew" . Totally Kate. Retrieved October 10, 2015.
Shatner, William (writer, director) (July 22, 2011). The Captains. Epix (Television production). Le Big Boss Productions.
Sonequa Martin-Green follows Kate Mulgrew as Star Trek's only recipients of a Saturn Award for best leading actor in a television series
"See the Film" . Look at the Moon Productions. Archived from the original on February 27, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2012.
Anthony Mason (April 19, 2015). "Kate Mulgrew's quest" . CBS News. Archived from the original on June 12, 2018. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
Winfrey, Lee (September 11, 1996). "Living long and prospering 'Voyager' honors 30 years of 'Star Trek' with special episode". Kansas City Star. p. F1.
Sweeney, Shari M. (February 2000). "Two to Tango" . Cleveland Magazine. Retrieved June 27, 2012 – via Totally Kate.
Totally Kate. "Catholic Digest" . Totallykate.com. Retrieved August 3, 2016.
"Entertainment: Kate Mulgrew, Actor" (PDF). The American Feminist. Vol. 7, no. 4. Winter 2000–2001. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
^ Born With Teeth: A Memoir by Kate Mulgrew (2015). p. 190
A green check mark indicates that a role has been confirmed using a screenshot (or collage of screenshots) of a title's list of voice actors and their respective characters found in its credits or other reliable sources of information.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Kate Mulgrew .
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49 | what does it cost to play golf at augusta national | https://www.golfmonthly.com/tour/the-masters/how-much-does-it-cost-to-play-augusta-national | Trending
How Much Does It Cost To Play Augusta National?
Augusta National is one of the most exclusive golf courses in the world
(Image credit: Getty Images)
15 March 2023
With its impeccably maintained greens and fairways, quaint bridges and spectacular beds of azaleas , Augusta National is as iconic as the world-renowned tournament it hosts annually, The Masters.
As one of the most exclusive golf courses in the world, it’s hardly surprising that playing a round at Augusta National isn’t easy. But how much can you expect to pay if you do get the chance? Let’s take a look at the options.
There are a few ways to play Augusta National without it costing you anything. One way is, of course, to qualify for The Masters. Another is to work at Augusta National as a caddie, which entitles you to one round a year.
Similarly, other Augusta National employees are also granted a round a year. You can also get a free round as a member of the media working at The Masters, but only if you're selected from a ballot. However, while these potential routes to playing Augusta National are free of charge, they aren’t realistic for many.
One way to guarantee playing a round at Augusta National is to become a member . However, this is far easier said than done - even if you have the money.
The club is privately owned and doesn’t publish its accounts, so putting a precise figure on the cost of joining is near-impossible. Still, the membership fee is thought to be around $40,000, which is not that expensive compared to many other exclusive golf clubs in the US.
In addition, you can expect to pay around $4,000 in annual dues according to various reports. Aside from the expense, there is another problem, though – joining the approximately 300-strong membership is by invite only, and there’s an extensive vetting process even if you get that far.
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For most people, then, the opportunity to play Augusta National will prove elusive – and not just because of the cost.
Indeed, even if you have the financial clout to become a member, with an exclusive membership that reportedly includes billionaires Warren Buffet and Bill Gates, there are no guarantees you’d be able to join.
So, the actual cost of playing Augusta National via the membership route? It could be around $40,000 and an enormous amount of status.
Can You Pay To Play Augusta National?
Unfortunately not. Augusta National is a private club accessible only to club members and guests. There are other ways to play a round at Augusta National, including being an employee or a caddie. However, becoming a member of the club or playing in The Masters or Augusta National Women's Invitational are the only way to guarantee a round.
How Does Augusta National Make Money?
Augusta National reportedly makes around $25 million a year from international broadcast rights. Another lucrative income stream is merchandise, estimated at $50 million per year. Meanwhile, it generates revenue from other areas, including membership fees and ticket sales.
How Can I Play Augusta National?
There are several ways to play Augusta National, including qualifying for The Masters, becoming a member, being a guest of a member and working at Augusta National. Augusta National caddies are also entitled to one round a year, while members of the media are entered into a ballot to play a round the day after The Masters.
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Mike has over 25 years of experience in journalism, including writing on a range of sports throughout that time, such as golf, football and cricket. Now a freelance staff writer for Golf Monthly, he is dedicated to covering the game's most newsworthy stories.
He has written hundreds of articles on the game, from features offering insights into how members of the public can play some of the world's most revered courses, to breaking news stories affecting everything from the PGA Tour and LIV Golf to developmental Tours and the amateur game.
Mike grew up in East Yorkshire and began his career in journalism in 1997. He then moved to London in 2003 as his career flourished, and nowadays resides in New Brunswick, Canada, where he and his wife raise their young family less than a mile from his local course.
Kevin Cook’s acclaimed 2007 biography, Tommy’s Honour, about golf’s founding father and son, remains one of his all-time favourite sports books.
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Cost for a round at Augusta ?
New golf fan, after watching The Masters this weekend, (awesome!) does any know what it costs to play a round of golf at Augusta ? Thnx
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49 | what does it cost to play golf at augusta national | https://fansided.com/2023/04/08/augusta-national-golf-club-par-location-cost-members-hole-names-masters/ | Augusta National Golf Club: What is par, how much does it cost to play, hole names and more for The Masters home
Augusta National Golf Club is the home of The Masters and hallowed ground in golf. Here is a look at the par, the cost to play, membership and more.
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AUGUSTA, GEORGIA - APRIL 10: Tony Finau of the United States and his caddie Mark Urbanek and Justin Thomas of the United States and his caddie, Jimmy Johnson cross the Hogan Bridge during the third round of the Masters at Augusta National Golf Club on April 10, 2021 in Augusta, Georgia. (Photo by Jared C. Tilton/Getty Images)
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Whenever golf fans get to April, they canât wait to watch The Masters  and see the wonders of Augusta National Golf Club.
The home of the first major championship of every golf season (2020 aside), Augusta National is a bucket-list destination for any good fan. That doesnât mean a fan has to even play it â just to step foot on the same grass as Tiger Woods, Jack Nicklaus, Bobby Jones and so on would be enough.
But what is the par at the course? What are the unique hole names? How much does it cost to be a member and to play?
We have everything you need to know about the home of The Masters here.
The Masters: What is par at Augusta National Golf Club?
In the typical way of Augusta and The Masters , Augusta National is a traditional Par 72 golf course with two par 5 and two par 3 holes on both the front and back nines. The yardage measures out at 7,555 yards across the hilly terrain, which is truly indicative of how much theyâve lengthened the course and made it that much more difficult.
Augusta National Golf Club scorecard: Hole names, yardages, par for The Masters
Letâs go hole by hole with the names of each, the par and yardages, and so on for No. 1-18 at Augusta National and The Masters for the 2024 tournament.
Hole No. 1 â Tea Olive: Par 4, 445 yards
Hole No. 2 â Pink Dogwood:Â Par 5, 585 yards
Hole No. 3 â Flowering Peach:Â Par 4, 350 yards
Hole No. 4 â Flowering Crab Apple:Â Par 3, 240 yards
Hole No. 5 â Magnolia:Â Par 4, 495 yards
Hole No. 6 â Juniper:Â Par 3, 180 yards
Hole No. 7 â Pampas:Â Par 4, 450 yards
Hole No. 8 â Yellow Jasmine: Par 5, 570 yards
Hole No. 9 â Carolina Cherry:Â Par 4, 460 yards
Hole No. 10 â Camellia:Â Par 4, 495 yards
Hole No. 11 â White Dogwood:Â Par 4, 520 yards
Hole No. 12 â Golden Bell:Â Par 3, 155 yards
Hole No. 13 â Azalea: Par 5, 545 yards
Hole No. 14 â Chinese Fir:Â Par 4, 440 yards
Hole No. 15 â Firethorn:Â Par 5, 550 yards
Hole No. 16 â Redbud:Â Par 3, 170 yards
Hole No. 17 â Nandina:Â Par 4, 440 yards
Hole No. 18 â Holly: Par 4, 465 yards
So many of the holes at Augusta are certifiably iconic, but the stretch from No. 11-13 known as Amen Corner is by far the most famous with the water in play for the golfers, Rayâs Creek running beside it, the bridge to cross it, and so much more.
How much is a membership at Augusta National Golf Club?
Augusta National, of course, is a membership-only club with a highly exclusive group of members. The initiation fee for a club of its stature, though, is not all that bad, ranging somewhere in the $30,000-$40,000 range with only a few thousand dollars in annual cost, though that has rumored to increase to a couple tens of thousands of dollars recently. There is also Green Jacket membership, the invitation only membership to the club, which will cost anywhere from $100,000-$300,000.
Membership is almost always exclusive and by invitation for Augusta, which makes it virtually the holy grail of golf in terms of fame, celebrity and golfing prowess.
How much does it cost to play Augusta National?
If you are able to be a member or win a lottery to play at at Augusta National Golf Club, then you might be wondering how much that would cost. Despite the high club fees to be a member, a run around the course isnât all that pricey. It will only cost about $350-$500 for players to take the course on, though they likely wonât be seeing the same looks as the pros do at The Masters .
Augusta National Golf Club drainage system and SubAir, explained
Particularly on Saturday of the 2023 Masters, we saw the players in a wildly wet and rainy day at Augusta. However, the course still maintained well, particularly on the greens. Thatâs due to the state-of-the-art draining and SubAir system that the course has to offer.
Rather than going in way too technically, the short of it is that there are grates all throughout the property and the SubAir machines essentially work as a ShopVac from beneath the ground on the course, sucking out as much moisture as possible and pushing it out of a machine on the other side. The system was invented by Augusta Nationalâs former senior director Marsh Benson in the 1990s and has been revolutionary for the course being playable despite adverse conditions.
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49 | what does it cost to play golf at augusta national | https://www.sportskeeda.com/golf/how-much-does-it-cost-to-be-a-member-of-augusta | How much does it cost to be a member of Augusta?
How much does it cost to be a member of Augusta?
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Augusta National Club, which was established in 1932 by Clifford Roberts and Bobby Jones, has been the home of the esteemed Masters Tournament since 1934. This exclusive golf club, rich with vegetation and flowers, was formerly a fruit tree nursery.
This club has undergone various modifications throughout the years, but it is best recognized for its rich history and for only inviting the most elite people in the United States. Nearly 300 people are members of this club, and new members are only welcomed if an existing member resigns or dies.
According to Golf Monthly, international broadcast rights are said to bring in about $25 million annually for Augusta National. Merchandise is another profitable revenue stream, at an estimated $50 million each year. In the interim, it makes money via ticket sales and membership fees, among other sources.
This is one of the hardest golf courses in the United States to play, with a course rating of 76. The back nine of this course, which is represented by rows 11, 12, and 13 (Amen Corner), is the greatest in golf because its reachable par-fives and difficult par-threes determine the yearly Masters champion.
Augusta National Membership Cost
The Augusta National membership costs around $40,000 as an initiation fee.
Determining the exact cost of membership is nearly impossible because the club is privately owned and does not release its financial statements. However, Golf Monthly reports the amount to be around $40,000, with an annual fee of around $4000.
Initiation fees were similarly low back in the 1950s when they were about $350, or about $5,000 today. However, being a member is a different thing, as there’s no application process and it’s strictly invitational.
A layman's chances of getting considered for an invitation are very low according to Golf.com. A thorough inspection of prospective new members takes much more than money or status; the club meticulously vets every candidate based on the following criteria:
Professionally accomplished and recognized in their field.
Perceived as honorable, without controversy or scandal.
Philosophically, in line with Augusta National's values
Low-key manner that will respect the club's privacy.
Fits in with the current member mix in terms of diversity.
Anyone who is accepted into the club will be expected to uphold its standards due to this rigorous screening process. When assessing possible new members, Augusta National prioritizes quality over quantity.
How much does it cost to play a round at Augusta?
It doesn't cost a dime to play a round at Augusta National, but it is a private club accessible only to club members and their guests.
Besides being a member, one can play a round at Augusta National if they are a caddie or employee there, as they are entitled to one round a year. One can also play if they are invited by a member of the club or are participating in the Masters or Augusta National Women's Invitational.
Perks of Members of the Augusta National
Joining the Augusta National offers several perks, not to mention the property's world-class, state-of-the-art amenities and facilities. The members get to wear the infamous green jacket, worn only by the champions of the Masters.
Members of Augusta National are entitled to one green jacket, for which they must pay a nominal fee. They are not permitted to leave the premises with these jackets on. Rather, when a member comes on-site, their jacket is already ready to go in the locker room.
The Augusta National Property has little more than 100 beds accessible for guests to stay in 10 cabins. To the left of the tenth hole, there are seven of those. The three most well-known cabins - the Eisenhower, Butler, and Cliff Roberts cabins - are more noticeable closer to the clubhouse.
There are four major members-only events held throughout the year, aside from the Masters and Augusta National Women's Amateur: the Opening Party in October, the Governors Party in November, the Jamboree in late March, and the Closing Party in May. Roughly 300 members of the club attend each event, which is only open to members.
Read Less
Q. How much does an Augusta National membership cost? - +
A. An Augusta National membership typically costs around $40,000 as an initiation fee, with an additional estimated annual fee of $4,000.
Q. How can I become a member of Augusta National? - +
A. Membership at Augusta National is strictly invitation-based, focusing on professional achievement, integrity, alignment with club values, and discretion.
Q. How much does it cost to play a round at Augusta? - +
A. Playing a round at Augusta National is exclusive to members, their guests, employees, caddies, Masters participants, or invitees, and doesn't incur additional costs.
Q. What perks do Augusta National members get? - +
A. Augusta National members enjoy access to the club's facilities, events, and the iconic green jacket, along with limited cabin accommodations and exclusive gatherings.
Q. How many members are there at Augusta National? - +
A. Augusta National boasts nearly 300 members, with new invitations extended only when a current member resigns or passes away.
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49 | what does it cost to play golf at augusta national | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_National_Golf_Club | Augusta National Golf Club
Golf course in Georgia, United States
Augusta National Golf Club
Club information
Show map of Georgia
Established
27 (18 Hole Championship Course plus 9 Hole Par-3 course)
Events hosted
Augusta National Golf Club, sometimes referred to as Augusta National, Augusta, or the National, is a golf club in Augusta, Georgia , United States. Unlike most private clubs which operate as non-profits, [1] Augusta National is a for-profit corporation, and it does not disclose its income, holdings, membership list, or ticket sales. [5]
Founded by Bobby Jones and Clifford Roberts , the course was designed by Jones and Alister MacKenzie [3] and opened for play in 1932. [5] Since 1934, the club has played host to the annual Masters Tournament , one of the four men's major championships in professional golf , and the only major played each year at the same course. It was the top-ranked course in Golf Digest 's 2009 list of America's 100 greatest courses [6] and was the number ten-ranked course based on course architecture on Golfweek Magazine's 2011 list of best classic courses in the United States. [7]
Augusta National was founded in 1932 by Bobby Jones and Clifford Roberts on the 365-acre site of a former nursery/antebellum plantation called Fruitland (later Fruitlands). [9] Jones sought to create a world-class winter golf course in his native state of Georgia. During the first decade of the club's existence, membership was low and finances were short due to the Great Depression and the relatively remote location of Augusta, forcing the duo to scrap future plans for a "ladies' course", squash and tennis courts, and various estates. [5]
Its first club professional was Ed Dudley , who served in the role until 1957; Dudley was one of the top tournament professionals of his era, with 15 wins on the PGA Tour . [10]
The Masters was first held in 1934 in an attempt to attract crowds and players. Roberts persuaded Jones, then retired, to return to play in the tournament. (Jones initially was against the name Masters.) [5]
In 1948, Dwight D. Eisenhower and his wife Mamie were personally invited to Augusta by Roberts. Eisenhower took a liking to the club, becoming a member, and hired Roberts as his executor and financial advisor, who had a house (Eisenhower Cabin) constructed for Eisenhower on the grounds. During his presidency, Eisenhower visited Augusta National 29 times. [5]
Facilities and grounds
Augusta is renowned for its well-maintained impeccable appearance: pine needles are imported, bird sounds are played on inconspicuous speakers, and even the ponds were once dyed blue. [5] The club is famed for its azaleas and dogwoods . [1]
Rules and policies imposed on employees, club members, and visitors (referred to internally as "patrons") are notoriously strict. No cell phones or other electronic devices are permitted (except in the press building—spot checks are performed elsewhere); no running or loud talking is allowed; and spectators are not allowed to cheer when a player makes a mistake. [5] Security guards enforce these rules, and are traditionally provided by Pinkerton . [5] Rule-breakers are permanently banned, if not prosecuted when possible. [1]
Other notable facilities include Butler Cabin, near hole 18, where tournament winners are presented with a green jacket; the clubhouse, near hole 1, which dates to the 1850s and has a well-stocked wine cellar; and a practice range. [5] Three large cabins on the property are reserved for tournament sponsors—as of 2020, Mercedes-Benz , IBM , and AT&T .
The club's on-site press building has television studios, a complimentary restaurant and snack options, staffed bathrooms, and leather chairs. [5] Cameras placed throughout the course are directly connected to the press building's studios via underground cables. [1]
Berckmans Place
Berckmans Place is named after Belgian Louis Mathieu Berckmans , whose family owned the land the club is built on from 1858 to 1910. [15]
Layout of Augusta National Golf Club
The course was formerly a plant nursery , [16] and each hole on the course is named after the tree or shrub with which it has become associated. Several of the holes on the first nine have been renamed, as well as hole #11. [17]
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
Hole
Name
Yards
Par
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Out
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
In
Total
Par
4
5
4
3
4
3
4
5
4
36
4
4
3
5
4
5
3
4
4
36
72
Masters
445
585
350
240
495
180
450
570
460
3775
495
520
155
545
440
550
170
440
465
3780
7555
Member
365
515
340
170
400
165
330
480
395
3160
450
400
145
455
380
475
145
370
385
3205
6365
Lengths of the course for the Masters at the start of each decade:
2020 : 7,475 yards (6,835 m)
2010 : 7,435 yards (6,799 m)
2000 : 6,985 yards (6,387 m)
1990 : 6,905 yards (6,314 m)
1980 : 7,040 yards (6,437 m)
1970 : 6,980 yards (6,383 m)
1960 : 6,980 yards (6,383 m)
1950 : 6,900 yards (6,309 m)
Unlike most other private or public golf courses in the US, Augusta National has never been rated . During the 1990 Masters Tournament , a team of USGA raters, organized by Golf Digest , evaluated the course and gave it an unofficial rating of 76.2. It was re-evaluated in 2009 and given an unofficial rating of 78.1. [4]
The course's greens are meticulously maintained to provide a fast and hard golfing surface. [5] This firmness is assisted by an underground irrigation and ventilation system known as the SubAir System, developed and installed in 1994 [19] by course superintendent Marsh Benson. [5] SubAir soon evolved into its own company in nearby Graniteville, South Carolina , designing and installing similar automatic water suction systems in venues such as Pebble Beach , East Lake , Citi Field , and Citizens Bank Park . [1] [19]
The bunkers are filled not with traditional sand but with granulated quartz (known as "Spruce Pine sand" and SP55 [20] ) which is produced as a byproduct during work at feldspar mines in the Spruce Pine Mining District in and around Spruce Pine, North Carolina . [5] Augusta has been using Spruce Pine sand to fill its forty-four bunkers since the early 1970s, when Clifford Roberts visited Linville Golf Club in Linville, North Carolina , which used the material at the time. Since the mining company providing the sand refused payment, in exchange Roberts offered to host the company owner at Augusta at any time, and later gifted him six Masters passes. [20]
The golf course architecture website GolfClubAtlas.com has said, "Augusta National has gone through more changes since its inception than any of the world's twenty or so greatest courses. To call it a MacKenzie course is false advertising as his features are essentially long gone and his routing is all that is left." The authors of the site also add that MacKenzie and Jones were heavily influenced by the Old Course at St Andrews , and intended that the ground game be central to the course. Almost from Augusta's opening, Roberts sought to make changes to minimize the ground game, and effectively got free rein to do so because MacKenzie died shortly after the course's opening and Jones went into inactivity due to World War II and then a crippling illness . The authors add that "[w]ith the ground game gone, the course was especially vulnerable to changes in technology, and this brought on a slew of changes from at least 15 different 'architects'." [21] Golf Course Histories has an aerial comparison of the architectural changes for Augusta National Golf Club for the year 1938 versus 2013. [22]
Among the changes to the course were several made by architect Perry Maxwell in 1937, including an important alteration involving the current 10th hole. When Augusta National originally opened for play in January 1933, the opening hole (now the 10th) was a relatively benign par 4 that played just in excess of 400 yards. From an elevated tee, the hole required little more than a short iron or wedge for the approach. Maxwell moved the green in 1937 to its present location—on top of the hill, about 50 yards back from the old site—and transformed it into the toughest hole in Masters Tournament history. Ben Crenshaw referred to Maxwell's work on the 10th hole as "one of the great strokes in golf architecture". [23]
For the 1999 tournament, a short rough was instated around the fairways. Referred to as the second cut, [5] it is substantially shorter than the comparable primary rough at other courses, with an average length of 1.625 in (4.13 cm). It is meant to reduce a player's ability to control the ball coming out of this lie, and encourage better accuracy for driving onto the fairway. [24] [25]
Amen Corner
The second shot at the 11th, all of the 12th, and the first two shots at the 13th hole at Augusta are nicknamed "Amen Corner". This term was first used in print by author Herbert Warren Wind [5] in his April 21, 1958, Sports Illustrated article about the Masters that year. [26] In a Golf Digest article in April 1984, 26 years later, Wind told about its origin. He said he wanted a catchy phrase like baseball's " hot-corner " or American football's " coffin-corner " to explain where some of the most exciting golf had taken place (the Palmer-Venturi rules issue at twelve , over an embedded ball ruling and how it was handled, [27] in particular). Thus "Amen Corner" was born. He said it came from the title of a jazz record he had heard in the mid-1930s by a group led by Chicago 's Mezz Mezzrow , Shouting in that Amen Corner. [28]
In a Golf Digest article in April 2008, writer Bill Fields offered new updated information about the origin of the name. He wrote that Richard Moore, a golf and jazz historian from South Carolina , tried to purchase a copy of the old Mezzrow 78 RPM disc for an "Amen Corner" exhibit he was putting together for his Golf Museum at Ahmic Lake, Ontario . After extensive research, Moore found that the record never existed. As Moore put it, Wind, himself a jazz buff, must have "unfortunately bogeyed his mind, 26 years later". While at Yale, he was no doubt familiar with, and meant all along, the popular version of the song (with the correct title, "Shoutin' in that Amen Corner" written by Andy Razaf), which was recorded by the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra , vocal by Mildred Bailey (Brunswick label No. 6655) in 1935. Moore told Fields that, being a great admirer of Wind's work over the years, he was reluctant, for months, to come forth with his discovery that contradicted Wind's memory. Moore's discovery was first reported in Golf World magazine in 2007, before Fields' longer article in Golf Digest in 2008.
In 1958, Arnold Palmer outlasted Ken Venturi to win the tournament with heroic escapes at Amen Corner. Amen Corner also played host to Masters moments such as Byron Nelson 's birdie-eagle at 12 and 13 in 1937, and Sam Snead 's water save at 12 in 1949 that sparked him to victory. On the flip side of fate, Jordan Spieth's quadruple bogey on 12 during Sunday's final round in 2016 cost him his 2-stroke lead and ultimately the championship.
"The Big Oak Tree"
Eisenhower Tree
Main article: Eisenhower Tree
Eisenhower Tree in 2011
Also known as the "Eisenhower Pine", a loblolly pine was located on the 17th hole, about 210 yards (190 m) from the Masters tee. President Dwight D. Eisenhower , an Augusta National member, hit the tree so many times that, at a 1956 club meeting, he proposed that it be cut down. [30] Not wanting to offend the president, the club's chairman, Clifford Roberts , immediately adjourned the meeting rather than reject the request. In February 2014, the Eisenhower Tree was removed after suffering extensive damage during an ice storm. [31]
Ike's Pond
During a visit to Augusta National, then-General Eisenhower returned from a walk through the woods on the eastern part of the grounds, and informed Clifford Roberts that he had found a perfect place to build a dam if the club would like a fish pond . Ike's Pond was built for Eisenhower to fish in and named after him; the dam is located just where Eisenhower said it should be. [32]
Roberts died of suicide next to Ike's Pond on September 29, 1977. [5] [33]
Rae's Creek
Sarazen Bridge
Real estate
Over the decades, Augusta National has bought and redeveloped nearby land. From 1999 to 2019, the club spent about $200 million to buy 100 separate properties totaling over 270 acres, some more than a mile distant from the club proper. [14] Most purchases are arranged via LLCs connected to Augusta National in order to obfuscate the transaction's details. [37] More than a dozen of these LLCs are known to exist, and up to five may be involved in a single purchase. [37] Augusta National ultimately purchases each LLC, acquiring its land holdings and keeping the real estate price away from public records. [14] Non-disclosure agreements are also commonly employed. [14]
Augusta National has acquired, demolished, and redeveloped entire strip centers and residential blocks. [38] The organization helped finance a project to re-route Berckmans Road. [37] The club also built a large tunnel underneath Washington Road connecting to a Global Communication Center that was first used in the 2021 Masters Tournament. The tunnel was built without ever impeding traffic on Washington Rd above, and is large enough for an 18 wheeler to drive through. [14]
Because Augusta National has spent so much to acquire land, homeowners in Richmond County have had to apply for special property tax assessments in order to negate the effects of the club's activities. [14] Investors have also begun to purchase property and condos next to Augusta National. [37]
Augusta National Golf Club has about 300 members at any given time. Membership is strictly by invitation: there is no application process. In 2004, USA Today published a list of all the current members. [39] Membership is believed to cost between $100,000 and $300,000 and annual dues were estimated in 2020 to be less than $30,000 per year. [40] Club members are sometimes referred to as "green jackets". [5]
For decades, the club barred membership to African Americans. "As long as I'm alive," said co-founder Roberts, who subsequently served as the club's chairman, "all the golfers will be white and all the caddies will be black." [41]
Augusta invited and accepted its first African-American member, television executive Ron Townsend, [42] in 1990 after Shoal Creek Golf and Country Club , [43] an all-white golf club in Alabama, refused membership to African-Americans. The club also faced demands that the PGA Championship not be held there because of racist comments by the club's founder. [44]
In his 2012 pre-Masters press conference, Chairman Billy Payne declined to discuss the club's refusal to admit women. [45] [46] He defended the club's position by noting that in 2011, more than 15% of the non-tournament rounds were played by women who were guests or spouses of active members. [45] However, on August 20, 2012, Augusta National admitted its first two female members: Condoleezza Rice and Darla Moore . [47] [48]
Notable members
Jack Nicklaus , Hall of Fame golfer, six-time Masters champion, and the only Masters champion who is currently a regular member of the club [55]
Deceased members include:
Chairmen serve for an indefinite amount of time. The chairman is the only person officially authorized to publicly discuss the Masters. [5]
In 1966, the governing board of Augusta National passed a resolution honoring founder Bobby Jones with the position of President in Perpetuity.
2002 membership controversy
Augusta National and its then-Chairman Hootie Johnson are widely known for their disagreement, beginning in 2002, with Martha Burk , then chair of the Washington-based National Council of Women's Organizations ; the dispute arose over Augusta National's refusal to admit female members to the club. [61] Burk said she found out about the club's policies in a USA Today column published April 11, 2002. She then wrote a private letter to Johnson, saying that hosting the Masters Tournament at a male-only club constituted sexism . [62] Johnson characterized Burk's approach as "offensive and coercive". [63] [64] The club hired consulting firm WomanTrend , which ran a survey and found that "Augusta National's membership policies were not topmost on the list of women's concerns"; the poll was called "unethical" by Burk. [65] Responding to efforts to link the issue to sexism and civil rights , [63] Johnson maintained that the issue had to do with the rights of any private club: [63] [66]
Our membership is single gender just as many other organizations and clubs all across America. These would include Junior Leagues, sororities, fraternities, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and countless others. And we all have a moral and legal right to organize our clubs the way we wish. [67]
Burk, whose childhood nickname was also Hootie, [68] claimed to have been "called a man hater, anti-family, lesbian, all the usual things." [62] Johnson was portrayed as a Senator Claghorn type [69] —"a blustery defender of all things Southern ". [69]
Following the discord, two club members resigned: Thomas H. Wyman, a former CEO of CBS, and John Snow , when President George W. Bush nominated him to serve as Secretary of the Treasury. [62] Pressure on corporate sponsors led the club to broadcast the 2003 and 2004 tournaments without commercials. The controversy was discussed by the International Olympic Committee when re-examining whether golf meets Olympic criteria of a "sport practiced without discrimination with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play". [70] Augusta National extended membership to Condoleezza Rice and Darla Moore on August 20, 2012. [47]
In 2018, chairman Fred Ridley announced that the club would establish the Augusta National Women's Amateur Championship in 2019, a 54-hole event for the world's top amateur players. [71]
Green jacket
Every member of Augusta National receives a green sport coat with the club's logo on the left breast. Members are required to wear them during the tournament, and the jackets are not allowed to be removed from the grounds. [5] The idea of the green jacket originated with club co-founder Clifford Roberts. Many believe it was because he wanted patrons visiting during the tournament to be able to readily identify members. Since Sam Snead's victory in 1949, the winner of each year's Masters Tournament has received a green jacket, although he does not receive membership. The jacket is presented to the new winner by the winner of the previous tournament. If the previous champion is either unavailable or has won consecutive tournaments, then the current chairman acts as the presenter. Until 1967, the jackets were manufactured by Brooks Brothers and since have been made by Hamilton of Cincinnati, Ohio , with the imp wool produced at the Victor Forstmann plant in Dublin, Georgia . [72]
The current Masters champion is the only owner of a green jacket permitted to remove it from the grounds of Augusta National, and only for a period of one year. Before this time limit was in place, the jacket of a few long-past Masters champions had been sold, after their deaths, to collectors. Consequently, the members of Augusta National have gone to great lengths to secure the remaining examples. Now, two jackets remain outside the grounds of Augusta National with the club's permission. When Gary Player first won the Masters in 1961, he brought his jacket home to South Africa . For years the board insisted that Player return the jacket but Player kept "forgetting" or coming up with humorous creative excuses why he did not return the jacket. After becoming something of a running joke, Augusta National's members allowed him to keep it, where it is on display in his personal museum. The second jacket belongs to 1938 champion Henry Picard . Before the traditions were well established, the jacket was removed by Picard from Augusta National. It is now currently on display in the "Picard Lounge" at Canterbury Golf Club in Beachwood, Ohio . Along with Snead, the nine previous winners were also awarded green jackets in 1949, and these became known as the "original ten" jackets. [73]
Horton Smith 's jacket, awarded for his wins in 1934 and 1936 , sold at auction in September 2013 for over $682,000; the highest price ever paid for a piece of golf memorabilia. [74] [75] Smith died at age 55 in 1963 and it had been in the possession of his brother Ren's stepsons for decades. [73]
The trademarked green shade is specified as Pantone 342. [76] [77]
Augusta National employs a staff of caddies to assist members, guests, and professionals. Augusta's caddie staff wears trademark white jumpsuits year-round.
Before 1983 , [78] staff caddies were assigned to players at the Masters. [79] All four majors and some tour events required the use of the host club's caddies well into the 1970s [80] [81] [82] —the U.S. Open had this policy through 1975 [83] [84] —but by 1980, only the Masters and the Western Open near Chicago retained the requirement. [85] Well-known caddies during this time period include Nathaniel "Iron Man" Avery , Carl Jackson , and Willie "Pappy" Stokes .
More unusually, Augusta employed only black men as caddies. Club co-founder Clifford Roberts once said, "As long as I'm alive, all the golfers will be white and all the caddies will be black." [86] Roberts killed himself at Augusta in 1977; five years later, in November 1982, chairman Hord Hardin announced that players were henceforth permitted to use their regular caddies at the Masters. [87] The announcement arrived seven months after the 1982 tournament, during which many caddies, confused by a Thursday rain delay, failed to show up at the proper time on Friday morning; [88] Hardin received scathing complaint letters from two-time champion Tom Watson and others. [89] [90] In 1983, 12 players employed club caddies, including then-five-time champion Jack Nicklaus , defending champion Craig Stadler , and future two-time champion Ben Crenshaw . [90] [91]
The first female caddie at Augusta was George Archer 's daughter Elizabeth in 1983, her 21st event carrying the bag for her father. [90] [92] Archer, the 1969 champion, tied for twelfth, one of his better finishes at Augusta. Today, female caddies remain rare at Augusta and on the PGA Tour; most of the women caddies are professional golfers' regular caddies, such as Fanny Sunesson , who has caddied for several players at the Masters, most notably three-time champion Nick Faldo , and in 2019, Henrik Stenson . [93]
During the pre-tournament events in 2007 , Golf Channel's Kelly Tilghman caddied for Arnold Palmer in the par-3 contest. Fuzzy Zoeller 's daughter Gretchen was his caddie for his last year as a competitor in the tournament in 2009 . Tennis pro Caroline Wozniacki , then-fiancée of Rory McIlroy , caddied for him in the par-3 contests of 2013 and 2014.
Crenshaw won his 1984 and 1995 Masters titles with Augusta National caddie Carl Jackson . [89] [94]
On October 22, 1983, Charles Harris, an unemployed local man, crashed his Dodge pickup truck through Gate 3 while President Ronald Reagan was on the golf course. Armed with a .38 caliber revolver, Harris took six people hostage in the pro shop, four employees and two White House staffers. Police and Secret Service agents placed a phone call to Harris in the pro shop and put the president on the line, but Harris thought it was a trick and hung up. Once Reagan had been evacuated from the club, Harris surrendered. He was later convicted of false imprisonment and sentenced to five years in prison. He claimed he meant no harm to the president and had only wanted to speak with him about unemployment issues. [95]
Appearances in video games
Augusta National Golf Club is featured in the Japan-exclusive video game franchise Harukanaru Augusta [ ja ], which started in 1989. [96] [97] The games were produced by T&E Soft . One of its last titles Masters '98: Haruka Naru Augusta was released for the Nintendo 64.
Augusta National Golf Club and the Masters Tournament are also featured in the video game Tiger Woods PGA Tour 12: The Masters , and has subsequently featured in later iterations of the game. This was the first time that the course has been officially used in the Tiger Woods franchise. [98] [99] In 2021, EA Sports and Augusta National Golf Club announced plans to revive their PGA Tour series, which would once again feature Augusta National Golf Club and the Masters Tournament. In addition, EA also announced that the new game, EA Sports PGA Tour , will feature the other three majors—the PGA Championship , Open Championship , and the U.S. Open . [100] [101]
Augusta National was also previously used in the 1986 computer game Mean 18 , published by Accolade. [102]
"Course Tour: 2012 Masters" . PGA of America: Major Championships. Archived from the original on August 27, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2012.
"Augusta National" . GolfClubAtlas.com. March 23, 2009. Retrieved August 11, 2010.
Wind, Herbert Warren (April 21, 1958). "The fateful corner" . Sports Illustrated. p. 48. Archived from the original on December 13, 2013. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Kelley, Brent (May 24, 2019). "Tour the Famous Landmarks at Augusta National" . Golf.About.com. Honorable Mention: The Eisenhower Tree. Archived from the original on April 6, 2012. Retrieved April 8, 2012.
"The Course – Landmarks" . Masters.com. Archived from the original on April 14, 2009. Retrieved April 16, 2009.
McCarthy, Michael; Brady, Erik (September 27, 2002). "Privacy becomes public at Augusta" . USA Today. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
Johnson, William Oscar (August 13, 1990). "The Gates Open" . Sports Illustrated. Retrieved September 27, 2022.
Hiltzik, Michael (March 31, 2012). "Augusta National's woman problem" . Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Palmer won the Masters in 1958, 1960, 1962 and 1964 and is one of two champions – along with Jack Nicklaus – who are members of Augusta National.
Blauvelt, Harry (October 21, 2002). "Augusta leader's record defies image" . USA Today. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
All agree Johnson, who has a record of access and inclusion, is one of the most unlikely people to have gotten caught up in the firestorm over Augusta membership. Yet the former University of South Carolina football player and prominent banker is being characterized nationally as a rube. "His whole life has been just the opposite of what he's being portrayed," says U.S. Rep. Jim Clyburn, D-S.C. "He's always come down on the side of access and equality. He's not a prejudiced person in any way. He is not deserving of this controversy."
Loomis, Tom (April 6, 1973). "Chi Chi prefers own caddy" . Toledo Blade. Associated Press. p. 30.
"Westchester winner may bypass events" . Victoria Advocate. Victoria, Texas. Associated Press. August 26, 1974. p. 1B.
"Break for some" . Rome News-Tribune. Rome, Georgia. Associated Press. January 18, 1976. p. 3B.
"Caddies draw golfers in Western Open play" . Rome News-Tribune. Rome, GA. Associated Press. July 2, 1980. p. 8A.
Wade, Harless (April 6, 1983). "Tradition bagged at Masters" . Spokane Chronicle. (Dallas Morning News). p. C1.
"King of caddies" . Calhoun Times Plus. Calhoun, GA. June 6, 1995. p. 4.
"Mean 18" . Hall Of Light: The database of Amiga games. November 22, 2010. Retrieved April 5, 2012.
Further reading
Augusta.com coverage from the Augusta Chronicle
Augusta National Golf Club
| 424 |
50 | list of all the countries in the world wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area | List of countries and dependencies by area
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dymaxion map of the world with the 30 largest countries and territories by area
This is a list of the world's countries and their dependencies , ranked by total area, including land and water.
This list includes entries that are not limited to those in the ISO 3166-1 standard, which covers sovereign states and dependent territories . All 193 member states of the United Nations plus the two observer states are given a rank number. Largely unrecognised states not in ISO 3166-1 are included in the list in ranked order. The areas of such largely unrecognised states are in most cases also included in the areas of the more widely recognised states that claim the same territory; see the notes in the "Notes" column for each country for clarification.
Not included in the list are individual country claims to parts of the continent of Antarctica or entities such as the European Union [a] that have some degree of sovereignty but do not consider themselves to be sovereign countries or dependent territories.
This list includes three measurements of area:
Total area: the sum of land and water areas within international boundaries and coastlines.
Land area: the aggregate of all land within international boundaries and coastlines, excluding water area.
Water area: the sum of the surface areas of all inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs , and rivers) within international boundaries and coastlines. [2] Coastal internal waters may be included. Territorial seas are not included unless otherwise noted. Contiguous zones and exclusive economic zones are not included.
Total area is taken from the United Nations Statistics Division unless otherwise noted. [3] Land and water are taken from the Food and Agriculture Organization unless otherwise noted. [4] The CIA World Factbook is most often used when different UN departments disagree. [1] Other sources and details for each entry may be specified in the relevant footnote.
Countries of the world by area
Countries and dependencies by area
Country / dependency
Notes
^ The European Union is a unique supranational union . It covers a total area of 4,236,351 km2, [1] and would be ranked 7th if it were included (3.0% of world's total land area).
^ The largest country in the world, which spans two continents , and most of northern Eurasia ; with about 1/9th of the world's total landmass. Russia's European portion is roughly 4,000,000 km2, which is around 40% of the total landmass of Europe , making Russia the largest country in Europe; and its Asian portion , which covers all of Northern Asia , is around 13,100,000 km2, making Russia the largest country in Asia .
^ 98% of the land area is covered by ice and snow . The following countries have territorial claims in Antarctica : Argentina (969,000 km2), Australia (5,896,500 km2), Chile (1,250,000 km2), France (432,000 km2), New Zealand (450,000 km2), Norway (including Peter I Island ) (2,500,000 km2) and United Kingdom (1,395,000 km2), which to some extent overlap. The area from 90°W to 150°W (2,100,000 km2) is unclaimed territory. These areas normally have no human inhabitants except scientists.
^ Largest country completely in the Western Hemisphere by total area (second-largest by land area after the United States ); with the largest surface area of water; largest contiguous country in North America. Total area and water area figures include area covered by freshwater only and do not include internal waters (non-freshwater) of about 1,600,000 km2, nor territorial waters of 200,000 km2. [5] [6]
^ The United Nations Statistics Division , the CIA World Factbook , and the Encyclopædia Britannica all rank the United States ahead of China in total area. However, the figures used by each source include coastal and territorial waters for the United States but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China. China's coastal and territorial water figures are unknown (no official publication) and thus cannot be added into China's total area figure. But Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area excluding coastal and territorial waters as 9,525,067 km2, [7] less than the figure given for China's area by any of the three sources. Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
^ Largest country entirely in Asia, and second-largest country in the world by land area. Excludes Taiwan , disputed territories with India , and disputed islands in the South China Sea . Figures for total area and water area also exclude all coastal and territorial waters. [1]
^ Figures are from the U.S. Census and include "inland" water and "Great Lakes" water, but exclude coastal and territorial water. [8] NOAA cites the Great Lakes as an example of internal water, [9] but the federal government sometimes treats the Great Lakes as "high seas". [10]
^ Data are from the CIA. Largest country in South America , and largest country in the Southern Hemisphere , even discounting its territory north of the equator.
^ Data are from the CIA. Geoscience Australia gives an official total of 7,668,287 km2. [11] Largest country in Oceania . Figures exclude external territories . [12] and the Australian Antarctic Territory (5,896,500 km2).
^ Includes disputed territories not under Indian control but claimed by India.
^ Largest country in Africa ; also largest in the Arab world and the Mediterranean Basin . The area of internal waters is officially reported as 0 [13] even though several seasonal lakes and permanent reservoirs exist in the country.
^ Second-largest French -speaking country. Largest country in Central and Sub-Saharan Africa . Second-largest country in Africa, has the largest French -speaking city ( Kinshasa ). Data are from the CIA.
^ Comprising the total areas of Greenland , the Faroes and mainland Denmark . Data are from the CIA.
^ Largest island in the world, largest territory in the Kingdom of Denmark , and the largest inhabited non-sovereign territory in the world. A total of 1,755,636 km2 (81%) of the land area is covered by ice ; the ice-free area amounts to 410,450 km2. Data are from the CIA.
^ Transcontinental country located in Asia and Oceania . Largest country in Southeast Asia . Largest island country and archipelagic state in the world by area and population. Data are from the CIA.
^ Data are from the CIA [1] The UN lists a figure of 1,628,750 km2, which refers to land area only.
^ Largest landlocked country in Africa.
^ Excludes the Ilemi Triangle (14,000 km2). Data are from the CIA.
^ Transcontinental country located in Asia and Africa . Data are from the CIA.
^ Excludes claims in Guyana–Venezuela territorial dispute (160,000 km2). Data are from the CIA.
^ Data from the CIA [1] has been supplemented with commonly-given figures for disputed areas administered by Pakistan: Azad Kashmir (13,297 km2) [14] and Gilgit-Baltistan (72,971 km2), [15] assumed to be land.
^ Data are from the CIA. Transcontinental country located in Asia and Europe .
^ Figure is from the CIA [1] and South Sudan's official site. [16] The UN Statistics division gives a figure of 658,841, while the UN FAO gives a water area of 1,980 km2 and a land area of only 631,930 km2. Academic articles give varying totals between 619,000 km2 [17] and 658,842 km2. [18]
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN Statistics department gives a figure of 591,958 km2 which may include part of Lake Victoria .
^ Metropolitan France (the part of France located in Europe). Data are from the CIA.
^ Figure is from Yemen's Ministry of Water and Environment. [20] May not include territory ceded by Saudi Arabia in the Jeddah Treaty due to the Saudi–Yemen barrier . The CIA gives a much larger figure of 527,968 km2.
^ Data by the World Factbook. [21]
^ Does not include the disputed Western Sahara , shown separately. If the whole of Western Sahara is included (which Morocco controls approximately two-thirds of), the area would be 710,800 km2 and the rank would be #39.
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN figure of 435,052 km2 excludes the three autonomous provinces of Iraqi Kurdistan .
^ Includes Åland (1,552 km2). Data are from the CIA.
^ The UN and CIA agree on the figure of exactly 300 thousand km2, but some academic sources give a much higher total of 343,448 km2. [23] [24]
^ Data are from the CIA, which includes the Galápagos Islands (7,880 km2). [1] UN figures give a total of 257,215 km2.
^ Data are from the CIA. Figures exclude the Cook Islands , Niue , and Tokelau , shown separately, as well as the Antarctic claim of Ross Dependency .
^ Data is from the UK Office for National Statistics as supplied to the UN. [27] Excludes the three Crown Dependencies (768 km2) or the 14 British Overseas Territories (1,742,857 km2), each shown separately.
^ Data are from the CIA. Largest landlocked country in Europe .
^ Includes the parts of the Golan Heights (1,295 km2) occupied by Israel .
^ Somaliland is claimed in whole by Somalia . [28]
^ Area according to Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics is 147,570 km2. [29]
^ The Government of Nepal gives its area as 147,516 km2, which includes an additional 335 square kilometers of disputed territory under Indian administration. [30]
^ Largest country in Central America .
^ Excludes claim on South Korea.
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN Statistics division gives an area of 94,552 km2 which may exclude parts of Lake Malawi considered integral by some definitions.
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN FAO gives land and water figures of 121041 km2 and 589 km2, respectively.
^ Data are from the CIA. Largest country in the Balkans by continental area within the Balkans.
^ Excludes claim on North Korea.
^ Figures are official and include Serbia's claim on Kosovo . The 2023 Statistical Yearbook describes its figure as "provisional" and "land area". [31] The UN FAO estimates some 900 km2 of water area. The CIA gives separate figures for Serbia (77,474 km2) and Kosovo (10,877 km2). [1]
^ Largest country in the Caucasus . Transcontinental country located in Asia and Europe .
^ Total figure is official sum of provinces, land area is official [32] and water area is implied, excluding some of the reported 27,625 km2 of "territorial water". The UN replicates the land-only figure while the CIA reports 83,600 km2 of land and no water. [1]
^ The UN gives a combined area for Svalbard and Jan Mayen as 62,422 km2. The separate figures shown are from the CIA World Factbook. [1]
^ Data are from the CIA [1] and are for Netherlands proper, which includes the Caribbean Netherlands . May include coastal water. Excludes Aruba , Curaçao and Sint Maarten . The Kingdom of the Netherlands totals to 42,201 km2.
^ Data are from the CIA. Excludes claim on mainland China . Taiwan's official figure is 36,197 km2 of land area. [36]
^ The figure shown includes the area of Transnistria (4,163 km2), which is de facto independent from Moldova.
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN/ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics figure of 22,072 km2 includes the Golan Heights (1,200 km2) and East Jerusalem (70 km2), which are not internationally recognised as part of Israel.
^ Smallest country in continental Africa .
^ Excludes claim on Adélie Land in Antarctica. Data are from the CIA.
^ The CIA gives the areas of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip separately as 5,860 km2 and 360 km2 respectively. The figure for the West Bank includes East Jerusalem and Jerusalem No Man's Land , but excludes Mount Scopus . [1] The UN source differs by 200 km2 and may exclude the area of the Dead Sea pertaining to the West Bank.
^ South Ossetia is claimed in whole by Georgia . [39]
^ Academic articles most frequently give the figure shown, [40] while an official brochure gives 3,248 km2. [41] Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is a self-declared state recognised only by Turkey .
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN figure of 1,969 km2 excludes the Agaléga Islands and Saint Brandon (Cargados Carajos).
^ All figures are from the UN FAO. The CIA [1] and the UN Statistics department give an area of 2,235 km2, which includes Mayotte (374 km2), an overseas department and region of France .
^ Åland is an autonomous region of Finland , and thus is a part of the European Union . [42]
^ UN figures are given, including only land and internal water. Official figures include "sea area" of 1640 km2. [43]
^ Data are from the CIA. The UN figure of 726 km2 excludes 84 km2 of uninhabited islands.
^ The CIA gives a figure of 760 km2 and no water, [1] the UN Statistics division has 778 km2, the UN FAO has 790 km2 and no water, while Bahrain's official figure is 786.5 km2 excluding territorial water. [44]
^ Smallest country in Africa .
^ Comprises Akrotiri (123 km2) and Dhekelia (131 km2), [1] together making up 3% of the island of Cyprus .
^ The figure shown is from the CIA Factbook, and includes Henderson , Ducie , and Oeno Island . [1] The UN figure is 5 km2, and only includes area for Pitcairn island itself, the only inhabited island in the group.
^ Includes CIA figures of Wake Island, [49] Navassa Island [50] and all of the United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges . [51] May exclude some lagoon water or classify lagoon water as land.
^ Smallest island country , and smallest country that is not a city-state .
^ Land figure is official [52] while the CIA states zero water area. [1]
^ The CIA gives a total area of 6 km2 and no water, but Britannica gives a land area of 2 km2 [53] and Coral Reefs has given a water area of 4 km2. [54]
^ The CIA gives an estimate of less than 3 km2. [1] The territory comprises many low atolls and reefs, spanning some 780,000 km2 of territorial water.
References
"Country Comparisons – Area" . CIA. 6 July 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
Central Intelligence Agency. "Definitions and notes: Area" . The World Factbook. Government of the United States. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
^ Under "World Summary", see Table 3 and select 'pdf' or 'xls'.
"Demographic Yearbook – 2022" . unstats.un.org. 2023. Archived from the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
"FAOSTAT" . fao.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
Fisheries and Oceans Canada. "Canada's Ocean Estate" . www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.
"United States" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
^ "Examples of internal waters include rivers, canals, and lakes, including The Great Lakes."
^ "a number of U.S. federal court decisions have treated the Great Lakes as “high seas” for purposes of federal admiralty and maritime jurisdiction as well as for federal criminal jurisdiction."
"The Great Lakes" . noaa.gov. 20 March 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2024.
"Land areas of States and Territories" . ga.gov.au. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
"Remote Offshore Territories" . ga.gov.au. 27 June 2014. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
Kose, Musa; Kongas, Kuyu (26 December 2023). "The Challenges and Prospects of South Sudan Agriculture" . Eurasian Journal of Agricultural Research. 7 (2): 101–108. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
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"Abkhazia profile" . BBC. 28 August 2023. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2024.
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"Navassa Island" . cia.gov. 17 January 2024. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
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^ "Natural land area in the Spratly Islands does not exceed 2 km2"
Carmen, Ma.; Ablan-Lagman, A. (2019). Chapter 26 – The Spratly Islands . pp. 583–591. doi : 10.1016/B978-0-08-100853-9.00026-9 . ISBN
. S2CID 134987358 . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
"Key Facts About Monaco" . Embassy of Monaco in Washington DC. 2020. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
^ De Agostini Atlas Calendar Archived 16 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine , 1930, p. 99. (in Italian)
^ De Agostini Atlas Calendar Archived 16 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine , 1945–46, p. 128. (in Italian)
External links
List of countries and dependencies by area
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50 | list of all the countries in the world wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population | List of countries and dependencies by population
119 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about a list of countries and dependencies by population based on figures from official sources or, if not available, estimates and projections from the United Nations. For a list based purely on figures from the United Nations, see List of countries by population (United Nations) .
This article reflects continually changing information from hundreds of sources. You can help by updating items to more recent figures from official sources .
Cartogram of the world's population in 2018; each square represents 500,000 people.
This is a list of countries and dependencies by population. It includes sovereign states , inhabited dependent territories and, in some cases, constituent countries of sovereign states, with inclusion within the list being primarily based on the ISO standard ISO 3166-1 . For instance, the United Kingdom is considered a single entity, while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately. In addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166-1. Also given in a percentage is each country's population compared with the world population , which the United Nations estimates at 8.119 billion as of 2024. [1]
Method
Figures used in this chart are based on the most up-to-date estimates or projections by the national census authority, where available, and are usually rounded off.
Where updated national data are not available, figures are based on the estimates or projections for 2024 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs .
Because the compiled figures are not collected at the same time in every country, or at the same level of accuracy, the resulting numerical comparisons may create misleading conclusions. Furthermore, the addition of figures from all countries may not equal the world total.
Areas that form integral parts of sovereign states , such as the countries of the United Kingdom , are counted as part of the sovereign states concerned. Not included are other entities that are not sovereign states, such as the European Union , [a] and independent territories that do not have permanent populations, such as the Chagos Archipelago and various countries' claims to Antarctica . [2]
Sovereign states and dependencies by population
Note: A numbered rank is assigned to the 193 member states of the United Nations , plus the two observer states to the United Nations General Assembly . Dependent territories and constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are not assigned a numbered rank. In addition, sovereign states with limited recognition are included, but not assigned a number rank.
List of countries and territories by total population
Location
Population
% ofworld
Date
Notes
World
8,119,000,000
100%
160
Bhutan
777,224
0.010%
2024
Explanatory notes
^ The European Union is a sui generis supranational union whose sovereign members delegate to it by treaty certain powers that are often exercised by sovereign states. Its combined population has been estimated at 447,319,916 on 1 January 2020, and it would be ranked 3rd if it were included in the list. It has 5.48% of the world's population — see
^ According to UN estimates, India surpassed China by the end of April 2023. [4]
^ The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics has a projection of 181 million for 2025, but this method derives from a base year of 2011. This same projection overcounted the population for 2022 by about 4.4 million. [13]
^ Excludes the three British Crown Dependencies and the 14 British Overseas Territories , listed separately. Four British Overseas Territories are not listed due to their extraordinary nature. The four not listed are British Antarctic Territory (an Antarctic territorial claim hosting only government officials and research station staff), the British Indian Ocean Territory (a military base), South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (hosts only government officials and research station staff), and the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (a military base where permanent residency is limited to citizens of the Republic of Cyprus ).
^ Does not include the Rohingya people . Some regions were estimated by satellite. [34]
^ The last census was conducted in 1979. Sources disagree about the current population:
The Afghani National Statistics and Information Authority gives an estimate of 35,695,527 for 2024. [44] [45]
The Encyclopædia Britannica gives an estimate of 36,432,000 for 2025. [46]
The BBC gives a figure of 38.3 million for 2023. [47]
The CIA gives an estimate of 40,121,552 for 2024. [48]
The US Census Bureau provides an estimate of 49,552,566 for 2025. [49]
All figures are mid-year.
^ Excludes Abkhazia (242,862, census 2011) and South Ossetia (53,559, census 2015).
^ De facto independent, de jure part of Cyprus .
^ De facto independent, de jure part of Moldova .
^ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory .
^ South Ossetia 's status is disputed. It considers itself to be an independent state, but this is recognised by only a few other countries . The Georgian government and most of the world's other states consider South Ossetia de jure a part of Georgia's territory.
^ 764 residents regardless of citizenship, 618 citizens regardless of residence, 246 resident citizens. [248]
References
United Nations. "World Population Prospects 2022" . population.un.org. Archived from the original on 5 February 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
"Population Projection" . ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 1 January 2025.
"Statistical Yearbook" . bbs.gov.bd. Retrieved 1 January 2025.
"Mexico Population" . www.economy.com. Moody's Analytics. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
จำนวนประชากร (population) → ตรวจสอบข้อมูลแยกรายเดือน (check monthly data separately) → ขอบเขตข้อมูล (data scope - monthly) → ยอดรวมข้อมูล (total data - whole country). "สถิติประชากรทางการทะเบียนราษฎร(รายเดือน) – Official population statistics from the civil registration (monthly)" . www.bora.dopa.go.th (in Thai). The Bureau of Registration Administration (BORA). Retrieved 6 February 2025.
"Census 2022 – Statistical Release" (PDF). www.gov.za. Government of South Africa. 10 October 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
"Proyecciones de Población DANE" . Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
"Proyecciones y estimaciones" . www.indec.gob.ar. INDEC . Archived from the original on 9 June 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2025.
"Library" . nsia.gov.af. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
"Afghanistan country profile" . bbc.com. 15 August 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
"Afghanistan" . cia.gov. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
"Afghanistan" . nsia.gov.af. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
"Overall count of population" . portal.saudicensus.sa. General Statistics Authority – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Archived from the original on 28 July 2023. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
"Projections démographiques" (PDF). instat.mg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2024. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
"Population" . www.stat.gov.kz. QAZSTAT. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
"Estimaciones y proyecciones nacionales de población" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística Guatemala. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2019.
"Population Projection" (PDF). National Institute of Statistics. November 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
Population Projections Thematic Report (PDF) (Report). Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
"South Sudan Population Projections, 2020–2040 (pg.12)" (PDF). www.nbs.gov.ss. National Bureau of Statistics – South Sudan (NBSS). January 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
"Population" . ins.tn. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
"Population Estimates 2021" . nso.gov.pg. Archived from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
"Población por sexo, según provincia de residencia" . www.one.gob.do. Oficina Nacional de Estadística (ONE). Archived from the original on 27 June 2024. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
"Statistics by Subject" . fcsa.gov.ae. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
^ *left corner →*
"TOMO: HONDURAS: PROYECCIONES DE POBLACIÓN 2013–2050" (PDF). INE – Instituto Nacional de Estadística Honduras. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
Gershon P. Y. Togoh; Abu Bakarr Turay; Allieu Komba (October 2017). Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census – Thematic Report on Population Projections (PDF). www.statistics.sl (Report). Statistics Sierra Leone. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2020.
"Resultats RGPH5" (PDF). inseed.tg (Press release) (in French). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
"Distribution of citizens by gender and age group" . laosis.lsb.gov.la. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
"Anuario Estadístico 2022" (PDF). www.inide.gob.ni. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
"Population" . www.stat.gov.rs. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (РЗС). Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
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"Lebanese Republic" . City Population. 2 March 2019. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
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"Population" . statistica.gov.md. Biroului Național de Statistică (BNS). Retrieved 23 June 2024.
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List of countries and dependencies by population
| 445 |
50 | list of all the countries in the world wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories | Lists of sovereign states and dependent territories
18 languages
Quartile map of amount of exports per country. Darker = more exports.
The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services:
The study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets:
The unlawful acts punishable by a state or other authority:
The activities that holds the attention and interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight:
The physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an ecosystem :
The set of rules that are created and enforced to regulate behaviour:
Map of military expenditures as a percentage of GDP by country, 2017. [2]
The intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another:
^ The Oxford English Dictionary , Second Edition, with online updates as of September 2008. Entry "1. country"
^ 2017 data from:
Lists of sovereign states and dependent territories
| 446 |
50 | list of all the countries in the world wikipedia | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries | List of countries
From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is a list of sovereign states . Disputed countries are listed at the bottom.
A
List of countries
| 447 |
50 | list of all the countries in the world wikipedia | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_area | Wikimedia ranked list
The list of countries by area is the list of the world's countries and their territories by total area.
Dymaxion world map [a] with the 30 largest countries and territories by area [b] .
The top 10 largest countries occupy more than half of the world's pure land.
The inputs are realized according to the ISO 3166 standard which includes sovereign states and dependent territories . The 193 Members of the United Nations and the two observer states are numbered. Countries which enjoy limited recognition forming part of the international community and not found in ISO 3166 are also included in the list, but their areas also generally count with the areas of other widely recognized states which claim the following territory.
The areas claimed by individual countries, such as the areas of Antarctica , are not realized as well. The list doesn't include supranational entities such as the European Union .
The entry includes three subfields:
Total area is the sum of all land and water areas delimited by international boundaries and coastlines.
Land area is the aggregate of all surfaces delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines, excluding inland water bodies ( lakes , reservoirs , rivers )
Water area is the sum of the surfaces of all inland water bodies , such as lakes , reservoirs , or rivers , as delimited by international boundaries and/or coastlines. Coastal internal waters may be included. Territorial seas are not included unless otherwise noted. Contiguous zones and Exclusive Economic Zones are not included.
Make sure that there are many country size comparisons which would not match all these countries area. The areas that appear in the table for each country are taken from the United Nations Statistics Division unless otherwise noted.
Contents
Map
World map except Antarctica , with all countries and territories based on its respective area
Countries and territories by area
Country / dependency
[[File:{{{flag alias}}}|23x15px|border |alt=|link=]] Macquarie Island ( Australia )
140 (54)
112 (43)
4 (1.5)
1 (0.39)
0.44 (0.17)
Graphical charts
The following charts are based on the CIA World Factbook , of which these charts will show how big is the area. For the love of god, sovereign states are green while territories are grey. Territorial claims in Antarctica are not shown.
Countries greater than 1.5 million km²
Related pages
↑ The largest country in the world, which spams into 2 continents, the largest Russian-speaking country by area, the largest country in the Northern Hemisphere and Eastern Hemisphere , and occupied most of Eurasia . The European part in in Europe which makes it the largest country in Europe while the Asian part is in Asia which makes it the largest country in Asia .
↑ 13,920,000 km² (98%) of the land area is covered by ice and snow . Although it is not a country ifsetf, the region is claimed by various countries. The following countries have claims on Antarctica : Argentina , Australia , Chile , France , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom .
↑ Largest English and French-speaking country, largest country in the Western Hemisphere , in North America and the Americas . Figures include only freshwater areas.
↑ Largest English-speaking country by land area, largest Spanish-speaking country and largest country in the Western Hemisphere by land area (second largest after ( Canada ). Figures include territorial waters only but exclude the US territories and the 2 dependency claims ( Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank )
↑ Third-largest English-speaking country and largest country in Oceania and the Australian continent , largest island country in the world and the largest country fully in the Southern Hemisphere . Excluding external territories and the Australian Antarctic Territory .
↑ Second-largest French-speaking country, largest country in Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Africa . Second-largest country in Africa , has the largest French speaking city ( Kinshasa ).
↑ Largest Nordic-speaking country. Figures include Metropolitan Denmark , as well as the 2 self-governing territories. Second-largest generally European country, has the largest non-continental island ( Greenland ).
↑ Largest non-continental island in the world, largest administrative division in Denmark and the largest inhabited overseas territory in the world. A total of 1,755,086 km² (81%) of the land area is covered by ice . The ice-free areas totals to 410,000 km². 81% of people requested a referendum for independence .
↑ Includes the Chilean Antarctic Territory . The third-largest Spanish-speaking in the world by area.
↑ It has the largest Spanish-speaking city in the world, Mexico City .
↑ Largest country in Southeast Asia and the largest island country in the world that is not a continent. Made up only of islands.
↑ Largest unclaimed territory in the world. 1,600,000 (99%) of the land area is covered by ice .
↑ Largest country fully on Europe . Includes Crimea and the Russian-controlled areas.
↑ Smallest island country in the world.
↑ Smallest country in the world with a coastline.
↑ Smallest country in the world and smallest country in Europe .
References
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless otherwise noted.
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51 | what type of plate boundary is associated with iceland and its volcanic eruptions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_deformation_of_Iceland | Geological deformation of Iceland
Geological deformation of Iceland
Extensional structure, Þingvellir Graben, provides evidence for plate divergence in Iceland.
Fig 1. This figure shows the locations of the major deformation zones in Iceland and the vectors of the North American Plate movement relative to the Eurasian Plate .
Legend: RR, Reykjanes Ridge; RVB, Reykjanes volcanic belt; WVZ, West volcanic zone; MIB, Mid-Iceland belt; SISZ, South Iceland seismic zone; EVZ, East volcanic zone; ; SIVZ, South Iceland volcanic zone; NVZ, North volcanic zone; TFZ, Tjörnes fracture zone; KR, Kolbeinsey Ridge; ÖVB, Öræfajökul volcanic belt; SVB, Snæfellsnes volcanic belt. The legend for the basalt regions is the same as below .
At its simplest the geologic deformation processes operating at Iceland are superimposed on the normal processes shown above at the mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The geological deformation of Iceland is the way that the rocks of the island of Iceland are changing due to tectonic forces. The geological deformation help to explain the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, fissures, and the shape of the island. Iceland is the largest landmass (102,775 km2 (39,682 sq mi)) situated on an oceanic ridge . [1] : 35 It is an elevated plateau of the sea floor, situated at the crossing of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Greenland-Iceland-Scotland ridge. [2] : 59 It lies along the oceanic divergent plate boundary of North American Plate and Eurasian Plate . The western part of Iceland sits on the North American Plate and the eastern part sits on the Eurasian Plate . The Reykjanes Ridge of the Mid-Atlantic ridge system in this region crosses the island from southwest and connects to the Kolbeinsey Ridge in the northeast. [1] : 39, 40, 49
Iceland is geologically young: all rocks there were formed within the last 25 million years. [2] It started forming in the Early Miocene sub-epoch, but the oldest rocks found at the surface of Iceland are from the Middle Miocene sub-epoch. Nearly half of Iceland was formed from a slow spreading period from 9 to 20 million years ago (Ma). [2]
The geological structures and geomorphology of Iceland are strongly influenced by the spreading plate boundary and the Iceland hotspot . Although some have questioned if a hotspot is necessary to explain the observed deformations of Iceland this is currently felt to best explain observations of rock composition and age obtained by modern techniques. [3] The buoyancy of the deep-seated mantle plume underneath has uplifted the Iceland basalt plateau to as high as 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The crust over the plume is also up to 40 km (25 mi) thick which is much thicker than elsewhere in Iceland and a contrast to the minimum thickness of 8 km (5.0 mi) which is a thickness more typical of oceanic divergent plate boundaries. [4] The central part of Iceland is still lifting but the current rate of crustal lifting of 3 cm/year (1.2 in/year) is mainly explained by glacial isostatic adjustment in response to the retreat of ice since 1890 which has removed much weight from the thick icesheet. [4] The hotspot also produces high volcanic activity on the plate boundary. [1] : 50
There are two major geologic and topographic structural trends in Iceland. One strikes north-east in southern Iceland and strikes nearly north in northern Iceland. The other one strikes approximately west to north-west. Altogether they produce a zigzag pattern. The pattern is shown by faults , volcanic fissures , valleys , dikes , volcanoes , grabens and fault scarps . [2]
Deformation of Iceland
The geological deformation of Iceland is mainly caused by the active spreading of the mid-oceanic ridge The Reykjanes Ridge south of Iceland comes ashore at Reykjanes where all of the extension of the northern Reykjanes ridge (NRR), [5] is accommodated in the Reykjanes Peninsula . At Reykjavík towards the northern end of this peninsula the relative movement of the North American Plate away from the Eurasian Plate can be modelled as 1.883 cm/year (0.741 in/year), but less than 60% of this divergence is accommodated by tectonic structures just to the immediate east of Reykjavík, with most of the rest being absorbed by tectonic structures in the south-east of Iceland. [6] This is as other extensional cracks and transform faults are found perpendicular to the spreading direction. [1] : 50 The transform-fault zones are also known as fracture zones . These fracture zones allow large volumes of lava to be erupted . The most productive volcanic region is located under the Vatnajökull glacier in the mid-east of Iceland where all of about 1.853 cm/year (0.730 in/year) of extension is being accommodated near a plate triple junction . On the surface of Iceland, linear volcanic fissures formed along the rifts and appear in a swarm-like pattern. They are connected by fracture zones, forming the volcanic zones. [2]
The Kolbeinsey Ridge assumes 100% of the divergence rate of 1.834 cm/year (0.722 in/year) measured near Akureki on the north coast of Iceland, which compared to the vector in the south-east of Iceland is less and slightly more pointing to the north. [6] Accordingly in between Iceland is being twisted slightly and the tectonic structures are diverging more at the south than at the north. [6]
Deformation has also been influenced by the context of glaciation and then its retreat from around 3.3 million years ago. [4] The historic subglacial volcanic eruptions result on the exposure, after the recent ice retreat, of distinctive flat topped landforms such as tuyas and rebound effects need to be accounted for in the seismic interpretations outlined below.
Plate boundary deformation zones
Crustal movements have created two plate boundary deformation zones between the major plates, the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. [1] : 38–39
In northern Iceland, the width of the deformation zone is about 100 km (62 mi) wide. [1] : 38 It accumulates strain which come from rifting episodes and larger earthquakes. [1] : 38 This is manifest as the Tjörnes fracture zone (TFZ) off the northern coast. [1] : 40, 49
Hreppar microplate
Transform fault zones
Bookshelf faulting
Fig 2. Bookshelf faulting mechanism: The transform fault is induced by strike-slip motion (sinistral movement) that is transverse to the fault zone. The blocks between the faults are slightly rotated afterwards, moving in a dextral movement.
Stress is built up during the spreading movements at the plate boundary. The accumulated stress in transform fault zones is released during strike-slip earthquakes. The transform fault is induced by strike-slip motion that is transverse to the fault zone. The blocks between the faults are slightly rotated afterwards. A diagram (fig.2) is shown to illustrate this phenomenon. Since the rotation of the blocks is similar to a line of books leaning on a bookshelf, it is termed "bookshelf faulting". [1] : 41
Bookshelf faulting is an indicator of the young geological history of the fault zones. It is common in the SISZ and Reykjanes area.
Other evidence
Tjörnes fracture zone
The Tjörnes fracture zone (TFZ, Tjörnes Volcanic Zone, [5] TVZ) is a tectonically complicated area. It is perhaps best regarded as a trans-tensional zone with transform faulting and spreading. [9] The TFZ is defined seismologically as an approximate triangle with apex about 67°N, sides 120 km (75 mi) and base of 150 km (93 mi) off the north coast of Iceland, connecting the north Iceland volcanic zone (NVZ) and the southern end of the Kolbeinsey Ridge . [10] : 117 This broad fracture zone is characterised by seismic activity, crustal extension and transform faulting. [1] : 49–50 The volcanic fissure swarms of the NVZ are connected to the southern end of TFZ. For example, its south-east end is connected to the Krafla fissure swarm.
The main structural components of the TFZ can be divided into three parts which trend from north-west to south-east, the Grímsey seismic zone, the Húsavík-Flatey fault zone and the Dalvík seismic zone. [10] [1] : 49–50 The TFZ shows a huge spatial difference in seismic activity. For example, the westernmost part of the TFZ shows seismic activity, but a few larger earthquakes (>M=5.5) also appear in the zone. [10]
MS 7 earthquakes have occurred in the Dalvík zone. [1] : 50 Shear stress accumulated along the Húsavík-Flatey fault zone caused localized, tectonic rotation as evidenced by field and paleomagnetic observations. [11]
The complexity in the TFZ can be generally explained by the magmatic processes and plate motions. The velocity of the divergent plate motion, estimated to be 18.9 ± 0.5 mm (0.744 ± 0.020 in)/year is strongly affected by the Icelandic mantle plume underneath central Iceland. [12] Volcanic activity can be found in the Dalvík seismic zone and southern tip of the Kolbeinsey Ridge. [13]
South Iceland seismic zone
The South Iceland seismic zone (SISZ), also known as the Reykjanes fracture zone(s), is 75 to 100 km (47 to 62 mi) wide, and strikes north-east to south-west in south-western Iceland. There are several approximately 40 km (25 mi) right lateral offsets of the ridge crest. The offsets create a transform fault zone connecting the EVZ and the Reykjanes volcanic belt . [7]
There is a significant change in the age and lithology of the volcanoes in a north-south direction near Reykjanes Peninsula due to bookshelf faulting. Bookshelf faulting is common in the SISZ. Since the transform motion in the SISZ is left-lateral, right-lateral faulting would occur and rotation of blocks would appear counter-clockwise. The sequential occurrence of major earthquakes in the SISZ provided evidence of bookshelf faulting. Within a single event, earthquakes begin in the eastern part of the SISZ with larger magnitudes and end up with smaller magnitudes in western part of the zone. [1] : 43 [7]
In the transform fault zones of Iceland, earthquakes usually occur on small scales (micro-earthquakes) due to plate straining and pore fluid pressure . Pore pressure increase can induce seismicity . A large amount of pore fluid pressure migrates from the brittle–ductile transition zone at about 10 km (6.2 mi) to the lithostatic/hydrostatic boundary at 3 km (1.9 mi) depth. [10] Large scale seismic activity is triggered if the pressure cannot pass through the transition zone. Small scale earthquakes are also released locally in or above the migration path. [10]
In 2000, two large earthquakes (see 2000 Iceland earthquakes ) at Mw 6.5 occurred in the SISZ. [14] [15] During these events, additional small scale earthquakes concentrated narrowly and linearly around the transform fault planes. [1] [16] Thus, with the same method, small scale earthquakes are also used to identify fault planes in the TFZ. These were followed by the slightly smaller 2008 Iceland earthquake .
Volcanic rift zones
Location of the volcanic rift zones and main volcanoes.
Many of the volcanoes of Iceland can be grouped by their relationship to rift zones and contribute to the understanding of the deformation that has taken place. Not all the names used to classify the volcanoes into groups are yet standardised and not all the volcanic and tectonic relationships are well characterised due to issues such as accessibility or less current activity.
Rift jump model
The evolution of the Icelandic volcanic rift zones can be explained by the rift jump model. [17]
Synform folding is expected to occur at the active rift axis. However, distinctive reversals in dip directions are found in south-western Iceland which indicate an anticline . It is believed that the relative positions of the Icelandic hot spot and the active rift spreading axis have changed with time. Assuming the Icelandic mantle plume is stationary, the spreading axis must have changed position. [17]
At least part of the spreading axis migrates at a rate of about 3.5–5 cm/year (1.4–2.0 in/year). [18] : 17512 After the active spreading axis has moved away from the plume, the mantle plume would adjust the position of the axis and forms a new rift closer to its centre. The migrated axis would gradually become extinct. [2] : 67
There are three major volcanic zones in Iceland, which are the Northern, Eastern and Western volcanic zones (NVZ, EVZ, WVZ), and all of which are currently active. The volcanic rift zones cross the island from south-west to north-east. Each zone consists of 20–50 km (12–31 mi) wide belts and is characterised by active volcanoes, numerous normal faults, a high temperature geothermal field and fissure swarms. [19] The EVZ will eventually take over the WVZ according to the rift jump process. [1] : 35, 54
Historic major rift zone jumps of Iceland. The oldest Westfjords Rift Zone (3) is off the north-west coast, the Snæfellsnes-Húnaflói rift zone (2) became inactive when it jumped 6 to 7 million years ago, the Western volcanic zone (1v) is becoming inactive while Northern volcanic zone (1n) propagates south as the Eastern volcanic zone (4).
Northern volcanic zone
The 50 km (31 mi) wide Northern volcanic zone (NVZ, North volcanic zone of Iceland, Northern rift zone) [20] is composed of five volcanic systems arranged zigzag-like along the mid-Atlantic plate boundary. [1] : 46–49 It shows quite low seismic activity. The volcanic activity is confined to the Krafla central volcano and its associated fissure swarms. [7] It accommodates the entire rifting of North Iceland and can be regarded at the present time to be in a steady state of spreading rate. [3] There is a greater predominance of lava shields than in the other active rifting areas. [1] : 46–47 The Icelandic shield volcanoes that produced these large lava fields here and in the WVZ did so in a single almost continuous eruptive process that is distinct from the repeated discontinuous eruptions often seen in shield volcanoes elsewhere in the world and that would earn them the classification as a central volcano in the Iceland geological context. [21] : 11–12
The Krafla central volcano is not distinctive within the volcanic rift zone. Fissure swarms of the Krafla spread away from the magma chamber and magma flows along the swarms to the north and south of the volcano. Eruptive fissures within the fissure swarms are most common within 20–30 km (12–19 mi) distance from the central volcanoes. Fractures within the fissure swarms are common at up to a distance of 70–90 km (43–56 mi) from the central volcano. [7]
Fractures within the fissure swarms are generally subparallel to each other. Irregular fracture patterns are found where the Húsavík transform fault meets the fissure swarms, which indicates interaction between the fissure swarms and the strike-slip faults. [7]
The division between the NVZ and the EVZ is arbitrary, as the rifting structures are a single continuous structural identity. [3] A potential boundary exists given the change in strike direction of the fissure swarms formed in the last 10 million years at latitude 64.7° which was also followed by the 2014 dyke intrusion from Bárðarbunga towards the north, but this might be crossed by volcanic activity originating either to the south or north. [22] The North Iceland last major rift relocation occurred about 6 to 7 million years ago when the northern now extinct Snæfellsnes-Húnaflói rift zone (SHRZ), [23] shifted eastward to the new rift axis in the NVZ. [3] There is with new dating techniques accurate understanding of SHRZ history from the north western region of Iceland to the north eastern that was not available when the SHRZ was first described. [3]
Propagating rift mechanism as mentioned in the text. While this applies to the southern EVZ in a north to south orientation in Iceland, the shrinking rift label is likely inaccurate in the Iceland context as it is discontinuous. [20] : 26 The area in gray is analogous to the Hreppar microplate and the transform boundary is the SISZ.
Eastern volcanic zone
The Eastern volcanic zone (EVZ, East volcanic zone of Iceland) is located in south-east Iceland and has high volcanic activity. [1] : 46 It connects to the SISZ and NVC in its western and northern end respectively. Seismic activity focuses in the Vatnajökull Glacier area which is the accepted location of the Icelandic hot spot. [1] : 46 The EVZ started forming between 1.5 and 3 million years ago as a result of NVZ southward propagation. [20] : 2 It is the eastern boundary of the Hreppar microplate.
Deformed structures, including the dominant north-east trending eruptive fissure swarms and volcanic structures, [1] : 46 and some normal fault structures, can be found in EVZ. [24] Long hyaloclastite ridges, formed by subglacial eruptions during the last glacial period , are distinctive structures in the EVZ. Compared with WVZ, eruptive fissure swarms and hyaloclastite ridges are generally longer in the EVZ. [1] : 46 During the past glacial period , a huge volume of basaltic eruptions occurred, producing the long volcanic fissure swarms. The EVZ is geologically young, as mentioned above, the EVZ will eventually take over the WVZ according to the rift jump process model. [1] : 54
The southern EVZ is propagating to the south-west through older Eurasian Plate crust. [3] This results in active, sometimes explosive volcanism, and rifting in an off rift region called the South Iceland Volcanic Zone (SIVZ). [25]
Western volcanic zone
The Western volcanic zone (WVZ, West volcanic zone of Iceland) is located to the north of the SISZ, where its northern end connects to the Langjökull area. [1] : 44–5 It has been the active propagating rift in the last 7 million years, [23] but is now regarded as waning in active rift activity as the hotspot shifts eastward, [3] and with the re-classification of the active volcanoes of the Reykjanes Peninsula from the WVZ to the Reykjanes volcanic belt (RVB) which is now regarded as a trans-tensional zone with transform faulting and spreading. [9] Structures related to normal faulting are much more apparent than in the younger EVZ. [1] : 46 The WVZ initially took over as the principle plate boundary in Iceland about 6 million years ago from its predecessor the Snæfellsnes Rift, which then connected western Iceland to north Iceland. [20] : 2 During this period of activity it was known as the Reykjanes-Langjökull rift zone which propagated to the south-west. [20] : 2 Until 2 million years ago the seafloor spreading around Iceland was accommodated by this rift zone, an ill-defined transverse connecting zone between it and the NVZ. [20] : 2 As the EVZ became active the Reykjanes-Langjökull rift zone became today's WVZ. The WVZ remains active despite being an ultra-slow spreading center with extension rates of 0.3–0.7 cm/year (0.12–0.28 in/year) which is 20–30% of the total opening across south Iceland. [20] : 3 The discontinuous failing of the WVZ compared to other described failing rifts is evidenced by, [20] : 26 for example, the middle and northern parts of the WVZ having more recent volcanic activity than the southern parts which is not as expected for a rift failing from the north. [20] : Fig.11
In the northern part of the WVZ, normal faulting is still common but volcanic fissures become less dominant and active. The WVZ is the western boundary of the Hreppar microplate.
Shield volcanoes are also observed in this zone. The Þingvellir Graben is evidence of divergent plate movement in Iceland. It shows a clear extensional feature. [1] : 44 It is located to the north of the plate triple junction manifest as the intersection of the WVZ, RVB and SISZ near the Hengill volcano. [26]
Mid-Iceland belt
Intra-plate deformation
Snæfellsnes volcanic belt
The Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB, Snæfellsnes volcanic zone, [5] SVZ) is an area of renewed intra-plate volcanism (North American Plate), less than 1.5 million years old. [29] The SVB erupted through the western aspects of the extinct SHRZ, which is a predecessor to the present MIB. The SHRZ formed when the WVZ had the hotspot directly under it, and existed prior to the last historic rift zone jump. [3] The SHRZ had produced underlying crustal tholeiitic flood basalts that are over 5 million years old. [29] It is unknown if the SHRZ and or hot spot interactions are the reason for the SVB and this continues to be an area of study. Proposed mechanisms of magma production invoke partial melting of hydrothermally altered, dominantly basaltic crust or fractional crystallization of primary basaltic magma or both mechanisms. [30] It is now known that the magma production/maturation time scale at over 100,000 years, is an order of magnitude or more greater than that in other zones in Iceland favouring fractional crystallization mechanisms as primary. [30]
The SVB comprises the stratovolcanoes of Snæfellsjökull , Helgrindur (Lýsuskarð) and Ljósufjöll in a peninsular east to west lineament, [28] and is mainly basaltic volcanism from sources such as monogenetic cinder cones and isolated sub-glacial tuyas such as Vatnafell rather than from the long fissures found in the rift zones. [29] These volcanoes have erupted recently small volumes of transitional to alkaline magmas relative to the less evolved magmas and larger volumes from the rift zones. [29] The underlying crust is thicker at about 25 km (16 mi) than in the active rift zone areas. [29] Magma storage, in the studied regions of the belt, occurs just above the Moho , at about 22–11 km (13.7–6.8 mi) in the lower to mid crust, [25] which is not usually the situation in the rift zones where magma chambers occur in the mid to shallow crust at about 5 km (3.1 mi). [29]
Approximate outline of the central volcanoes in the Öræfi volcanic belt in brown. Clicking on the image to enable mouse-over allows zoom in which shows caldera features in red shading and glacier features in white/blue shading.
The oldest volcanic rocks formed since the belt erupted transitional lavas through the basement tholeiitic magma series are at the mountain of Setberg to the north east of Grundarfjörður and near Elliðatindar, on each side of the present Helgrindur volcanic system. [31] The most recent eruption in the belt occurred at Rauðhálsahraun in the Ljósufjöll volcanic system about 960. [32]
Öræfi volcanic belt
See also
: 118
: Fig. 1
Ward, P. L. (1971). "New Interpretation of the Geology of Iceland". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 82 (11): 2991–3012. doi : 10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2991:NIOTGO]2.0.CO;2 .
: Introduction
Stefánsson, R.; Halldórsson, P. (September 1988). "Strain release and strain build-up in the south Iceland seismic zone". Tectonophysics. 152 (3–4): 267–276. Bibcode : 1988Tectp.152..267S . doi : 10.1016/0040-1951(88)90052-2 .
Riedel, C.; Schmidt, M.; Botz, R.; Theilen, F. (December 2001). "The Grimsey hydrothermal field offshore North Iceland: crustal structure, faulting and related gas venting". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 193 (3–4): 409–421. Bibcode : 2001E&PSL.193..409R . doi : 10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00519-2 .
Foulger, G.R.; Toomey, D.R. (1989). "Structure and evolution of the Hengill-Grensdalur Volcanic Complex, Iceland: Geology, geophysics, and seismic tomography". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 94 (B12): 17511–17522. Bibcode : 1989JGR....9417511F . doi : 10.1029/JB094iB12p17511 .
Flóvenz, Ó. G.; Saemundsson, K. (1993). "Heat flow and geothermal processes in Iceland". Tectonophysics. 225 (1–2): 123–138. Bibcode : 1993Tectp.225..123F . doi : 10.1016/0040-1951(93)90253-G .
^ a b c d e f g h i j
Sinton, J.; Grönvold, K; Sæmundsson, K. (2005). "Postglacial eruptive history of the western volcanic zone, Iceland". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 6 (12): 1–34. Bibcode : 2005GGG.....612009S . doi : 10.1029/2005GC001021 .
Andrew, R. E. B. (2008). PhD Dissertation: Volcanotectonic Evolution and Characteristic Volcanism of the Neovolcanic Zone of Iceland (PDF) (Thesis). Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen. pp. 1–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2011-05-24.
Gudmundsson, A.; Lecoeur, N.; Mohajeri, N.; Thordarson, T. (2014). "Dike emplacement at Bardarbunga, Iceland, induces unusual stress changes, caldera deformation, and earthquakes". Bulletin of Volcanology. 76 (10): 1–7. Bibcode : 2014BVol...76..869G . doi : 10.1007/s00445-014-0869-8 .
: 1
^ Þórarinsson, S., Sæmundsson, K., & Williams, R. S. (1973). ERTS-1 image of Vatnajökull: analysis of glaciological, structural, and volcanic features.
: 1128
: Abstract,Introduction
: 2–3
: Detailed Description:1. Geological setting and tectonic context
Geological deformation of Iceland
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51 | what type of plate boundary is associated with iceland and its volcanic eruptions | https://www.visiticeland.com/eruption/ | Volcanic eruptions in Iceland
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51 | what type of plate boundary is associated with iceland and its volcanic eruptions | https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/volcanoes/how-volcanoes-form-2/ | This section looks at the relationship between plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes, which helps to explain how volcanoes form.
If you look at a map showing the distribution of earthquakes around the world, it shows that they tend to be concentrated along well-defined belts. Correspondingly, maps of tectonic plate boundaries are primarily produced using earthquake locations. We can also can see from the distribution of volcanoes around the world that most lie on plate boundaries too, in particular a region a called the Pacific Ring of Fire around the edge of the Pacific Plate.
World map showing tectonic plates and the locations of currently active volcanoes. Map courtesy of the US Geological Survey.
The tectonic plates are in contact with each other, but they are also moving relative to one another. The movement of faults at plate boundaries can provide a convenient pathway for magma to reach the surface. It helps to explain this by looking at the three main types of plate boundary:
constructive boundaries (divergent): where plates are moving away from each other as new crust is created between the two plates
destructive boundaries (convergent): where plates are moving towards each other and old crust is either dragged down into the mantle at a subduction zone or pushed upwards to form mountain ranges
transform boundaries (conservative): where are plates are moving past each other and crust is neither created nor destroyed
Cross section of the Earth showing the relationship between the structure of the Earth and the movement of the tectonic plates. Ocean crust is coloured light brown and continental crust, dark brown. BGS ©UKRI. All rights reserved.
There are three settings where volcanoes typically form:
constructive plate boundaries
destructive plate boundaries
hot spots
Volcanoes do not typically occur at transform boundaries. One of the reasons for this is that there is little or no magma available at the plate boundary.
Fast Fact
The most common magmas at constructive plate margins are the iron/magnesium-rich magmas that produce basalts. At subduction zones the less iron-rich (intermediate) magmas that produce andesite lavas are most commonly erupted, although silicon-rich magmas sometimes erupt there too.
The balance between iron/magnesium and silicon composition changes the runniness: iron/magnesium-rich basaltic magmas are the most runny (low viscosity) at one end of the scale and silicon-rich are the least runny (highly viscous) at the other end. Basaltic magmas are also usually the hottest and the hotter the magma is the less viscous it is as well. Basaltic magmas also tend to contain few crystals, increasing their runniness. When magmas contain a lot of gas this makes them more runny too, although basaltic magmas usually do not contain much gas. So in summary, iron/magnesium-rich basaltic magmas are free-flowing with low viscosity, while intermediate and silicon-rich magmas are very sticky with high viscosity.
When runny basaltic magma erupts as lava, it pours out of the ground along long surface cracks or through volcanic vents and may be sprayed into the air as spectacular lava fountains. Rivers of lava can flow over the ground or move more slowly as blocky masses bulldozing along. The eruption of intermediate and silicon-rich magma is very different. It erupts from vents, sometimes as lava, but usually the magma becomes solid within the volcanic vent, giving much more explosive eruptions.
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Constructive plate boundary volcanoes
At constructive plate boundaries, the tectonic plates are moving away from one another. The Earth’s crust is pulled apart to create a new pathway for rising hot magma to flow on to the surface. Volcanoes can sometimes form in these setting; one example is Iceland.
Iceland lies on the Mid Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary, where the North American and Eurasian plates are moving away from each other. As the plates pull apart, molten rock (magma) rises up and erupts as lava, creating new ocean crust. The island is covered with more than 100 volcanoes. Some are extinct, but over 30 are still active. The majority of volcanism in Iceland occurs along volcanic rift zones that cut through the centre of the island.
At constructive plate boundaries, also known as divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from one another to produce volcanoes. Hot magma rises from the mantle at mid-ocean ridges, pushing the plates apart. BGS © UKRI.
Note: Iceland also sits above a mantle plume, or hot spot , where hot magma wells up from deep in the Earth’s mantle. The interaction of these two types of volcanism, over the last 15 million years or more, has created the island of Iceland.
Destructive plate boundary volcanoes
Destructive, or convergent, plate boundaries are where the tectonic plates are moving towards each other. Volcanoes form here in two settings where either oceanic plate descends below another oceanic plate or an oceanic plate descends below a continental plate. This process is called subduction and creates distinctive types of volcanoes depending on the setting:
ocean-ocean subduction produces an island-arc volcano
ocean-continent subduction produces Andean-type volcanoes
Volcanoes can form at subduction zones where tectonic plates are moving towards each other and one plate descends beneath the other. This illustration shows ocean-continent subduction. BGS © UKRI.
Subduction provides a mechanism for introducing water-bearing sediments into the mantle. As the subducted oceanic plate sinks and heats up, water is gradually released from the sediments and minerals within the plate ‘slab’. Water has the effect of reducing the melting temperature of the mantle by about 60–100°C. It is this process that allows the generation of magma at depth that feeds volcanoes that are formed at the surface.
Note: There is a third setting of destructive boundary: continent-continent. Here, the pushing together of two continental plates results in the mountain forming processes that shaped, for example, the Alps and Himalayas.
Hot-spot volcanism
Volcanoes can also form above a column of superheated magma called a mantle plume. This may happen in areas that are distant from plate boundaries. It is also referred to as hot spot or intraplate volcanism.
Heat from the mantle plume causes melting and thinning of the crust, which leads to volcanic activity at the surface. The Hawai’ian Islands are a chain of volcanoes in the middle of the Pacific Plate, which have formed due to the presence of a hot spot. The Hawai’ian hot spot causes magma to rise and erupt as lava on the ocean floor. Over millions of years, the Pacific Plate has moved over the hot spot, creating a chain of volcanic islands.
This simple schematic diagram shows the movement of the tectonic plate (light brown) over a mantle plume, or hot spot, to produce a chain of volcanic islands. The superheated magma rises through the mantle (yellow), melts the crust above (brown) and flows on to the surface forming a volcano. Typically, hotspot volcanoes are formed with ‘runny’ lava and have a flatter, less cone-like, profile and are called shield volcanoes. Diagram not to scale. © Public domain.
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51 | what type of plate boundary is associated with iceland and its volcanic eruptions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volcanic_eruptions_in_Iceland | List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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)
This is an incomplete list of volcanic eruptions in Iceland . Please see External links below for databases of Icelandic eruptions which include over 530 events.
For latest information about the current/ongoing series of eruptions near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula - See 2023–2024 Sundhnúkur eruptions
Index map of eruptions, fissures, glaciers and notable sites
Alphabetic index of eruptions, fissures and notable sites
Iceland Mid-Atlantic Ridge map
Askja (and Víti, geothermal lake, in the foreground)See "Askja index"
Askja 1875 - Ashfall drift from one of the largest ash eruptions in Icelandic history. Eruption from Víti and other craters began on 28 March and lasted for about eight hours. Heavy ash damage in the middle of East Iceland caused farms to be deserted, and East Fjord people moved to the West. See "Askja index"
Eldfell volcano, January 1973. Water was pumped onto this lava flow to halt its advance down the street. See Eldfell index , Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
Eldfell (right) and Helgafell (left) in 2006. The fissure from the 1973 eruption is visible running from the lower left to the center of the image. See Eldfell index , Helgafell index , Vestmannaeyjar Islands index
People on the slopes of Fagradalsfjall , watching the Geldingadalir eruption 2021. See Fagradalsfjall index
Lava fountains of the Fagradalsfjall eruption, seen from Reykjavík on 9 May 2021.See Fagradalsfjall index
Fagradalsfjall , The new eruption fissures to the left, the older ones to the right, seen from a helicopter, view to the east.See Fagradalsfjall index
Memorial of the 1996 Gjálp jökulhlaup on Skeiðarársandur , outlet glacier . Svínafellsjökull in the background.It took some time to fill the subglacial lake of Grímsvötn and break the ice wall.See Gjálp index
Grímsvötn and the Vatnajökull glacier, July 1972. Including the Skaftá eruption of 1783, Grímsvötn is probably the most eruptive volcano system in Iceland. The Laki/Lakagígar lava field alone is estimated to have produced about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of lava. Grímsvötn has probably had more than 30 eruptions in the last 400 years, and produced around 55 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) over the last 10,000 years. [1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) ) See Grímsvötn index , Vatnajökull index
Grimsvötn ash cloud. View of landscape during the 2011 eruption.See Grímsvötn index
Hekla and Þjórsá . Hekla has erupted at least 17 times in historical times, with total volume about 7 cubic kilometres (1.7 cu mi), but around 42 cubic kilometres (10 cu mi) since the last ice age. [1] See Hekla index
Detail of Abraham Ortelius ' 1585 map showing Hekla in eruption. The Latin text translates as "The Hekla, perpetually condemned to storms and snow, vomits stones under terrible noise".See Hekla index
The Holuhraun lava field, on 4 September 2014, during the 2014 eruption. See Holuhraun index
Holuhraun - Lava fountains of the fissure eruption on 13 September 2014.See Holuhraun index
Hvannadalshnúkur , part of the summit crater of Oraefajokull volcano, the highest peak in Iceland, part of the Oraefajokull-Vatnajokull National Park. See the Hvannadalshnúkur index
Hverfjall crater from the south. 2500 BP. 1km diameter.See Hverfjall index
Jólnir on 22 August 1966, two weeks after volcanic activity ceased. By the end of September 1966 it disappeared due to wave erosion. See Jólnir index
Katla , 1918. It has erupted 17 times in historical times, and Eldgjá seems to be part of the same system. The total volume of volcanic eruptions from Katla over the last 10,000 years is very similar to Grímsvötn. [1] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) ) See Katla index
Keilir with the smaller Keilirbörn hills in winter. (See "Keilir index" )
Valley in the Kerlingarfjöll area with geothermal activity. Part of a large tuya volcano system with hot springs. (See "Kerlingarfjöll index" )
Kolbeinsey - Eroded remnants of the island in 2020. First measured in 1616, the island was 700 metres (2,300 ft) from north to south and 100 m (330 ft) east to west.(See Kolbeinsey index )
Krafla - Lava flow during a rift eruption in 1984. (See Krafla index )
Aerial view of Krafla (mountain) and Krafla caldera with Leirhnjúkur in 2008. (See Krafla index )
A general view of Krafla , June 2007. (See Krafla index )
Sundhnúkur first eruption, 2023, photographed by the Icelandic Coast Guard. Grindavík is visible at the right background. (See Sundhnúkur index , Sundhnúkur 2023.12.18 )
Sundhnúkur second eruption, 14 January 2024, near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula. (See Sundhnúkur index , Sundhnúkur 2024.01.14 )
Sundhnúkur third eruption, 8 February 2024, near Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula. (See Sundhnúkur index , Sundhnúkur 2024.02.08 )
Surtsey , sixteen days after the onset of the eruption.(See Surtsey index , Vestmannaeyjar index )
Thrihnukagigur volcano - Inside the magma chamber. The only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber. The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface.(See Thríhnákagígur index )
Looking up the volcanic throat of Thrihnukagigur , an open volcanic conduit, from the former magma chamber.(See Thríhnákagígur index )
Þingvellir . The Mid-Atlantic Ridge passes across the Thingvellir National Park. The continental drift between the North American and Eurasian Plates can be clearly seen in the cracks or faults and rifts which traverse the region. The largest, Almannagjá, is a significant canyon. See Þingvellir index
Þingvellir National Park rift valley.See Þingvellir index
Tindfjallajökull , a 5-km-wide caldera was formed 54,000 years ago(See Tindfjallajökull index )
Tjörnes peninsula - Fossil bearing sedimentary rock, 23–2.6 million years old. (See Tjörnes Peninsula index )
There are about 32 volcanic systems in Iceland. Volcanic system means a volcano-tectonic fissure system and – very often a bigger volcano, a so-called central volcano which in most cases is a stratovolcano and may contain a caldera . [2] [3]
- Bárðarbunga ; An active stratovolcano located under the Vatnajökull glacier. The second highest mountain in Iceland, 2,009 metres (6,591 ft) above sea level, and part of a volcanic system that is approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) long and 25 kilometres (16 mi) wide. Historically there are large eruptions every 250–600 years. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
- Dyngjufjöll , a volcanic mountain range in the northeast of Iceland. It belongs to the Askja volcanic system or the volcanic system, (sometimes called the (Dyngjufjöll volcanic system), and is part of the Vatnajökull National Park . The central volcano of basalt and rhyolite has its own system of crevices and fissures, which last erupted in 1961. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Dyngjufjöll 1961 ,
- Eldey a small island about 13 kilometres off the coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula in south west. The Eldey and Geirfuglasker volcanic systems together form the 35–40 km (20 to 25 mile) long Eldey system on the mid-Atlantic ridge. There is not a central volcano . [5]
See Chronology of Eruptions below:[ example needed ]
- Eldfell , a volcanic cone on the island of Heimaey . It formed in a volcanic eruption which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey , in the Westman Islands , on 23 January 1973. The eruption caused a major crisis for the island and led to its temporary evacuation . Volcanic ash fell over most of the island, destroying around 400 homes, and a lava flow threatened to close off the harbour, the island's main income source via its fishing fleet. An operation was mounted to cool the advancing lava flow by pumping sea water onto it, which was successful in preventing the loss of the harbour. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
- Eldgjá , a volcano and a canyon that is part of the Katla volcano; a segment of a 40 kilometres (25 mi) chain of volcanic craters and fissure vents that extends northeast away from Katla . Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
Esja / Esjan
- Esjufjöll , subglacial volcano at the SE part of the Vatnajökull icecap. A strict nature reserve. [7] The volcanic system consists of the Snaehetta central volcano with a large caldera . Most of the volcano, including the 40 km2 caldera, is covered by the icecap. On the other hand, are parts of the SE flank exposed in NW-SE-trending ridges. [8] Most of the exposed rocks are mildly alkaline basalts , but there are also small amounts of rhyolitic rocks. [8] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) (or Oræfi Volcanic Belt . [9] [10] )
See Chronology of Eruptions below:[ example needed ]
- Fagradalsfjall ; is an active tuya volcano formed in the Last Glacial Period on the Reykjanes Peninsula , [14] [15] around 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Reykjavík . [16] Fagradalsfjall is also the name for the wider volcanic system covering an area 5 kilometres (3 mi) wide and 16 kilometres (10 mi) long between the Svartsengi and Krýsuvík systems. [17] No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Reykjanes Peninsula until 19 March 2021. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) .
- Festarfjall , an exposed tuya mountain on the south coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula near the Fagradalsfjall volcanic system and Grindavík . The flat topped volcano formed under the ice-sheet in the Last Glacial Period on the Reykjanes Peninsula , [14] It has been bisected vertically by coastal erosion, to expose its inner structure, including lava layers and an intrusive magma dyke. It may have been formed during two separate glacial periods. [14] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) . [ example needed ]
For the other Icelandic island named Geirfuglasker, see Geirfuglasker (Vestmannaeyjar) .
- Geirfuglasker ("Great Auk Rock") was a small islet near Reykjanes , Iceland , a volcanic rock with steep sides except for two landing places. It submerged beneath the waves in 1830, due to a volcanic eruption . Later a new Geirfuglasker appeared on the site. [19] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Geirfuglasker 1830 .
Gjálp is a hyaloclastite ridge (tindar) under the Vatnajökull glacier shield . It originated in an eruption series in 1996 which is probably part of the Grímsvötn volcanic system, [20] [21]
It was the first modern technical monitoring and analysis of a subglacial eruption under a thick ice cover with a resulting jökulhlaup . [22] [23] The volume of meltwater was around 4 km3. [24] The Vatnajökull glacier is part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Grensdalur 2,500,000
- Grímsey , is a small Icelandic island, 40 kilometres (20 nautical miles) off the north coast of the main island of Iceland , where it straddles the Arctic Circle . [25] (However, due to long-term oscillations in the Earth's axis, the Arctic Circle is shifting northward by about 14.5 metres (48 ft) per year (varying substantially from year to year due to the complexity of the movement). As of 2020, the place where the line crosses the island is close to the northern tip and by the middle of the 21st century it will pass north of Grimsey altogether.) Part of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Kerið is a volcanic crater lake located in the Grímsnes area in south Iceland , along the Golden Circle . It is one of several crater lakes in the area, known as the Western Volcanic Zone, created as the land moved over a localized hotspot , but it has the most visually recognizable caldera still intact. The caldera, like the other volcanic rock in the area, is composed of a red (rather than black) volcanic rock, and is approximately 55 m (180 ft) deep, 170 m (560 ft) wide, and 270 m (890 ft) across. Kerið's caldera is one of the three most recognisable volcanic craters because at approximately 6,500 years old, it is only half the age of most of the surrounding volcanic features. The other two are Seyðishólar and Kerhóll.
Although originally believed to have been formed by a volcanic explosion, studies of the Grímsnes region failed to find any supporting evidence. So it is now believed that Kerið was a cone volcano which erupted and emptied its magma reserve. Once the magma was depleted, the weight of the cone collapsed into the empty magma chamber . The current pool of water at the bottom of the crater is at the same level as the water table and is not caused by rainfall. [26]
- Grímsvötn ; an active volcano with a (partially subglacial) fissure system located in Vatnajökull National Park . Including the Skaftá eruption of 1783, Grímsvötn is probably the most eruptive volcano system in Iceland. The Laki/Lakagígar lava field alone is estimated to have produced about 15 cubic kilometres (3.6 cu mi) of lava. Grímsvötn has probably had more than 30 eruptions in the last 400 years, and produced around 55 cubic kilometres (13 cu mi) over the last 10,000 years. [1] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
- Hekla ; an active stratovolcano in the south. It is one of the most active volcanoes; over 20 eruptions since the year 1210. [27] During the Middle Ages it was known as the "Gateway to Hell". Part of a volcanic ridge, 40 km (25 mi) long. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
Helgafell (on Heimaey island)
- Hengill , A volcanic table mountain the southwest, to the south of Þingvellir. The volcano is still active, evidenced by its numerous hot springs and fumaroles. [30] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) .
- Hofsjökull , subglacial volcano is a shield type with caldera, formed during the Last Glacial Period . The Hofsjökull glacier is the third largest ice cap after Vatnajökull and Langjökull. The largest active volcano in the country, situated in the west of the Highlands [32] [33]
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Holuhraun 2014-15
- Hvalbakur . a small, uninhabited island is the easternmost point of Iceland. Located in the Austurland region, 35 kilometres (22 mi) offshore, it is 200 metres (660 ft) long and up to 100 metres (330 ft) wide, with its highest point 5 metres (16 ft) above sea level. It appears on maps from 1761 [35]
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Hveravellir , is a geothermal field of the Oddnýjarhnjúkur -Langjökull subglacial volcanic system in the north of Langjökull glacier. Part of the West volcanic zone (WVZ) .
Iceland hotspot
- Iceland hotspot ; a hotspot which is partly responsible for the high volcanic activity which has formed the Iceland Plateau and the island of Iceland . Iceland's location astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , where the Eurasian and North American Plates are moving apart, is partly responsible for this intense volcanic activity, but an additional cause is necessary to explain why Iceland is a substantial island while the rest of the ridge mostly consists of seamounts , with peaks below sea level .
As well as being a region of higher temperature than the surrounding mantle , the hotspot is believed to have a higher concentration of water . The presence of water in magma reduces the melting temperature, which may also play a role in enhancing Icelandic volcanism.
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Ingólfsfjall 400,000
- Jólnir , was a volcanic island off the south coast between December, 1965 and July, 1966. A vent of Surtsey , along with Syrtlingur and Surtla . Over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times, as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance, until oceanic erosion led to its final disappearance. [38] [39] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Jólnir 1963
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Keilir 2,500,000-11,000
- Kerlingarfjöll , a mountain range in the Highlands of Iceland near the Kjölur highland road. Part of a large tuya volcano system with hot springs and rivulets, as well as red volcanic rhyolite stone.
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Kolbeinsey , is a small basalt islet , devoid of vegetation , in the Greenland Sea located 105 kilometres (55 nautical miles) off the northern coast of Iceland , 74 km (40 nmi) north-northwest of the island of Grímsey . It is the northernmost point of Iceland and lies north of the Arctic Circle . [43] Kolbeinsey is subject to rapid wave erosion and is expected to disappear in the near future. Erosion rate data from 1994 suggested that this would happen around 2020. [44] As of April 2021 [update] , two small skerries remained visible at low tide . [45] [46]
Kolbeinsey is the only sub-aerial expression of this portion of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . It formed during the late- Pleistocene (from circa 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago.) (or Holocene ). Dredged glass shards indicate submarine eruptive activity during the late-Pleistocene until at least 11,800 radiocarbon years ago. [47] Part of the Kolbeinsey Ridge (KR) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
Kolbeinsey Ridge
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Kollóttadyngja , A shield volcano [49] in the Ódáðahraun lava-field. The summit crater contains a bowl about 150 metres in diameter with a depth of about 60–70 metres. Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Krafla , a volcanic caldera of about 10 km in diameter with a 90 km long fissure zone. It is located in the north of Iceland in the Mývatn region and is situated on the Iceland hotspot atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , which forms the divergent boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate . Its highest peak reaches up to 818 m and it is 2 km in depth. There have been 29 reported eruptions in recorded history . Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) .
- Krakatindur , a volcano in the county of Rangárvallasýsla, located east of Hekla, it is part of the Nýjahraun lava field. It is 858 meters high and last erupted in 1878. [50] [51] [52] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Krakatindur 1878
Laki / Lakagígar
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Laki 1783-84
- Landmannalaugar ; a lava field in the Fjallabak Nature Reserve in the Highlands, on the edge of the Laugahraun lava field . [58] This lava field was formed by an eruption in approximately 1477. [59] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Landmannalaugar 1477
- Langjökull , (long glacier) is the second largest ice cap in Iceland, (953 km2), after Vatnajökull . It is situated in the west of the interior or Highlands of Iceland and can be seen clearly from Haukadalur . The volume is 195 km3 and up to 580 m (1,900 ft) thick. The highest point (Baldjökull) is about 1,450 m (4,760 ft) above sea level. The largest recorded surface area was in 1840. [60] Part of the West volcanic zone (WVZ) . Associated volcanoes: Hveravellir , Prestahnúkur
- Ljósufjöll , is a fissure vent system and central volcano on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula. The eruption in 960±10 CE is the only one on the peninsula in recorded history. [61] Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB)) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Ljósufjöll 960
- Lýsuhóll ?, (also known as Lysukard or Helgrindur ), is the smallest volcano in Iceland. It is centrally located on Snaefellsnes Peninsula . It includes a chain of small, basaltic cinder cones. Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB) .
The last eruption of Lysuhóll is not dated. [62]
Mývatn (fires)
See Chronology of Eruptions below:[ example needed ]
- Nýey , was a small, uninhabited island that formed in 1783 due to an underwater eruption in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge southwest of Reykjanes , Iceland . It disappeared within a year. [63] [64] [65] Note: The tiny skerry called Eldeyjarboði may be its remnants.[ citation needed ] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Nýey 1783 ,
- Öræfajökull , An ice-covered active volcano, it lies within the Vatnajökull National Park. (Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (OVB) ).
- Prestahnúkur , is a volcano in the Central Highlands, a part of the Langjökull glacier. It consists of rhyolite and has a small magma chamber. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) .
- Reykjanes , The "Reykjanes Volcanic System" is one of the volcanic systems on Reykjanes Peninsula, and consists of (volcanic and tectonic) fissures and faults directed mostly NE-SW. It is part of Reykjanes Volcanic Belt like the 3-6 (depending on author) other volcanic systems on Reykjanes Peninsula. [66] [67] [68] [69] No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Peninsula until 19 March 2021 when a fissure vent appeared in Geldingadalir to the south of Fagradalsfjall mountain. [70] [71] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) . See Fagradalsfjall in index.
Snæfell , at 1,833 m (6,014 ft) high, is the tallest subaerial stratovolcano in Iceland. Located in the north-east part of Vatnajökull National Park , it has been dormant in the Holocene , but is known to have had repose times of over 100,000 years between eruptions. (Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (OVB) ).
See Chronology of Eruptions below:
Stóra-Eldborg undir Geitahlíð
- Surtsey , A volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast. It was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres (430 feet) below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its maximum size of 2.7 km2 (1.0 sq mi). [74] The most recent survey (2007) shows the island's maximum elevation at 155 m (509 ft) above sea level. [75] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Surtsey 1963
Þjórsá Lava / Thjórsá Lava
- Thórólfsfell , Þórólfsfell , a basaltic tuya in southern Iceland, east of Fljótshlíð . The upper section is made up of pillow lavas and is 574 metres above sea level. Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) .
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
Þrándarjökull / Thrándarjökull
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
- Thrihnukagigur ( Thríhnákagígur ), (Three Peaks Crater) is a dormant volcano in the volcanic system of Brennisteinsfjöll near Reykjavík , Iceland . [80] Covering a 3,270 square metres (35,200 sq ft) area and a depth of 213 meters (699 ft), [81] it has not erupted in the past 4000 years. [82] It opened for tourism in 2012, the only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber . The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface. [83] Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) .
- Tindfjallajökull is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland . [72] It has erupted rocks of basaltic to rhyolitic composition, and a 5-km-wide caldera was formed during the eruption of the 54,000-year-old Thórsmörk Ignimbrite. It is capped by a glacier of 19 km2. [84] Its highest peak is Ýmir.
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Tindfjallajökull 54,000
Tjörnes Fracture Zone
Tjörnes Peninsula (non-volcanic)
- Torfajökull . a rhyolitic stratovolcano , caldera ( central volcano ) and complex of subglacial volcanoes , located north of Mýrdalsjökull . The 1477 eruption created the largest area of silicic extrusive rocks in Iceland. The 870 eruption, a combined bimodal eruption ( rhyolite - basalt ) with additional engagement of the Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system , has left a thin layer of easily recognized mixed tephra all over Iceland ( Landnámslag ). [89] This layer makes it possible to determine the exact dates of many archeological finds by so-called tephrochronology , like in the Reykjavík 871±2 museum.
- Trölladyngja , Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field , it is the biggest Icelandic shield volcano , with a height of 1,468 metres (4,816 ft) [90] and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields. It is about 10 kilometres in diameter. Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length, 500 metres broad, and about 100 metres deep. Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction, with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur , a distance of roughly 100 km. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Trölladyngja 1151 , Trölladyngja 1961 , (Note : there are claims ( Trölladyngja ) that the last eruption was 5,000 years ago.[ citation needed ])
- Tungnafellsjökull , a glacier and volcano in Iceland . It has an elevation of 1,523 metres (4,997 ft) and is located northwest of Vatnajökull glacier. (Part of the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) )
See Chronology of Eruptions below: [ example needed ]
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Vatnafjöll 800
- Viðey , ( caldera ,[ citation needed ]) at Reykjavík . About two million years ago during the Pleistocene , Viðey was an active volcano with a massive caldera . [95] The remains of the caldera are much larger than the modern island itself, with the island near the caldera's center. The rest of the caldera underlies a large part of what is now Kollafjörður . [96] The underwater eruption that formed Viðey island stopped circa 9,000 years ago. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
See Chronology of Eruptions below: Viðey 2,600,000-9,000
Chronological list of eruptions
Dates are approximate. Please see individual articles that may have more date detail.
16,000,000 years ago - the oldest known rock in Iceland was formed in a lava eruption. The age of the basaltic strata from west to east is 16–10 million years. [97] [98] (See Geology of Iceland - Origins )
Circa 3,200,000 years ago ( Plio - Pleistocene ) - Esjan ( Esja ) - The western part is about 3.2 million years and the eastern part is about 1.8 million years. The movements of the plate boundaries are continually moving the strata to the west and away from the active volcanic zone. [6] Two volcanoes were active in the Reykjavík region, Viðey volcano and Stardals volcano.[ citation needed ] They partially formed Esja ( Esjan ); the smaller mountains near Reykjavík; plus the islands and small peninsulas like Viðey and Kjalarnes . [6] [99] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
2,600,000-9,000 years ago - Viðey About two million years ago during the Pleistocene , Viðey was an active volcano with a massive caldera . [95] The remains of this caldera are much larger than the modern island itself, with the island near the caldera's center. The rest of the caldera underlies a large part of what is now Kollafjörður . [96] The underwater eruption that formed Viðey island stopped circa 9,000 years ago. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
2,500,000-11,000 years ago. Keilir was formed during a subglacial fissure eruption which thawed the ice and formed a subglacial lake, and caused explosive activity . Ice thickness and more exact time of eruption are not known, just that it took place during the Pleistocene ( Weichselian ). [100] [101] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
2,500,000-11,000 years ago - Hofsjökull , subglacial volcano is a shield type with caldera. The third largest ice cap after Vatnajökull and Langjökull and the largest active volcano in the country, situated in the west of the Highlands [32] [102] [103]
Circa 1,800,000 years ago ( Plio - Pleistocene ) - Esjan ( Esja ) - The western part is about 3.2 million years and the eastern part is about 1.8 million years. The movements of the plate boundaries are continually moving the strata to the west and away from the active volcanic zone. [6] Two volcanoes were active in the Reykjavík region, Viðey volcano and Stardals volcano.[ citation needed ] They partially formed Esja ( Esjan ); the smaller mountains near Reykjavík; plus the islands and small peninsulas like Viðey and Kjalarnes . [6] [99] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
400,000-500,000 years ago - Ingólfsfjall , The main volcanic bulk is about 400-500 000 years old. [104] (Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) )
42,000-12,400 years ago - Sveifluháls , volcanic melting of glacier ice induced the formation of one or more subglacial meltwater lakes. Dropping overburden pressures led to the eruption of vitric phreatomagmatic tuff . [105]
Circa 10,600 years ago - Katla . It is thought that Katla is the source of more than 6 to 7 cubic kilometers (1.4 to 1.7 cu mi) of tephra [106] [107] [108] [109] 'Vedde Ash' found at a number of sites including Vedde in Norway, Denmark, Scotland and North Atlantic cores. [110]
Circa 9,500 BC Theistareykjarbunga ( Þeistareykjarbunga ). The first of three dated eruptions, produced approximately 18 billion cubic metres of basaltic lava. [111] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
circa 9,000 years ago - Skjaldbreiður lava shield formed in one huge and protracted eruption.[ citation needed ] The lava flowed south and formed the basin of Þingvallavatn , Iceland's largest lake.
8230 BC - Grímsvötn The eruption was VEI 6, producing some 15 km3 (3.6 cu mi) of tephra , resulting in the Saksunarvatn tephra . [112] [113] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
6700 BC. - the "Great Þjórsá Lava flow", the largest known effusive eruption in Iceland in the last 10,000 years, originated from the Veiðivötn ( is:Veiðivötn ) ( area. [114] The Þjórsá lava field is up to 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in area and flowed over 100 km (62 mi) to the sea and forms the coast between Þjórsá and Ölfusá . [115] [116] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) ) Note: Bárðarbunga 6600 BC is also described as "about 8,600 years ago, with a total volume of 21 [4] to 30 cubic kilometres and covering approximately 950 square kilometres." [117]
Circa 5,800 BC - Hveravellir ? The Kjalhraun (hraun means "lava field") lava field is about 7,800 years old. [118]
5000 BC - Hekla (H5). The first acidic eruption in Hekla . The ash layer H5 is found in soil in the central highlands and in many parts of the North. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
Circa 6,500 BP - Kerið , is a volcanic crater lake located in the Grímsnes area. It is believed that Kerið was a cone volcano which erupted and emptied its magma reserve. Once the magma was depleted, the weight of the cone collapsed into the empty magma chamber . The pool of water at the bottom of the crater is at the same level as the water table and is not caused by rainfall. [26]
6000 BP - The Stórhöfði peninsula was formed to the south of Helgafell on the island of Heimaey . [29]
5000 BP - Bláfjöll Volcanic System , lava flow reached Reykjavík 20 km (12 mi) west. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
3350 BCE (?) - Prestahnúkur, volcano in the west of the Highlands of Iceland to the west of Langjökull glacier. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) .
3550 BC Thórðarhyrna , An eruption in 3550 BC ± 500 years poured out 150,000,000 cubic meters of lava in the area of Bergvatnsárhraun , to the south of Thordarhyrna. [121]
3500 BC - Grímsnes , VEI 3. The Grímsneshraun lava-fields in the area cover a total of 54 km2 (21 sq mi). The total volume of lava produced in the lava flows of Grímsnes has been estimated at 1.2 cubic kilometres (0.29 cu mi). (Part of the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) )
4,000 BP - Thríhnákagígur , an eruption in the volcanic system of Brennisteinsfjöll covered an area of 3,270 square metres (35,200 sq ft) to a depth of 213 meters (699 ft), [80] [81] [82] It is the only volcano in the world where visitors can take an elevator into the magma chamber . The magma that would normally fill the chamber and become sealed is believed to have drained away, revealing the rift beneath the surface. Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) .
1200 BC - Veiðivatnasvæði, Búrfellshraun flowed from a series of craters near Veiðivötn ( is:Veiðivötn ), on the one hand to Þórisós and on the other hand down with Tungná and Þjórsá all the way down to Landsveit
1130 BC - Hengill is a volcanic table mountain situated in the southwest. The range covers an area of about 4 by 7 km2. It is still active, evidenced by its numerous hot springs and fumaroles , but the last eruption occurred approximately 2,000 years ago, before the settlement of Iceland . (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
Circa 1,000-900 BC - Hekla (H3) is considered the most severe eruption of Hekla during the Holocene . which threw about 7.3 cubic kilometres (1.8 cu mi) of volcanic rock into the atmosphere, placing its Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) at 5. This would have cooled temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere for several years afterwards. Traces have been identified in Scottish peat bogs , and dendrochronology shows a decade of negligible tree ring growth in Ireland. An eighteen-year span of global cooling that is recorded in Irish bog oaks has been attributed to H-3. [124] [125] The eruption is detectable in Greenland ice cores , the bristlecone pine sequence, and the Irish oak sequence of extremely narrow growth rings. A research team led by Baker dated it to 1021 BC ±130. [126] [127] [27] [128] [129] Some Egyptologists have dated the eruption to 1159 BC , and blamed it for famines under Ramesses III during the wider Bronze Age collapse . [130] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
800 BC (± 300 years) - Fremrinámur . [131] It is at the junction of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Greenland–Iceland–Faeroe Ridge. [18] It is one of five volcanic systems found in the axial rift zone in north east Iceland. [132] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
circa 500 BC - Hverfjall (Hverfell) is a tephra cone or Phreatomagmatic eruption in northern Iceland . The eruption was in the southern part of the Krafla fissure swarm. [133] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
300 BC Mývatn , large fissure eruption pouring out basaltic lava. The lava flowed down the valley Laxárdalur to the lowland plain of Aðaldalur where it entered the Arctic Ocean about 50 km (31 mi) away from Mývatn. The crater row that was formed on top of the eruptive fissure is called Þrengslaborgir (or Lúdentsborgir). (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
Common era (CE), Anno Domini (AD)
Circa 50-350 CE Snæfellsjökull , The latest eruption took place circa 50-350 CE and released approximately 0.11 km3 (144,000,000 cu yd) of volcanic material. The eruption was explosive and originated from the summit crater, and may have produced lava flows. [137] [138] (Part of the Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB) )
Note. The Volcanic winter of 536 was the most severe and protracted episode of climatic cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2,000 years. [139] The source of the eruption remains to be found. Icelandic volcanos were proposed. [93] [140] However, the cryptotephras dated exactly to AD 536 are geochemically distinct from Icelandic tephra, [141] and the shards in the Swiss glacier have large age uncertainty. [93]
Katla 751-763 ± 2 Hrafnkatla (AT-8 or E2) series of eruptions including large eruptions in 757 and 763 ± 2 with total tephra volume greater than 4,500 km3 (1,100 cu mi) [142]
Grímsvötn 753 ± 2 From ice core data [142]
Grímsvötn 781 ± 2 From ice core data [142]
9th century
Dates are approximate. (Note: First Norse settlers arrived in 870/874.) Please see individual articles that may have more date detail.
circa 800 - Vatnafjöll . A 40 km (25 mi) long, 9 km (6 mi) wide basaltic fissure vent system. It is part of the same system as Hekla . More than two dozen eruptions have occurred at Vatnafjöll during the Holocene Epoch . [91] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
822 - Katla . An effusive eruption with large jökulhlaup dated within 6 months between late 822 to early 823 CE by tree ring data. [143] [142]
877 - Ash and lava eruptions in Vatnaöldur in so called "Settlement eruption" dated to 877 ± 2 CE. [142] The craters resulted from 65 kilometres (40 mi) (or 42 kilometres (26 mi) [91] ) long volcanic fissures within the area of a lake. The mainly explosive eruptions emitted 5–10 km3 (1.2–2.4 cu mi) of tholeiite basalt . [145] [146] The first eruption since human settlement of Iceland was the Vatnaöldur ( Bárðarbunga ) eruption, which had a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4. [72] (It is part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
10th century
920 - Reykjanes , location uncertain, but tuff layer from the eruption is known. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
939 (or 934) - Katla and Eldgjá : VEI 6. Dated now to 939 ± 2 CE. [142] A large lava flow from Eldgjá flowed over Álftaver ( is: Álftaver ), Meðalland and Landbrot ( is: Landbrot ). The eruption was the largest flood basalt in historic time (800 square kilometres (310 sq mi), [149] 18 cubic kilometres (4.3 cu mi) of magma . [150] ) [151] [152] Evidence from tree rings in the Northern Hemisphere indicates that 940 was one of the coolest summers in 1500 years. Summer average temperatures in Central Europe , Scandinavia , Canada , Alaska , and Central Asia were 2 °C lower than normal. [153] Probably the earthquake from which Molda-Gnúpur and his people fled according to "Settlement". Landnáma also tells about the formation of Sólheimasandur ( is:Sólheimasandur ) in the great course of the Jökulsá river. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
960 - Ljósufjöll is a fissure vent system and central volcano on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula. This 960±10 CE eruption is the only one on the peninsula in recorded history. [61]
999 or 1000 - Svínahraun ( lava )
Circa 1000 - Hveravellir . A volcanic system in the Arnarvatnsheiði . The craters of this system produced the lava field Hallmundarhraun which extends some 50 kilometres (31 mi) westward into the valley of the Hvítá. [154]
11th century
12th century
1158 - Hekla , second eruption. A VEI 4 eruption began on 19 January 1158 producing over 0.15 km3 of lava and 0.2 km3 of tephra . It is likely to be the source of the Efrahvolshraun lava on Hekla's west. [129] [156] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1160-1180 - Two eruptions in the sea off Reykjanes (ash layer known). (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
1188 - ? Rjúpnadyngju lava flow and Mávahlíða lava flow. Rjúpnadyngjuhraun og Mávahlíðahraun runnu
13th century
1206 - Reykjanes peninsula . 1206? Information and [ citation needed ] No volcanic eruption had occurred for 815 years on the Reykjanes Peninsula until 19 March 2021 when a fissure vent appeared in Geldingadalir to the south of Fagradalsfjall mountain. [70] [ dubious – discuss ](Reykjanes 1210-1240?)
1226-1227 - some eruptions in Reykjanes . They are owned[ clarification needed ] by Yngra Stampahraun, (Klofningahraun), Eldvarpahraun, Illahraun and Arnarseturshraun. Sandy winter due to a large ash eruption at Reykjanestá and the so-called Medieval Valley fell. Famine as a result. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
14th century
1340 - ? Brennisteinsfjöll (no lava from the 14th century known on the Reykjanes peninsula).[ citation needed ] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
1341 - Brennisteinsfjöll . The last eruption in the Brennisteinsfjöll volcanic system was a VEI -2 eruption in 1341. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) ). [157]
1341 - Hekla , eruption number 6. The ash spread west through Borgarfjörður and Akranes . Great death, especially in Rangárvellir ( is: Rangárvellir ) and many settlements were destroyed. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1341 - (± 1 year) Brennisteinsfjöll , a VEI -2 eruption. [157] One of the bigger lava flows, runs south to the coast at Herdísarvík bay forming lava falls on their way. [158]
1362 - Knappafellsjökull . The largest ash eruption in Icelandic history. Litla-Hérað ( Öræfasveit ) was completely destroyed and few seem to have escaped. The group was called Öræfi when it started to rebuild and the glacier Öræfajökull . Most of the ash was carried east to the sea, but destroyed much of Hornafjörður and Lónshverfi along the way. Jökulhlaup to Skeiðarársandur and out to sea. (Part of the Öræfajökull volcanic belt (OVB) )
1372 - north-west of Grímseyjar
1389-1390 - in and around Hekla , eruption number 7. Norðurhraun lava flows, Skarð, Tjaldastaðir and maybe more farms are subsumed. [155] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
15th century
1422 - off Reykjanes an island is formed and lasts for several years. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
1477 - Landmannalaugar in the Highlands of Iceland . [58] It is at the edge of Laugahraun lava field , which was formed around 1477. [59] Note: This remote event appears to also be referred to as Bárðarbunga , the largest known Icelandic eruption, with a VEI of 6. [72] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
16th century
c. 1582 - at Eldey
1597 - Hekla , eruption number 9. From 3 January into the summer. Volcanic eruptions were widespread but caused little living space, although mainly in Mýrdalur. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
17th century
1612 - Katla (and / or Eyjafjallajökull ). The eruption began on 16 October, but sources do not agree on location, Katla is considered more likely. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1625 - Katla , 2-14 September. Large eruption with heavy ash fall to the east. Twenty-five farms were deserted. Þorsteinn Magnússon, abbot of Þykkvabær, wrote a report on the eruption, the first of its kind in Iceland. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1636-37 - Hekla , eruption number 10 began on 8 May and lasted for over a year. Ash fall to the northeast and little damage. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1655 -? probably an eruption in Vatnajökull , probably in Kverkfjöll . Big lava flow in Jökulsá á Fjöllum .
1660-61 - Katla . The eruption began on 3 November and lasted until the end of the year. A small ash fall but a large flow on Mýrdalssandur and cut Höfðabrekka off. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1684-85 - Grímsvötn . A major lava flow in Jökulsá á Fjöllum , one person died and a number of livestock.. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1693 - Hekla , eruption number 11 began on 13 February and lasted until the autumn. Heavy ash fall to the northwest at the beginning of the eruption which caused great and permanent damage in the surrounding areas. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
18th century
1721 - Katla . Heavy ash fall, about 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) and a big lava flow. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1724-29 - Mývatnseldar ( is:Mývatnseldar ) (Myvatn Fires, Krafla Fires). Lava flowed into Lake Mývatn and the volcanic "Viti crater" (Hell crater) formed by Krafla volcano. [159] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1753 - southwest of Grímsvatn
1755-56 - Katla . The eruption began on 17 October and lasted until mid-February. A large amount of ash, about 1.5 km3 (0.36 cu mi), reached the northeast and caused great damage in Skaftártunga , Álftaveri and Síða . A big lava flow on Mýrdalssandur , mostly west of Hafursey . Lightning killed two people. About 50 farms were deserted, most of them only temporarily. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1766-68 - Hekla , eruption number 12. The largest lava eruption of Hekla in historical time. Ash fall in Húnavatns - and Skagafjarðarsýsla counties. 10 lands were deserted. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1783 - Nýey . Reykjaneshrygg , southwest of Eldey . The island of Nýey rose from the sea with intense, poisonous, sulphurous smoke, but disappeared in less than a year. [63] (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
1783-84 Laki / Lakagigar . ( Skaftáreldar , Grímsvötn , Þórðarhyrna , sometimes referred to in Icelandic as the Skaftáreldur, Skaftá Fires) [160] Lava flowed along Skaftá river valley and Hverfisfljót, down into the lowlands and covered about 580 km2 (220 sq mi) (including a gorge thought to have been 200 metres (660 ft) deep). [161] The eruption has been estimated to have killed over six million people globally. Ash fall and poisoning caused hay failure leading to a famine that killed about 25% of the island's population [55] and resulted in a drop in global temperatures, as sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere . This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in India. [162] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
19th century
1821-23 - Eyjafjallajökull . The eruption began weakly on 19 December, no lava flowed but some ash fell. Subsequently, lava flowed north to Markarfljót . (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1845-46 - Hekla , eruption number 13 began on 2 September and lasted for about seven months. Heavy ash fall to the southeast and a lava flow in Ytri-Rangá . Lava flowed west and northwest, about 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi), so the farm of Næfurholt had to be relocated. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1862-64 - at Heljargjárrein . The eruption began on 30 June in a 15 km (9.3 mi) long fissure north of Tungnaárjökull . Trollagígar formed there and Tröllahraun flowed from them.[ citation needed ]
1867-68 - Mánáreyjar . Submarine eruption.
1874 - Askja . Likely eruption in February. Gas was seen. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1875 January - Askja . Lava eruption began on 3 January. Sigketill began to form later that month. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1875 February - Askja . A lava eruption began in Sveinagjá in Mývatnsöræf on 18 February on a 25 km (16 mi) long fissure. It lasted until mid-August and flowed from Nýjahraun . It is believed to be a magma flow from Askja. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1875 March - Askja One of the largest ash eruptions in Icelandic history began on 28 March and lasted for about eight hours. Eruption from Víti and other craters. Heavy damage from ash fall in the middle of East Iceland and many farms were deserted. Many East Fjord people moved to the West as a result. Öskjuvatn was formed and it grew steadily. Eruptions occurred for several months. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1876 - Askja . The last flame was seen at the end of the year. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1878 - Krakatindur , located in the county of Rangárvallasýsla, east of Hekla. Last erupted in 1878. [163] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ)
1879 - Geirfuglasker . Submarine eruption.
? 1884 - Near Eldey . Submarine eruption. Unclear sources.
? 1896 - Probable eruption south of the Westman Islands
20th century
1902-1904 Thórðarhyrna , There is a mechanical interaction between Thordarhyrna and Grimsvötn . The combined eruption from Grimsvötn had a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 4. [121] [164] [165]
1910 - Grímsvötn . Ashfall was observed in the east of the country from June to November. This eruption has been assigned by some to Thórðarhyrna which has geological interactions with Grímsvötn, [164] [165] although not in official databases [166] [167] It may also be linked to the Loki-Fögrufjöll eruption of the same year. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1910 Loki-Fögrufjöll The last confirmed eruption was in 1910 when tephra was erupted. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. 1910 was the last known eruption of Bárðarbunga before the 2014 eruptions.) [168] [169] It may also be linked to the Grímsvötn eruption of the same year.(Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1918 - Katla . The 1918 eruption of Katla began on 12 October and ended on 5 November. The eruption reached a height of 14.3 km (8.9 mi) and caused considerable damage in Skaftártunga . Large jökulhlaup (meltwater-flood) left icebergs 60 m (200 ft) tall on Mýrdalssandur . (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1922 - Grímsvötn . The eruption began at the end of September and ended within a month. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1926 - Askja . Eruption in the summer. A small island formed in Öskjuvatn . (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1926 - at Eldey . Turbulence in the sea for several hours.
1927 - Esjufjöll . A small eruption, a lava flow off Breiðamerkurjökull and a Jökulhlaup (literally "glacial run") a type of glacial outburst flood ). [170] One person was killed. It is located at the SE part of the Vatnajökull icecap. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1929 - Kverkfjöll . A fire was seen for a long time during the summer.
1934 - Grímsvötn . The eruption began at the end of March and lasted until mid-April.. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1930s - Gjálp An eruption took place in the 1930s. It had also caused a Jökulhlaup (literally "glacial run") a type of glacial outburst flood ), but at the time, science could not yet analyze the events. The eruption remained subglacial . [20] Might be the same as the following eruption north of Grímsvötn. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1938 - Grímsvötn . An eruption north of the caldera but did not emerge from the glacier ice. (Note: The 1996 eruption of Gjálp was precisely monitored, unlike the 1938). (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1947-48 - Hekla , eruption number 14 began on 29 March with an explosion. First eruption in Hekla in over 100 years. The plume reached a height of 30 km (19 mi) ash fall to the south over Fljótshlíð and Eyjafjöll . Heklugjá opened lengthwise, about 0.8 km3 (0.19 cu mi) of lava flowed, mostly to the west and southwest from Axlargígur. One Icelandic geologist died while doing research at the eruption. [171] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
? 1955 - Katla . Probably a small eruption under the glacier. Jökulhlaup took several bridges. No ash or lava seen. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1961 - Askja . Lava eruption began on 26 October on a 300 m long fissure and lasted until the end of November. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1961 - Trölladyngja . Reports of an eruption in 1961 at Trölladyngja are most likely attributed to nearby Askja Caldera , which erupted the same year. [90] [172]
1963- 67 - Vestmannaeyjar : Surtsey rose from the sea on 14 November in an underwater eruption southwest of Geirfuglasker . Later, the islands Syrtlingur and Jólnir were formed but soon disappeared again.
1970 - Hekla , eruption number 15 began on 5 May in the southwestern part of Heklugjár and in Skjólkvíar north of the mountain. Considerable ash fall to NNV, all the way north to Húnavatnssýslur. In the mountain itself the activity stopped after a few days but in Skjólkvíar it erupted for about 2 months. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1973 - Eldfell , Westman Islands , VEI 3. A 1600 m long eruption fissure opens east of the town Vestamnnaeyar on the island Heimaey on 23 January. About a third of the town was buried under lava, over 400 properties were destroyed. The lava front was cooled by pumping seawater on it, it saved the important harbour entrance. A volcano formed and Heimaey expanded to the east. [173]
1975 - Krafla fires, 1st eruption 20 December. Lava eruption from a short fissure at Leirhnjúkur . [174] Note: Mývatnseldar ( is:Mývatnseldar ), (Myvatn Fires, Krafla Fires), Lake Mývatn and the volcanic "Viti crater" (Hell crater) formed by Krafla . [159] (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
1980-81 - Hekla , eruption number 16 began on 17 August and lasted until the 20th. Ash spread to the north, lava flowed mostly to the west and north. The eruption resumed on 9 April of the following year and ended on 16 April. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1983 - Grímsvötn . A small eruption at the end of May. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
? 1985 - Final ridge under Vatnajökull . Possible eruption. small earthquakes and sigg boilers in the glacier.
1986 Loki-Fögrufjöll Possible subglacial eruption - the last confirmed eruption was in 1910. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. See Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910 above). [169]
1991 - Hekla , eruption number 17 began on 17 January in the southern part of Heklugjár but soon subsided. One crater east of the mountain was active until 17 March. A considerable amount of lava flowed on the south side of the mountain, but there was little ash fall. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1991 Loki-Fögrufjöll Possible subglacial eruption - the last confirmed eruption was in 1910. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. See Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910 above). [169]
1996 - 1996 eruption of Gjálp ( Gjálpargosið / Bárðarbunga ). An eruption began on 30 September in a 4–5 km (2.5–3.1 mi) fissure under Vatnajökull between Bárðarbunga and Grímsvötn and lasted until 13 October. The seismic activity indicated a magma flow from Bárðarbunga. Melting water flowed to Grímsvötn and filled the subglacial lake to highest level ever recorded. The long-awaited jökulhlaup then submerged Skeiðarársandur on 5 November, damaging several bridges. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
1998 - Grímsvötn . 18 - 28 December. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
2000 - Hekla , eruption number 18. 26 February - 8 March. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
21st century
2006 Loki-Fögrufjöll Possible subglacial eruption - the last confirmed eruption was in 1910. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. See Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910 above). [169] [175]
2008 Loki-Fögrufjöll Possible subglacial eruption - the last confirmed eruption was in 1910. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. See Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910 above). [169] [175]
2010 - Eyjafjallajökull . The eruption began at Fimmvörðuháls on 20 March. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
2010 - Eyjafjallajökull . The VEI 4 eruption began in Eyjafjallajökull on 14 April. It caused major disruption to air travel in Northwestern Europe and across the North Atlantic, not seen before. (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
2011 - Grímsvötn . ( 2011 eruption of Grímsvötn ), The Plinian eruption began on 21 May and caused major disruption to air travel in Northwestern Europe from 22 to 25 May 2011. [176] (Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
2011 Loki-Fögrufjöll Possible subglacial eruption - the last confirmed eruption was in 1910. (Part of the Bárðarbunga fissure system. See Loki-Fögrufjöll 1910 above). [169] [175]
2014-15 - Holuhraun . The eruption began on 29 August 2014, and ended on 28 February 2015. (Part of the North volcanic zone (NVZ) )
2014-15 Bárðarbunga . (main article - Bárðarbunga). In August 2014, a swarm of around 1,600 earthquakes in 48 hours, with magnitudes up to 4.5 MW , [177] [178] was followed on 23 August by the USGS Aviation Color Codes being raised from orange to red, indicating an eruption in progress. [179] The following day, the aviation risk was lowered from red to orange and the statement that there was an eruption in progress was retracted. [180] However, later aerial observations of glacial depressions southeast of the volcano suggested that the now-retracted report of an eruption had been correct and that a short eruption did occur under the ice, but the lack of further melting indicated that this eruption had now ceased. Then, a new fissure eruption breached the surface between Bárðarbunga and Askja , in the Holuhraun lava field, in the early hours of 29 August. [181] This was followed by a second fissure eruption in the Holuhraun area, along the same volcanic fissure, which started shortly after 4 am on 31 August. [182] Part of the East volcanic zone (EVZ) )
2021 - Fagradalsfjall . The eruption began in the valley Geldingadalir on 19 March and the lava (" Fagradalshraun ") flowed into the Meradalir and Nátthagi valleys. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
2022 - Fagradalsfjall . The eruption began in the valley Meradalir on 3 August on top of a lava flow from the previous year's eruption. (Part of the Reykjanes volcanic zone (RVZ) )
2023-2024 - Sundhnúkur eruptions, Reykjanes Peninsula, near Grindavik ,
Map of volcanic systems on the Reykjanes Peninsula. Grindavík is at the southern end of the Eldvörp-Svartsengi system (marked here as 2)
- Sundhnúkur first eruption - began on 18 December 2023, around 22:00, at the Sundhnúkur crater chain and ended 3 days later on December 21. [184] [185] [186] See (Main article : December 2023 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur second eruption - began in the early hours of 14 January 2024 (around 7:57 UTC) and ended on 16 January. It resulted in damage by lava to the outskirts of Grindavík . [187] [186] [188] [189] See (Main article : January 2024 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur third eruption - began on 8 February 2024 (around 6:07 UTC), about a kilometre north of Grindavík, in the same area as the December eruption. [186] See (Main article : February 2024 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur fourth eruption - began on 16 March 2024 (at 20:23 UTC) in the same area as the February eruption. [186] See (Main article : March 2024 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur fifth eruption - began on 29 May 2024 (at 12:45 UTC) and lasted until 22 June, being the largest in the Sundhnúkur series to date. [186] See (Main article : May 2024 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur sixth eruption - began on 22 August 2024 (at 21:25 UTC) and finished 6 September. [186] See (Main article : August 2024 eruption )
- Sundhnúkur seventh eruption - began on 20 November 2024 (at 23:14 UTC). [190] See (Main article : November 2024 eruption )
Volcanic zones and systems
Topographic map showing the Iceland Plateau (light blue oval area) encircling Iceland in the Atlantic Ocean.
Iceland has several major volcanic zones surrounding the Iceland hotspot :
East volcanic zone (EVZ)
The Kolbeinsey Ridge is a segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge located to the north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded to the south by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone, which connects the submarine ridge to the on-shore Northern Volcanic Zone rifting center in eastern Iceland. [48] The volcanic islands Kolbeinsey and Grímsey lie along the Kolbeinsey Ridge.
Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB)
The Mid-Iceland belt (MIB) connects the East, West and North volcanic zones, across central Iceland.
North volcanic zone (NVZ)
The Snæfellsnes volcanic belt (SVB) is an intraplate volcanic belt, connected to the North American plate. [192]
It is proposed that the east–west line from the Grímsvötn volcano in the Mid-Iceland Belt (MIB) to the SVB shows the movement of the North American Plate over the Iceland hotspot . [194]
South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ)
The South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) is a fracture zone , which connects the East and West Volcanic Zones. It contains its own volcanic systems, smaller than those in the Mid-Iceland Belt. The SISZ is a set of major and active transform faults striking west-northwest in southwestern Iceland, being one of two large fracture zones, associated with such transform faults, striking about 75°N to 80°W, the other being the Tjörnes Fracture Zone. [85] [86]
Includes: The towns of Selfoss , Vík , Hvolsvöllur and probably Þingvellir the old meeting place of the Alþing.
Tjörnes Fracture Zone (TFZ)
West volcanic zone (WVZ)
Katla eruptivity
Hekla eruptivity
See also
^ Þorleifur Einarsson: Geology of Iceland. Rocks and landscape. Reykjavík 1991, pp.61–63
Schleicher, N.; Kramar, U.; Dietze, V.; Kaminski, U.; Norra, S. (2012). "Geochemical characterization of single atmospheric particles from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption event collected at ground-based sampling sites in Germany". Atmospheric Environment. 48: 113. Bibcode : 2012AtmEn..48..113S . doi : 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.034 .
"Global Volcanism Program | Krýsuvík-Trölladyngja" . Archived from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
Gaskell, Jeremy (2000). Who killed the Great Auk?. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN
^ a b Snæbjörn Guðmundsson: Vegavísir um jarðfræði Íslands. Reykjavík 2015, p. 280-281
^ See also GVP: Grimsvotn. Eruptive history. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
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"Holuhraun" . Nordic Adventure Travel. Archived from the original on 2014-08-30. Retrieved 2014-08-29.
^ Íslandshandbókin. Náttúra, saga og sérkenni. Reykjavík 1989, p.805
^ See eg. maps herein: Ermias Yohannes Berhane: Geochemical interpretation of thermal water and gas samples from Krýsuvík, Iceland and Alid, Eritrea. The United Nations University. Report No. 18, 2004.
"Svarfdæla saga" . www.snerpa.is. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
Sæmundsson, Kristján; Hjartarson, Árni (1994). "Geology and erosion of Kolbeinsey". In Gísli Viggóson (ed.). Proceedings of the Hornafjörlur International Costal Symposium . Orkustofnun (National Energy Authority of Iceland). pp. 443–451. Archived from the original on 9 January 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
"Krakatindur" . Guide to Iceland. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
"Nýjahraun" . Iceland Road Guide. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
Jaggar, TAKE (1947). Origin and Development of Craters. Origin and Development of Craters. p. 376. ISBN
^ a b Gunnar Karlsson (2000), Iceland's 1100 Years, p. 181
^ Brayshay and Grattan, 1999; Demarée and Ogilvie, 2001
^ a b Sigurður Steinþórsson. "Í hvaða gosi myndaðist hraunið hjá Landmannalaugum og hvaða ár?". The Icelandic Web of Science July 4. 2008. Retrieved 21 August 2014. (in Icelandic)
Flowers, Gwenn E.; Björnsson, Helgi; Geirsdóttir, Áslaug; Miller, Gifford H. ; Clarke, Garry K.C. (2007). "Glacier fluctuation and inferred climatology of Langjökull ice cap through the Little Ice Age". Quaternary Science Reviews. 26 (19–21): 2337–2353. Bibcode : 2007QSRv...26.2337F . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.596.2710 . doi : 10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.07.016 .
Kahl, M; Bali, E.; Guðfinnsson, G.H.; Neave, D.A.; Ubide, T.; van der Meer, Q.H.A.; Matthews, S. (2021). "Conditions and Dynamics of Magma Storage in the Snæfellsnes Volcanic Zone, Western Iceland: Insights from the Búðahraun and Berserkjahraun Eruptions". Journal of Petrology. 62 (9). doi : 10.1093/petrology/egab054 .
"Upptök gossins eru í Geldingadal" . www.mbl.is (in Icelandic). Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
"Earthquakes: Iceland" . Icelandic Meteorological Office. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
Figure 2.8 shows 7 volcanoes beneath the glacier
Andrew, Ruth E. B. (20 November 2008). "Elsevier" . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Volcanic Flows and Falls. 177 (4): 1045–1054. doi : 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.07.025 .
"Westman Islands" . Icelandic Tourist Board. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 13 April 2014.
^ Denk, Thomas; Grímsson, Friðgeir; Zetter, Reinhard; Símonarson, Leifur (2011-02-23), Introduction to the Nature and Geology of Iceland, 35, retrieved 2018-10-16
^ a b Freyr Pálsson: Jarðfræði Reykjavíkursvæðisins. Háskóla Íslands, Raunvísindadeild, Jarð- og landfræðiskor. (2007)
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^ Snæbjörn Gudmunðsson: Vegvísir um jarðfræði Íslands. Reykjavík 2015, p. 257
"Katla Volcano" . Institute of Earth Sciences. University of Iceland. Archived from the original on 9 November 2009. Retrieved 12 March 2010.
^ Mangerud, J., Lie, S.V., Furned, H., Kristiansen, I.L., Lømo, L. (1984) A Younger Dryas Ash Bed in Western Norway, and Its Possible Correlations with Tephra in Cores from the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic. Quaternary Research 21 85–104
Árni Hjartarson (2003), "Postglacial Lava Production in Iceland" (PDF), in Árni Hjartarson (ed.), PhD-thesis, Geological Museum, University of Copenhagen, pp. 95–108
"Holocene Volcano List" . Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
"Grímsvötn" . Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
^ Árni Hjartarson 1988: „Þjórsárhraunið mikla - stærsta nútímahraun jarðar". Náttúrufræðingurinn 58: 1-16.
^ Árni Hjartarson 1994: „Environmental changes in Iceland following the Great Þjórsá Lava Eruption 7800 14C years BP". In: J. Stötter og F. Wilhelm (ed.) Environmental Change in Iceland (Munchen): 147-155.
^ Árni Hjartarson 1988: „Þjórsárhraunið mikla – stærsta nútímahraun jarðar". Náttúrufræðingurinn 58: 1–16.
Guðrún Sverrisdóttir; Níels Óskarsson; Árný E. Sveinbjörnsdóttir; Rósa Ólafsdóttir. "The Selsund Pumice and the old Hekla crater" (PDF). Institute of earth sciences, Reykjavik. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
^ Elsa G. Vilmundardóttir og Árni Hjartarson 1985: Vikurhlaup í Heklugosum. Náttúrufræðingurinn 54, 17-30.
^ Thor Thordarson, Armann Hoskuldsson: Iceland. Classic geology of Europe 3. Harpenden 2002, p.56
Baillie, Mike (1989). "Hekla 3: how big was it?". Endeavour. New Series. 13 (2): 78–81. doi : 10.1016/0160-9327(89)90006-9 .
Baillie, Mike (1989). "Do Irish bog oaks date the Shang dynasty?". Current Archaeology. 10: 310–313.
Baker, Andy; et al. (1995). "The Hekla 3 volcanic eruption recorded in a Scottish speleothem?". The Holocene. 5 (3): 336–342. Bibcode : 1995Holoc...5..336B . doi : 10.1177/095968369500500309 . S2CID 130396931 .
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^ Reynir Ingibjartsson: 25 Gönguleiðir á Reykjanesskaga. Náttúrann við Bæjarveggin. Reykjavík , p.112 - 117
^ Íslandshandbókin. Náttúra, saga og sérkenni. Reykjavík 1989, p.45
Sæmundsson, Kristján (2019). "Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes - Hengill" . Icelandic Meteorological Office, Institute of Earth Sciences at the University of Iceland, Civil Protection Department of the National Commissioner of the Iceland Police. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
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Büntgen, U.; Eggertsson, Ó.; Wacker, L.; Sigl, M.; Ljungqvist, F.C.; Di Cosmo, N.; Plunkett; Krusic, P.J.; Newfield, T.P.; Esper, J.; Lane, C. (2017). "Multi-proxy dating of Iceland's major pre-settlement Katla eruption to 822–823 CE". Geology. 45 (9): 783–786. Bibcode : 2017Geo....45..783B . doi : 10.1130/G39269.1 .
^ Árni Hjartarson 2015. Hallmundarkviða. Áhrif eldgoss á mannlíf og byggð í Borgarfirði. Náttúrufræðingurinn 85, 60-67.
^ Árni Hjartarson 2011. Víðáttumestu hraun Íslands. (The Largest Lavas of Iceland). Náttúrufræðingurinn 81, 37-49.
^ Ari Trausti Guðmundsson, Pétur Þorsteinsson: Íslensk fjöll. Gönguleiðir á 151 tind. Reykjavík 2004, p. 200.
Thorarinsson, S.; Steinthorsson, S.; Einarsson, T.; Kristmannsdottir, H.; Oskarsson, N. (1973-02-09). "The eruption on Heimaey, Iceland". Nature . 241 (5389): 372–375. Bibcode : 1973Natur.241..372T . doi : 10.1038/241372a0 . S2CID 4163208 .
"Eruption on Reykjanes Peninsula" . RÚV English. 18 December 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
Jenness, Maria H.; Clifton, Amy E. (September 2009). "Controls on the geometry of a Holocene crater row: a field study from southwest Iceland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 71 (7): 715–728. Bibcode : 2009BVol...71..715J . doi : 10.1007/s00445-009-0267-9 . S2CID 128405263 .
T. Gudmundsson; Thórdís Högnadóttir (January 2007). "Volcanic systems and calderas in the Vatnajökull region, central Iceland: Constraints on crustal structure from gravity data". Journal of Geodynamics. 43 (1): 153–169. Bibcode : 2007JGeo...43..153G . doi : 10.1016/j.jog.2006.09.015 .
H. Jóhannesson; K. Sæmundsson (1998). Geologic Map of Iceland, 1:500,000. Bedrock Geology. Reykjavík: Icelandic Institute of Natural History and Iceland Geodetic Survey.
External links
List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland
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51 | what type of plate boundary is associated with iceland and its volcanic eruptions | https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plate-tectonics-volcanic-activity/ | Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
A volcano is a feature in Earth's crust where molten rock is squeezed out onto Earth's surface. Along with molten rock, volcanoes also release gases, ash, and solid rock.
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A volcano is a feature in Earth’s crust where molten rock is squeezed out onto the Earth’s surface. This molten rock is called magma when it is beneath the surface and lava when it erupts, or flows out, from a volcano. Along with lava, volcanoes also release gases, ash, and, solid rock.
Volcanoes come in many different shapes and sizes but are most commonly cone-shaped hills or mountains. They are found throughout the world, forming ridges deep below the sea surface and mountains that are thousands of meters high. About 1,900 volcanoes on Earth are considered active, meaning they show some level of occasional activity and are likely to erupt again. Many others are dormant volcanoes, showing no current signs of exploding but likely to become active at some point in the future. Others are considered extinct.
Volcanoes are incredibly powerful agents of change. Eruptions can create new landforms, but can also destroy everything in their path. About 350 million people (or about one out of every 20 people in the world) live within the “danger range” of an active volcano. Volcanologists closely monitor volcanoes so they can better predict impending eruptions and prepare nearby populations for potential volcanic hazards that could endanger their safety.
Plate Tectonics
Most volcanoes form at the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates. These plates are huge slabs of Earth’s crust and upper mantle, which fit together like pieces of a puzzle. These plates are not fixed, but are constantly moving at a very slow rate. They move only a few centimeters per year. Sometimes, the plates collide with one another or move apart. Volcanoes are most common in these geologically active boundaries.
The two types of plate boundaries that are most likely to produce volcanic activity are divergent plate boundaries and convergent plate boundaries.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
At a divergent boundary, tectonic plates move apart from one another. They never really separate because magma continuously moves up from the mantle into this boundary, building new plate material on both sides of the plate boundary.
The Atlantic Ocean is home to a divergent plate boundary, a place called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Here, the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates are moving in opposite directions. Along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, hot magma swells upward and becomes part of the North American and Eurasian plates. The upward movement and eventual cooling of this buoyant magma creates high ridges on the ocean floor. These ridges are interconnected, forming a continuous volcanic mountain range nearly 60,000 kilometers (37,000 miles)—the longest in the world.
Another divergent plate boundary is the East Pacific Rise, which separates the massive Pacific plate from the Nazca, Cocos, and North American plates.
Vents and fractures (also called fissures) in these mid-ocean ridges allow magma and gases to escape into the ocean. This submarine volcanic activity accounts for roughly 75 percent of the average annual volume of magma that reaches Earth’s crust. Most submarine volcanoes are found on ridges thousands of meters below the ocean surface.
Some ocean ridges reach the ocean surface and create landforms. The island of Iceland is a part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The diverging Eurasian and North American plates caused the eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull (in 2010) and Bardarbunga (in 2014). These eruptions were preceded by significant rifting and cracking on the ground surface, which are also emblematic of diverging plate movement.
Of course, divergent plate boundaries also exist on land. The East African Rift is an example of a single tectonic plate being ripped in two. Along the Horn of Africa, the African plate is tearing itself into what is sometimes called the Nubian plate (to the west, including most of the current African plate) and the Somali plate (to the east, including the Horn of Africa and the western Indian Ocean). Along this divergent plate boundary are volcanoes such as Mount Nyiragongo, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Mount Kilimanjaro, in Kenya.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
At a convergent plate boundary, tectonic plates move toward one another and collide. Oftentimes, this collision forces the denser plate edge to subduct, or sink beneath the plate edge that is less dense. These subduction zones can create deep trenches. As the denser plate edge moves downward, the pressure and temperature surrounding it increases, which causes changes to the plate that melt the mantle above, and the melted rock rises through the plate, sometimes reaching its surface as part of a volcano. Over millions of years, the rising magma can create a series of volcanoes known as a volcanic arc.
The majority of volcanic arcs can be found in the Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped string of about 425 volcanoes that edges the Pacific Ocean. If you were to drain the water out of the Pacific Ocean, you would see a series of deep canyons (trenches) running parallel to corresponding volcanic islands and mountain ranges. The Aleutian Islands, stretching from the U.S. state of Alaska to Russia in the Bering Sea, for instance, run parallel to the Aleutian Trench, formed as the Pacific plate subducts under the North American plate. The Aleutian Islands have 27 of the United States’ 65 historically active volcanoes.
The mighty Andes Mountains of South America run parallel to the Peru-Chile Trench. These mountains are continually built up as the Nazca plate subducts under the South American plate. The Andes Mountains include the world’s highest active volcano, Nevados Ojos del Salado, which rises to 6,879 meters (over 22,500 feet) along the Chile-Argentina border.
Hot Spots
For many years, scientists have been trying to explain why some volcanoes exist thousands of kilometers away from tectonic plate boundaries.
The dominant theory, framed by Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963, states that these volcanoes are created by exceptionally hot areas fixed deep below Earth’s mantle. These hot spots are able to independently melt the tectonic plate above them, creating magma that erupts onto the top of the plate.
In hot spots beneath the ocean, the tectonic activity creates a volcanic mound. Over millions of years, volcanic mounds can grow until they reach sea level and create a volcanic island. The volcanic island moves as part of its tectonic plate. The hot spot stays put, however. As the volcano moves farther from the hot spot, it goes extinct and eventually erodes back into the ocean. A new and active volcano develops over the hot spot, creating a continuous cycle of volcanism—and a string of volcanic islands tracing the tectonic plate’s movement over time.
For Wilson and many scientists, the best example of hot spot volcanism is the Hawaiian Islands. Experts think this volcanic chain of islands has been forming for at least 70 million years over a hot spot underneath the Pacific plate. Of all the inhabited Hawaiian Islands, Kauai is located farthest from the presumed hot spot and has the most eroded and oldest volcanic rocks, dated at 5.5 million years. Meanwhile, on the “Big Island” of the U.S. state of Hawai‘i—still fueled by the hot spot—the oldest rocks are less than 0.7 million years old and volcanic activity continues to create new land.
Hot spots can also create terrestrial volcanoes. The Yellowstone Supervolcano, for instance, sits over a hot spot in the middle of the North American plate, with a series of ancient calderas stretching across southern part of the U.S. state of Idaho. The Yellowstone hot spot fuels the geysers, hot springs, and other geologic activity at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States.
While some data seem to prove Wilson’s hot spot theory, more recent scientific studies suggest that these hot spots may be found at more shallow depths in the planet's mantle and may migrate slowly over geologic time rather than stay fixed in the same spot.
Principal Types of Volcanoes
While volcanoes come in a variety of shapes and sizes, they all share a few key characteristics. All volcanoes are connected to a reservoir of molten rock, called a magma chamber, below the surface of Earth. When pressure inside the chamber builds up, the buoyant magma travels out a surface vent or series of vents, through a central interior pipe or series of pipes. These eruptions, which vary in size, material, and explosiveness, create different types of volcanoes.
Stratovolcanoes
Stratovolcanoes are some of the most easily recognizable and imposing volcanoes, with steep, conic peaks rising up to several thousand meters above the landscape. Also known as composite volcanoes, they are made up of layers of lava, volcanic ash, and fragmented rocks. These layers are built up over time as the volcano erupts through a vent or group of vents at the summit’s crater.
Mount Rainier is an impressive stratovolcano that rises 4,392 meters (14,410 feet) above sea level just south of the U.S. city of Seattle, Washington. Over the past half million years, Mount Rainier has produced a series of alternating lava eruptions and debris eruptions. These eruptions have given Mount Rainier the classic layered structure and conic shape of a composite volcano. The volcano’s peak has also been carved down by a series of glaciers, giving it a craggy and rugged shape.
Volcan de Fuego and Acatenango are a pair of stratovolcanoes that stand more than 3,700 meters (12,000 feet) above sea level near Antigua, Guatemala. While the volcanoes are considered twins because of their similar shape and size, they are made of different types of lava and have distinct eruption histories. While Acatenango erupts infrequently today, Fuego is considered to be the most active volcano in Central America, erupting more than 60 times since 1524.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are built almost exclusively of lava, which flows out in all directions during an eruption. These flows, made of highly fluid basalt lava, spread over great distances and cool in thin layers. Over time, the layers build up and create a gently sloping dome that looks like a warrior’s shield. While they are not as eye-catching as their steep stratovolcano cousins, shield volcanoes are often much larger in volume because of their broad, expansive structure.
Shield volcanoes make up the entirety of the Hawaiian Islands. The Kilauea and Mauna Loa shield volcanoes, located on the “Big Island” of Hawai‘i, rise from the ocean floor more than 4,500 meters (15,000 feet) below sea level. The summit of Mauna Loa stands at 4,168 meters (13,677 feet) above sea level and more than 8,500 meters (28,000 feet) above the ocean floor, making it the world’s largest active volcano—and, by some accounts, the world’s tallest mountain. The smaller volcano, Kilauea, has been erupting continuously since 1983, making it one of the world’s most active volcanoes.
The Galapagos Islands are also made up of a series of shield volcanoes. Isabela and Fernandina islands have flatter tops than other shield volcanoes because lava erupts from fissures around their tops and along ridges at their bases. As a result, the volcanoes rise at the top and grow outward at the bottom—but not in the middle, making them look like an “inverted soup bowl.”
Pyroclastic Cones
Pyroclastic cones are the most prolific type of volcano on Earth. They can develop as part of stratovolcanoes, shield volcanoes, or independently. Also known as cinder cones, they form after violent eruptions blow lava into the air. In the atmosphere, the lava fragments solidify and fall as “cinders” around a singular vent. Often formed from a single eruption or short series of eruptions, pyroclastic cones only stand at heights of tens of meters to hundreds of meters.
Parícutin, Mexico, is a unique pyroclastic cone. It was the first volcano to be studied for its entire life cycle. Emerging from a cornfield in 1943, Parícutin’s explosive eruptions caused it to reach 80 percent of its height of 424 meters (1,391 feet) during its first year of activity. In that time, lava and ash buried the nearby town of San Juan. Over the next eight years, Parícutin built the remainder of its cone—and then went quiet. Geologists learned a great deal about the evolution of volcanoes in Parícutin’s short, nine-year life.
Lava Domes
Lava domes are like shield volcanoes in that they are built entirely of lava. This lava, however, is too thick and sticky to move great distances. It just piles up around the volcano vent. Lava domes are often found on the summit or flanks of a volcano, but they can also develop independently. Like pyroclastic cones, they only reach a few hundred meters, as they are formed during singular eruptions or slow lava releases.
One of the most iconic lava domes developed after the devastating 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of Martinique. For almost a year, a lava dome grew out of a summit crater created from the eruption, reaching a height of more than 300 meters (1,000 feet). Known as the Tower of Pelée, the obelisk-shaped structure was twice the height of the Washington Monument. It ultimately collapsed into a pile of rubble after 11 months of growth.
Other Important Volcanic Features
Calderas
Some volcanoes experience such large, explosive eruptions that they release most of the material in their magma chamber. This causes the land around the erupting vent or vents to collapse inwardly, creating circular depressions called calderas. Depending on their intensity and duration, volcanic eruptions can create calderas as much as 100 kilometers wide.
Crater Lake, Oregon, United States, is in a caldera about 10 kilometers (six miles) wide. Crater Lake’s caldera resulted from an eruption that occurred more than 7,000 years ago. The volcano's magma chamber collapsed, then filled with water from rain and snow, creating the lake. Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States.
Deception Island, located off the coast of Antarctica, experienced a violent eruption roughly 10,000 years ago. The volcano summit collapsed, forming a caldera seven kilometers (4.4 miles) wide and flooded with seawater. The caldera gives Deception Island its horseshoe shape, which opens to the sea through a narrow channel. Deception Island’s unique geologic structure makes it one of the only places in the world where ocean vessels can sail directly into an active volcano.
Craters
Much like calderas, craters are depressions left after a volcano experiences a large eruption. While calderas are formed by the collapse of material inside a volcano, craters are formed as materials explode out from a volcano. Craters are usually much smaller than calderas, only extending to a maximum of about one kilometer (0.62 mile) in diameter.
Many volcanoes have multiple craters caused by different eruptions. The Maly Semiachik volcano, located on the Kamchatka Peninsula in far eastern Russia, has six craters at its summit. The youngest of these craters, Troitsky, filled in with water and snowmelt, creating a lake 140 meters (459 feet) deep. The lake is highly acidic, as volcanic gases continue to be released into the water from the active volcano below.
Lava lakes are also found in volcanic craters. Erta Ale, a volcano in Ethiopia, has a lava lake in its summit crater. Lava lakes are where magma has bubbled up to the surface and pooled in a crater. Volcanologists can fly over Erta Ale’s summit crater to see how the lava lake is behaving and predict future behavior.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are as diverse as volcanoes themselves—which is to say, very diverse! Some of the ways volcanologists have classified these eruptions are based on the heights they reach, the types of materials they eject, and the explosiveness of these ejections.
Hawaiian
Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest eruption type. They are characterized by steady lava eruptions known as lava fountains or fire fountains. Lava fountains are able to reach heights of up to two kilometers (1.2 miles). The highly fluid lava associated with Hawaiian eruptions flows easily away from the volcano summit, often creating fiery rivers and lakes of lava within depressions on the surrounding landscape.
These eruptions are named after the Hawaiian Islands, where they most often occur. Kilauea, which has been erupting continuously since 1983, has produced lava flows covering more than 100 square kilometers (37 square miles) on the island of Hawai‘i. These flows continuously destroy houses and communities in their path, while also adding new coastline to the island.
Strombolian
Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short-lived outbursts of lava rather than steady fountaining. The lava is thicker and has a higher gas content than that of Hawaiian eruptions. Large gas bubbles rise from the magma chamber, pushing the pasty lava upward until the bubbles explode at the summit vent. These explosions can reach heights up to 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) although most don’t go higher than a few hundred meters into the air.
Strombolian eruptions are named after the Mediterranean island of Stromboli, Italy. Considered by many to be the most active volcano on Earth, Stromboli has been erupting almost continuously for 2,000 years. The island’s eruptions are almost always Strombolian in nature: Small gas explosions eject blobs of lava into the air a couple of times per hour.
Vulcanian
Vulcanian eruptions are short-lived but much more explosive than Strombolian eruptions. Very thick lava causes gas pressure to build up in the magma chamber. When this pressure is finally released it creates canon-like explosions that can travel faster than 350 meters per second (800 miles per hour). Lava, rock, and ash are propelled up to 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) in the air, although most eruption columns are between five and 10 kilometers high. These plumes of material have the ability to drift moderate distances away from the eruption site.
The 2013 vulcanian eruption of Sakurajima, on the island of Kyushu, Japan, covered the nearby city of Kagoshima in a thick coat of ash.
Plinian
Reaching as high as 50 kilometers (35 miles) in the atmosphere, Plinian eruptions are the largest of all eruption types. Much like vulcanian eruptions, they eject materials at speeds of hundreds of meters per second. Plinian eruptions, however, are more sustained than the coughing fits of vulcanian eruptions. These consistent eruptions result from the volcano’s magma and growing gas bubbles rising at a similar velocity.
Plinian eruptions are the most destructive type of eruption. They release a deadly mixture of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks such as scoria and pumice, which can fall kilometers away from the eruption site. They are also characterized by pyroclastic flow, a fluid mixture of fragmented materials and extremely hot, toxic gases.
In 79 C.E., a series of Plinian eruptions from Mount Vesuvius buried the nearby Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum (in what is today Italy). The cities and their 13,000 inhabitants were buried in volcanic ash and rock. Rainfall mixed with the ash and created a concrete-like substance that preserved the city for thousands of years.
Surtseyan
Surtseyan eruptions occur where magma or lava interacts with water, most often when an undersea volcano reaches the ocean surface. Another term for this sort of interaction is a phreatomagmatic eruption. When heated rapidly by lava, water flashes to steam and expands violently, creating the most explosive of all eruption types. This aggressive interaction between water and heat is able to fragment lava into very fine grains of ash that can reach heights of 20 kilometers (12.4 miles).
Tonga’s islands of Hunga Tonga and Hunga Ha'apai are actually the tops of a single, large underwater volcano. In 2009, the volcano erupted for several days, causing steam and ash to explode from the water to altitudes of five kilometers (3.1 miles). While the eruptions killed all signs of wildlife on and around the islands, it also added hundreds of square meters of land to Hunga Ha’apai.
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes are some of Earth’s most potent natural hazards and agents of change. They release enormous amounts of energy and material, engaging natural processes that can modify landscapes at a local, regional, and even global scale.
Many volcanic materials and processes pose a threat to human, animal, and other ecological communities.
Volcanic Gas
Volcanoes regularly release volcanic gases that can be dangerous at concentrated levels. Carbon dioxide and fluorine can collect in soil or volcanic ash, causing crop failure, animal death and deformity, and human illness.
Volcanic eruptions can also release massive amounts of sulfur dioxide, which rises into the stratosphere. There, it reflects incoming solar radiation while absorbing outgoing land radiation, leading to a cooling of Earth’s temperature.
In extreme cases, these “volcanic winters” can cause crop failures and drastically affect weather. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, Indonesia, cooled the average global temperature by as much as 3° Celsius (5.4° Fahrenheit), causing the “year without a summer.”
Landslides and Lahars
The enormous energy of volcanic eruptions can cause large landslides that move at speeds of more than 100 kilometers per hour (60 miles per hour). Mount St. Helens, Washington, is a stratovolcano that had an explosive Plinian eruption in 1980. The eruption produced the largest landslide in recorded history, covering a 36-kilometer (14-mile) area of land with ash and rocks. Reaching speeds of 50 to 80 meters (165 to 260 feet) per second, the landslide had enough power to surge over a ridge 400 meters (1,312 feet) high.
Landslides can mix with surrounding rivers, ice, snow, or rain to produce watery mixtures called lahars. This mixture of water, rock, and debris creates a sludge that can obliterate almost anything in its path. The 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, caused small lahars of rock, ash, and melted snow to flow down into the surrounding river valleys. The lahars gained momentum and size as they traveled the riverbeds, ultimately destroying more than 5,000 homes and killing more than 23,000 people.
Pyroclastic Flows
Explosive eruptions sometimes produce pyroclastic flows, a mixture of hot rock fragments and toxic gases that move almost like a liquid out and away from the volcano. Reaching speeds greater than 80 kilometers per hour (50 miles per hour) and temperatures between 200-700° Celsius (392-1292° Fahrenheit), pyroclastic flows knock down, shatter, bury, or burn anything in their path.
Pyroclastic flows are responsible for the haunting figures from Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy. While many scientists thought residents of Pompeii suffocated to death from volcanic gases released during Mount Vesuvius’ eruption in 79 C.E., new studies suggest that they actually died from extreme heat produced by the volcano’s pyroclastic flow.
Volcanologist Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo and the Italian National Institute for Geophysics and Volcanology recently discovered that the pyroclastic flow that reached Pompeii produced temperatures of up to 300° Celsius (570° Fahrenheit). These extreme temperatures are able to kill people in a fraction of a second, causing them to spasm in contorted postures like those found among the plaster casts of Vesuvius’ victims.
Volcanic Ash
Huge plumes of volcanic ash can spread over large areas of the sky, turning daylight into complete darkness and inhibiting air traffic. (During the eruption of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull in 2011, flights to and from Northern Europe were suspended for more than a week.) Volcanic ash conducts electricity when wet and can contain concentrated levels of toxic materials, posing threats to humans that come in close contact with it on land.
The 1994 double eruption of Vulcan and Tavurvur in Papua New Guinea covered the nearby city of Rabaul in a layer of ash up to 75 centimeters (about two feet) deep. Rains turned the ash into a cement-like substance that was heavy enough to collapse 80 percent of the buildings in the city.
Volcanic Monitoring and Research
Volcanic hazards can be incredibly dangerous to human life. In the United States alone, 54 volcanoes are a very high or high threat to public safety. By closely monitoring volcanic activity, volcanologists can warn people of impending eruptions. While these warnings are not exact predictions, they do provide communities with the valuable time they need to protect themselves against volcanic hazards and ensure their safety.
Volcanologists predict volcanic activity by taking real-time measurements and comparing them against what happened in the past. They use a variety of instruments and technologies to monitor temperatures, gas emissions, water levels, ground movements, and changes in the landscape. These measurements paint a clear portrait of a volcano’s current state, which volcanologists then interpret against historical data. Volcanologists issue eruption warnings when these measurements stray far from the norm or mirror those that preceded a historic eruption.
Different countries use different systems to issue eruption warnings to the public. All of these systems categorize their alerts based on the probability and severity of an impending eruption. Typical volcanic behavior is often represented by the number 1 or the color green, while an imminent and potentially destructive eruption is typically represented by the number 4 or the color red.
A number of international organizations lead the way in volcanic monitoring and research, providing invaluable information to scientists, volcanologists, and the public alike. The Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program documents current activity for all the volcanoes on the planet through publicly available data, reports, and images. The program also keeps the world’s only archive of volcanic activity from the last 10,000 years.
As part of the UN International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI) created a list of 16 "Decade Volcanoes" to study because of the high risk they pose to public safety. Mount Nyiragongo in Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, is dangerously close to the city of Goma. Its 2002 eruption killed 50 people and forced roughly 450,000 people to evacuate their communities. The Santa María Volcano, which sits right above the city of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, has been continuously erupting since 2003. The Decade Volcanoes program has brought together geologists, volcanologists, and government officials to closely study these volcanoes and create risk-mitigation plans for potential eruptions.
Fast Fact
Decade VolcanoesThe “Decade Volcanoes” form a list of what could be considered the most hazardous volcanoes on the planet. The 16 decade volcanoes are:
Avachinsky-Koryaksky, Russia
Colima, Mexico
Etna, Italy
Galeras, Colombia
Rainier, USA
Sakurajima, Japan
Unzen, Japan
Vesuvius, Italy
Fast Fact
Subglacial EruptionsOne of the most mysterious types of volcanic eruptions is a subglacial eruption, which takes place on ice-covered volcanoes. Subglacial eruptions often result in flooding, as glaciers are heated by hot magma and volcanic gas. This sudden, violent flooding of glacial meltwater is called a jökulhlaup.
Fast Fact
Volcanic DeitiesVolcanoes are such powerful forces of nature that many cultures in volcanically active regions have sophisticated mythologies supporting gods and goddesses of volcanoes.
Vulcan (for whom volcanoes are named) is a Roman god.
Hephaestus is a Greek god from whom Vulcan developed.
Pele is a Hawaiian goddess.
Ruaumoko is a Maori god.
Xiahtecuhtli is an Aztec god.
Ayanju is a Yoruba orisha, or deity.
Kagu-Tsuchi is a Japanese kami, or spirit.
Fast Fact
Volcanoes ... IN SPACE!The largest volcano known to humanity is not actually on Earth! Olympus Mons is a dormant shield volcano on Mars that is taller than three Mount Everests and is about as wide as the entire Hawaiian Islands chain. The most volcanically active body in our solar system is not Earth at all. It’s Jupiter’s moon Io. At any one time, Io has 400 active volcanoes, which can shoot plumes up to 500 kilometers (300 miles) into outer space! In 2001, a volcano in Io’s Surt region produced the largest eruption ever recorded, covering 1,900 square kilometers (1,180 square miles), an area larger than the U.S. city of Los Angeles, California.
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52 | sustainable architecture and simulation modelling dublin institute of technology | https://www.ucd.ie/apep/study/undergraduateprogrammes/ | We offer a range of undergraduate programmes which are professionally accredited by the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland, the National Architectural Accrediting Board (USA international certification), the Royal Town Planning Institute, the Irish Planning Institute and the Irish Landscape Institute. Three discipline specific programmes are offered:
UCD School of Architecture Planning and Environmental Policy, Richview, Dublin 14, D14 E099
©2025 All Rights Reserved.
| 459 |
52 | sustainable architecture and simulation modelling dublin institute of technology | https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/3-021j-introduction-to-modeling-and-simulation-spring-2012/ | This subject provides an introduction to modeling and simulation, covering continuum methods, atomistic and molecular simulation, and quantum mechanics. Hands-on training is provided in the fundamentals and applications of these methods to key engineering problems. The lectures provide exposure to areas of application â¦
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This subject provides an introduction to modeling and simulation, covering continuum methods, atomistic and molecular simulation, and quantum mechanics. Hands-on training is provided in the fundamentals and applications of these methods to key engineering problems. The lectures provide exposure to areas of application based on the scientific exploitation of the power of computation. We use web based applets for simulations, thus extensive programming skills are not required.
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Course Info
Systems at different time and length scales are modeled using different simulation techniques, derived from the appropriate governing equations. (Image courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., Science Direct . Used with permission.)
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52 | sustainable architecture and simulation modelling dublin institute of technology | https://www.tudublin.ie/explore/faculties-and-schools/engineering-built-environment/architecture-building-and-environment/ | The School of Architecture, Building and Environment provides academic leadership in the sustainable development of buildings, places and environments and the protection and conservation of natural en
Find out about the undergraduate, postgraduate, professional development and apprenticeship programmes offered by the School of Architecture, Building and Environment.
Industry links
We have close links with industry and our students benefit from guest lectures, access to sites and factories and scholarship bursaries.
Student work
Studio and workshop learning is central to our programmes and provides the opportunity for collaborative peer to peer learning. See some of our student work.
© 1998-2020
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52 | sustainable architecture and simulation modelling dublin institute of technology | https://www.ucf.edu/modeling-simulation/ | Skip to Section
Home of Modeling and Simulation Research
Recognized as the modeling, simulation and training capital of the world, Orlando serves as a hub where government, academic institutions and industry employers come together to support national security measures and improve healthcare, among many other initiatives. Home to the National Center for Simulation and Training and host to the world’s largest industry conference — the Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference — the region has experienced significant growth, making it the fastest-growing metro for STEM jobs in the U.S. Annually, Central Florida secures about $7 billion in modeling, training and simulation contracts involving top industry leaders including Lockheed, SAIC, Raytheon and Northrop Grumman.
An industry that started by taking man to the moon, space now uses simulation-based technology across a variety of fields, from aviation to aerospace and defense to healthcare to gaming . Simulators recreate experiences through computer-driven software and are often used for training. Learning through experience often results in better retention compared to reading or lectures, making simulation a valuable training tool for a wide range of fields, such as engineering , psychology , history , philosophy , healthcare and public service , to name a few.
Cutting-Edge, Human-Centered Simulation Research
The School of Modeling, Simulation and Training (SMST) is a global leader in graduate education and is recognized for establishing modeling, simulation, and training as a recognized field of study. The school was established in 2018 and is an innovative, collaborative and immersive learning environment. SMST houses the Institute for Simulation & Training (IST), which conducts modeling, simulations and training research and development, as well as educating future industry leaders. Laboratory space within the institute, such as the prototype development and 3D print laboratory, transforms a number of ideas into products. IST is the largest institution of its kind.
Many projects developed through UCF’s modeling and simulation programs are used in the real world and impact the future of simulation, including a virtual co-pilot avatar for Boeing, smart-house technology in Lake Nona and a smart handle for medical assessments. The various tools used in the classroom replicate high-stress, high-consequence situations where quick decision-making is crucial. This first-hand experience builds a foundation for a high-performing workforce that will help define the future of simulation and training.
Alongside faculty, students and researchers, UCF’s alumni are a vital force in expanding research and deploying effective training solutions in simulation. Several have been recognized by the National Center for Simulation’s Modeling and Simulation Hall of Fame for pioneering breakthroughs in live training and virtual-training systems to training hundreds of Navy pilots.
$11.6 Billion
Statewide economic impact from modeling, simulation and training sales activity
$6 Billion
Amount of Research Park’s organizations and businesses generate for the state’s GDP
60,000+
150
Companies housed in the park, ranging from heavy hitters such as Boeing, Leidos, Lockheed and Raytheon to start-ups
550+
Graduate degrees awarded by the School of Modeling, Simulation and Training
40+
Years the Institute for Simulation and Training has served as a research arm for the university
Advancing Simulation and Cyber Training Research and Application for Our Armed Troops
An initiative between UCF and the U.S. Army, named Cyberwerx, focuses on cyber operations planning, cyber data analytics, modeling and simulation, and emerging technology evaluations among other areas. Its objective is to identify, assess and harness forthcoming capabilities for the U.S. Army Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training and Instrumentation. The work pairs UCF experts, both faculty and students, with those who need the tools being developed for real-world application in real time. The collaboration should not only provide potential solutions for current problems, but will help address future problems by providing a direct connection between the lab and practitioners.
We are second in the nation for simulation. Lockheed Martin Corp. and others see Central Florida as fertile ground for that partnership. UCF was the first to offer graduate degrees — master’s and doctorates — in modeling and simulation.”
— Tom Baptiste, former president and CEO for the National Center for Simulation
Alumni Spotlight: Jason Eichenholz ’95MS ’98PhD
Self-driving cars have become the next major frontier in transportation. At the forefront of this movement is Luminar, a 7-year-old company co-founded by Jason Eichenholz ’95MS ’98PhD. The company, which is based in Silicon Valley and Central Florida Research Park, has developed more efficient and affordable methods for creating the technology behind these vehicles — earning partnerships with Audi, Toyota, Volvo and more than a dozen other autonomous vehicle programs. Among its crowning achievement is its development of a new lidar sensor that can see almost 10 times farther than other sensors and sells for as little as $500, compared with $75,000 for the current industry leader.
UCF’s College of Engineering and Computer Science students share their experiences in the program — from the high-end facilities to the latest technologies and tools used both inside and outside of the classroom.
Science & Technology
Alumni
Research
Modeling and Simulation Degrees
Getting a degree in modeling and simulation sets students on the path to success — whether their goal is to work for a leading industry employer or start their own business. Our nationally recognized programs, including computer science and engineering, provide the foundation to accomplish big things.
Bachelor’s
Graduate degrees and certificates for career advancement in modeling and simulation
U.S. News & World Report
ranks UCF as one of the most innovative in its annual list of best colleges.
Top 20 Best Online Bachelor’s Programs for Veterans
U.S. News & World Report
ranked UCF as one of the best online bachelor’s degree programs that help veterans reduce the cost of school.
#71
Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs
University of Central Florida is ranked No. 71 in Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs in the nation by
U.S. News & World Report
Best Computer Science Undergraduate Program
Ranked No. 87, UCF’s undergraduate computer science program received recognition from the U.S. News & World Report.
Growing Smarter. Faster. Together.
Located adjacent to UCF, Central Florida Research Park is recognized as one of the top 10 research parks in the world. This 1,027-acre corporate community provides an environment for industry and the university to share training facilities, pursue cooperative research, transfer existing technology to the marketplace, and provide internship and career opportunities for UCF students. As the world’s largest cluster of modeling, simulation and training companies, Research Park is home to the National Center for Simulation and Training as well as the nation’s Army, Air Force, Navy and Marines simulation operations.
The park also offers startup resources such as I-Corps and the UCF Business Incubation Program to help entrepreneurs get their feet off the ground and on the path to success. By providing the knowledge, industry mentors, and other tools needed to launch a new business or product, our area is committed to fostering innovation that will change the future of our state, region and nation.
Modeling and Simulation Companies Employing UCF Graduates
NASA
Boeing
Federal Aviation Administration
Townes Laser Institute
Areas of Excellence
Innovation. Access. Impact. Our integrated approach to teaching and learning prepares students for the future of work and lifelong careers, making a difference in their communities and around the world.
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52 | sustainable architecture and simulation modelling dublin institute of technology | https://www.bestarchitecturemasters.com/school/university-college-dublin-school-of-architecture-planning-and-environmental-policy/ | University College Dublin
Overview
The School offers a range of undergraduate and graduate teaching programmes professionally accredited by the Royal Institute of British Architects, the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland, the Royal Town Planning Institute, the Irish Planning Institute and the Irish Landscape Institute. Students are enabled to think creatively, critically and holistically about sustainable places, whether in design practice or through transferring knowledge to action in the policy and planning process. Its research spans a wide range of themes and is Ireland’s leading centre of excellence for research into design and policy for the built and natural environment.
Architecture is about making plans and proposals for how the full range of human activities and needs can be housed and sustained. UCD Architecture invites its students to engage creatively and constructively with the complex challenge of designing the built environment.
If you have a capacity and passion for creativity, for making things through technological invention or artistic experimentation, and you are excited by the idea of devising solutions to complex problems, by the prospect of designing buildings, urban environments and landscapes, then UCD Architecture is for you. It has the widest range of facilities in Ireland and the most established and respected courses to ensure that you achieve that potential.
Celebrating its centenary in 2011, the UCD Architecture has long led the way for architecture in Ireland. Its undergraduate, graduate and research programmes cover all aspects of the practice of architecture as well as advanced areas of conservation, sustainability, history and urbanism. Its staff include many of the leading figures in architectural practice as well as internationally-recognised researchers. Its graduates are working all over the world. Many have achieved great prominence in architectural design and related fields.
The majority of students at the school spend at least one semester on international exchange with a network of over thirty leading architecture programmes in Europe, US, Australia and Asia. International students are increasingly attracted to the school’s undergraduate, graduate and research programmes.
Our programmes are taught in unique facilities on UCD’s Richview campus including spacious design studios, a well-equipped workshop and building laboratory, the built environment laboratory, exhibition spaces and the most extensive architectural library in the country.
Studio programmes are largely taught by practicing architects and landscape architects, among them many of the leading figures in their profession, whose work is widely recognised in national and international competitions and awards.
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53 | does the district of columbia have their own license plates | https://dmv.dc.gov/service/dmv-vehicle-tags | Search form
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Vehicle Tags
Vehicles registered in the District are required by law to display DC DMV-issued vehicle tags. The tags are issued at the time of vehicle registration.
Vehicles are required to display two current tags: one on the front and the other on the rear of the vehicle. Exceptions are for motorcycles, mopeds and trailers. For these, one tag is issued to be displayed on the rear of the vehicle.
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53 | does the district of columbia have their own license plates | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Washington,_D.C. | Vehicle registration plates of Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Current series
Material
Aluminum
Passenger baseplates
Image
1907–17
White serial on black porcelain plate; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" at top
none
12345
Some serial blocks believed to be reserved for motorcycles. [3]
1918
Embossed black serial on yellow plate; "DC 18" at right
none
12-345
1919
Embossed white serial on green plate with border line; "D.C. 1919" at right
none
12-345
1920
Embossed black serial on white plate with border line; "D.C. 1920" at right
none
12-345
1921
Embossed blue serial on white plate with border line; "D.C. 1921" at right
none
12-345
1922
Embossed white serial on red plate with border line; "D.C. 1922" at right
none
12-345
1923
Embossed white serial on brown plate with border line; "D.C. 1923" at right
none
123-456
1924
Embossed white serial on black plate with border line; "DIST. COL. 1924" centered at top
none
12-345
1925
Embossed white serial on dark gray plate with border line; "DIST. COL. 1925" centered at top
none
123-456
1926
Embossed black serial on orange plate with border line; "DIST. COL. 1926" centered at top
none
123-456
1927
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "DIST. COL. 1927" centered at top
none
A-1234
E-1 to approximately V-1000
Letters A, B, C, D, H and R used on non-passenger vehicles. This practice continued through 1934. [4]
1928
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate; "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1928" at bottom
none
A-1234
1929
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate; "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1929" at bottom
none
A-1234
1930
As 1928 base, but with "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1930" at bottom
none
A-1234
1931
As 1929 base, but with "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1931" at bottom
none
A-1234
1932
As 1928 base, but with "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1932" at bottom
none
A-1234
1933
As 1929 base, but with "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1933" at bottom
none
A-1234
1934
As 1928 base, but with "DIST. OF COLUMBIA - 1934" at bottom
none
A-1234
1935
Embossed green serial on white plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA - 1935" at bottom
none
123-456
1936
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" and "1936" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
1937
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" and "1937" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
1938
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "1938" and "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
January 1, 1939 – February 29, 1940
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" and "EX-2-29-40" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
March 1, 1940 – March 31, 1941
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" and "EX-3-31-41" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
April 1, 1941 – March 31, 1942
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "EX-3-31-42" and "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at top and bottom respectively
none
123-456
As 1940–41 base, but with "EX-3-31-43" at bottom
none
123-456
52-001 to approximately 216-000
Revalidated through March 31, 1944, with black tabs, then through March 31, 1945, with white tabs, due to metal conservation for World War II .
April 1, 1945 – March 31, 1946
As 1941–42 base, but with "EX-3-31-46" at top
none
123-456
April 1, 1946 – March 31, 1948
As 1940–41 base, but with "EX-3-31-47" at bottom
none
123-456
April 1, 1948 – March 31, 1949
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate; "19 D.C. 48" at top
none
1234
1 to 9999
Letters B, C, D, H, L, M, R and T used on non-passenger vehicles. This practice continued through March 31, 1955. [4]
1-2345
April 1, 1949 – March 31, 1950
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate; "19 D.C. 49" at bottom
none
1234
April 1, 1950 – March 31, 1951
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "19 D.C. 50" at bottom
none
1234
April 1, 1951 – March 31, 1952
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "19 D.C. 51" at top
none
1234
April 1, 1952 – March 31, 1953
Embossed golden yellow serial on black plate with border line; "19 D.C. 52" at bottom
none
1234
April 1, 1953 – March 31, 1955
Embossed dark green serial on white plate with border line; "DIST. OF COLUMBIA" centered at top; "3-31" at top left and "54" at top right
"THE NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at bottom
1234
1-2345
April 1, 1955 – March 31, 1956
Embossed white serial on dark green plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "56" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦12♦34
AA♦10♦00 to AY♦99♦99; EA♦10♦00 to approximately EA♦99♦99
Serials with B, C, D, H and L as the first letter used on non-passenger vehicles. This practice continued through March 31, 1964. [4]
April 1, 1956 – March 31, 1957
Embossed black serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "57" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦12♦34
AA♦10♦00 to AY♦99♦99; EA♦10♦00 to approximately EA♦99♦99
April 1, 1957 – March 31, 1958
Embossed golden yellow serial on royal blue plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "58" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
AA♦100 to approximately SZ♦999
April 1, 1958 – March 31, 1959
Embossed royal blue serial on golden yellow plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "59" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
As 1957–58 base, but with "60" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
As 1958–59 base, but with "61" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
As 1957–58 base, but with "62" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
AA♦100 to approximately WV♦999
April 1, 1962 – March 31, 1963
Embossed dark green serial on reflective white plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "63" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
AA♦100 to approximately WV♦999
April 1, 1963 – March 31, 1964
Embossed black serial on reflective yellow plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "64" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
AB♦123
AA♦100 to approximately XJ♦999
April 1, 1964 – March 31, 1965
Embossed red serial on reflective white plate with border line; "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "65" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
1A234
April 1, 1965 – March 31, 1966
Embossed black serial on reflective golden yellow plate with border line; "WASHINGTON, D.C." centered at bottom; "3-31" at top left and "66" at top right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
1AB23
Image(s)
April 1, 1966 – March 31, 1967
Embossed black serial on reflective white plate with border line; "WASHINGTON, D.C." centered at top; "3-31" at bottom left and "67" at bottom right
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at bottom
123-456
100-001 to 300-000
Validated from April 1, 1967, through March 31, 1968, with stickers.
April 1, 1967 – March 31, 1968
As above, but without "67"
300-001 to approximately 368-000
April 1, 1968 – March 31, 1974
Embossed black serial on reflective white plate with border line; "WASHINGTON, D.C." centered at bottom
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
123-456
April 1, 1974 – March 31, 1978
Embossed blue serial on reflective white plate; embossed blue U.S. Capitol dome graphic used as separator; screened red stripes above and below serial; "WASHINGTON, D.C." centered at bottom; "3-31" at bottom left and debossed sticker box at bottom right
"1776 BICENTENNIAL 1976" at top
123-456
Monthly staggered registration introduced August 1, 1983. All plates replaced between 1984 and 1986.
April 1, 1978 – March 31, 1979
As above, but with "3-31" on sticker at bottom left (applied during production)
"NATION'S CAPITAL" centered at top
500-001 to 562-000
As above, but without "3-31" sticker
562-001 to 925-000
October 1984 – July1991
Embossed blue serial on reflective white plate; screened district flag used as separator; screened red stripes above and below serial; "Washington, D.C." screened in blue centered at bottom; debossed sticker boxes in bottom corners
"A Capital City" screened in blue centered at top
123-456
925-001 to 999-999;010-001 to 501-750
Plates with all-numeric serials still validated including April 2016 all-numedic remake on the 2013 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA base [6] Slogan changed in 1991 in honor of the district's bicentennial.
July 1991 –April1997
501-751 to approximately 853-000
April1997 – November 2000
As above, but with "Washington, D.C." and sticker boxes at top rather than bottom
"Celebrate & Discover" as above, but at bottom
AB-1234
November 2000 – October 2001
AZ-0000 to BA-9999;BC-0000 to approximately BG-1999
January 2001 – January 2002
BB-0000 to approximately BB-1999
October 2001 – October 2002
As above, but with serial screened rather than embossed, and without debossed sticker boxes
"TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION" as above
BG-2000 to BH-9999;BK-0000 to approximately BP-1399
January 2002 – c. 2018
BJ-0000 toBJ-9999;EA-0000 to approximately EA-2999
Alternative issues. EA series began in mid-2010.
c. 2018 – present
EA-3000 to present
October 2002 –July2013
As above, but with "WASHINGTON, DC" in blue at top
"TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION" as above
BP-1400 to DZ-9999;EB-0000 toEJ-9999
July2013 –August2017
As above, but with "DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA" in blue at top
EK-0000 to FN-3999
also all-numeric remakes (000-000 format) from the 1984 A Capital City & 1991 Celebrate & Discover bases
August2017 – present
As above, but with "WASHINGTON, DC" at top as from 2002 to 2013
"END TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION" screened in blue at bottom
FN-4000 to GV-9999; JA-0000 to JL-0590 (as of July 11, 2024) [7]
Non-passenger plates
c. 1971–present; undated prior to 1980
Annual plates; unique design each year:1980: yellow on red1981: red on yellow1982: white on green1983: black on yellow1984: yellow on blue1986: black on white1987: white on green1988: white on red1990: yellow on red1991: red on yellow1991: yellow on red2008: black on orange2009: black on blue2010: white on green2011: black on magenta2012: white on black2013: black on white2014: black on orange2015: black on dark yellow2016: white on dark blue2017: black on lemon yellow2018: black on red2019: black on gray2020: black on dark yellow2021: black on green (expiration extended to 2022 with stickers)2023: orange on white2024: black on green2025: buff on light blue
c. 2000–present
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial, but with "APPORTIONED" in place of slogan
AP-1234
Infrequently issued. Validated with plate stickers, as opposed to windshield stickers. Current highest serial seen: AP-1396 (on October 28, 2021).
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
B-12345
Current serial sequence began 1974 at B-101; serials became screened at around B-40500. Current highest serial seen: B-52131 (on November 2, 2020).
1975-1984, with limited issuance since 1984
As 1984–91 passenger base, with "A Capital City" at top, but with district flag at left
CLERGY1234
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
C-12345
Current serial sequence began 1974 at C-101; serials became screened at around C-68000. Current highest serial seen: C-82000 (on June 3, 2021).
2013 2020 2021 2022
1919–present
Generally issued on the same cycle as passenger plates until 2004, when annual plates with a unique design each year began.
2005: white on red2006: white on blue2007: black on yellow2008: black on pink2009: black on teal2010: white on light blue2011: black on yellow2012: white on dark green
DLR12345
2015: black on yellow2016: black on grey2017: black on green2018: black on red2019: black on orange2020: black on blue2021: black on pink2022: black on yellow2023: black on green2024: unknown2025: yellow on dark green
H/P12345 12345
Serial sequence began at H/P001; the letters were dropped when the "Celebrate & Discover" slogan was introduced, at around 12000. Current highest serial seen: 26021 (on October 6, 2020).
Foreign Organization
Beginning by at least 2003; discontinued by 2015
Similar to passenger base, but with plum blossom symbol at left
T/P/E1234
Issued to vehicles owned by official representatives of Taiwan . No longer issued.
D.C. Government Fleet
1927–present
As passenger base, but with district flag at left with "D.C. GOVT." above and "Fleet" below
G
V
Current serial sequence began 2000 at D/C 0001. Current highest serial seen: D/C 14350 (on June 3, 2022).
D.C. Government Motorcycle
1952–present
5-digit plates: embossed blue on white; 6-digit plates: flat blue on white
GM-123DC-1234DC-123A
1979–present
White plate with Capitol dome and district flag at left. Screened blue serial letters and embossed red serial digits until 2006; full serial screened blue since
H/M/V1234
Issued to vehicles that are at least 25 years old. Serial sequence began at H/M/V1; serials became fully screened at around H/M/V900. Current highest serial seen: H/M/V3018 (on May 11, 2020).
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
M and MC series: blue on whiteSubsequent series: black on white
1234MMC123MT1234MR1234MC1234MX1234MY 1234
MT series began in 2002.MR series began in 2010 but was not issued to completion beforeMC series began in 2012.MR series later issued to completion.MX series began in 2019 but was not issued to completion beforeMY series began in 2021.
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
R-12345
Solid Waste
c. 1980s
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
SW-123
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
H-1234512345-H
Current serial sequence began 1974 at H-101; serials became screened at around H-85500. H-99999 reached early 2011, followed by 00001-H onwards. Current highest serial seen: 05395-H (on February 26, 2022).
Temporary registration
12345DAX 12345Z 12345K 12345N 12345
X series began in 2001.Z series began in 2003.K series began in 2007.N series began in 2011.
Black on white paper
Temporary registration — motorcycle
c. 2009–present
c. 2008–present
12NC345
Issued only by Tesla, Inc. and Polestar since 2014, when the only other new car dealerships in D.C. moved to Maryland .
As passenger base, with district flag used as separator in serial
T-12345
Current serial sequence began 1974 at T-101; serials became screened at around T-15500. Current highest serial seen: T-20013 (on May 8, 2020).
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority issues these to itself replacing standard passenger plates on WMATA-owned transit police cars
Optional and Organization license plates
Passenger—low number
2001-2017: Annual plates; unique design each year.2018-2019; 2022-2023: Plate valid for 2 years.2020-2022: Plate valid for 2 years; renewed for third year with sticker.
1121231234
V 123
The original design, with 3 birds on the shore, was issued from E
N
N
V 1089. The revised design, with 1 bird on the shore, was issued from E
N
N
F
O
U
A
S
O
February 2022–present
Two designs:WASHINGTON CAPITALS began at CAP 0000; 2018 STANLEY CUP CHAMPIONS began at CAP 0500.
C
A
1234
1965
Red band at top; blue band at bottom; national and district flags at left
1234
1969
Red band at top; blue band at bottom; national flag over the White House at left
1234
1973
Capitol dome and national flag at left, as in 1961
1234
12345
1981
Red band at top; blue band at bottom; national flag at left
1234A-123
1983
Red band at top; blue band at bottom; district flag at left
123
1987
123
1995
Green with district flag at left and district outline at right
I-123
1999
Blue band at top containing "OUR CITY", district flag and "OUR FUTURE"; red band at bottom
123
CONGRESS
-1
Notes
[ edit ]
Garrish, Christopher (October 2016). "Reconsidering the Standard Plate Size". Plates. Vol. 62, no. 5. Automobile License Plate Collectors Association .
Sovereign states
Vehicle registration plates of Washington, D.C.
| 465 |
53 | does the district of columbia have their own license plates | http://www.worldlicenseplates.com/usa/US_DCXX.html | District of Columbia Government
V.I.P. Plates
Low number plates (numbers 1 through 1250) issued on an annual basis.
Special Interest
Related Page
District Information
The District of Columbia is a federal district of the United States of America .
It surrounds the nation's capital, Washington.
Credits
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53 | does the district of columbia have their own license plates | https://www.reddit.com/r/mildlyinteresting/comments/vledmv/the_official_washington_dc_license_plate/ | Reddit and its partners use cookies and similar technologies to provide you with a better experience. By accepting all cookies, you agree to our use of cookies to deliver and maintain our services and site, improve the quality of Reddit, personalize Reddit content and advertising, and measure the effectiveness of advertising. By rejecting non-essential cookies, Reddit may still use certain cookies to ensure the proper functionality of our platform.
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53 | does the district of columbia have their own license plates | https://dmv.dc.gov/service/specialty-vehicle-tags | Search form
Office Hours
Varies by location. Please see All DC DMV Locations under About DMV in the menu.
Phone: (202) 737-4404
Specialty Vehicle Tags
In addition to the regular vehicle tags, DC DMV offers several specialty tags. Speciality vehicle tags can be requested at the time of vehicle registration or if your vehicle has already been registered, you will be required to bring the following to a DC DMV Service Center :
Current DC DMV credential
Anacostia River Commemorative
Anacostia River tags are available for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected for Anacostia River tags are used to restore and protect the Anacostia River.
Breast Cancer Awareness tags are available for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited in the Community Health Financing Fund to support the promotion of breast cancer prevention and treatment.
DC Veteran
DC Veteran tags are available on behalf of the DC Office of Veteran Affairs (OVA), for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited into the Office of Veterans Affairs Fund for use in servicing DC veterans.
Veterans with a service-connected permanent and total disability, as determined by the Department of Veterans Affairs letter indicating "Total and Permanent", may receive one set of tags (i.e., DAV, Veteran, passenger, etc.) at no fee for a non-commercial vehicle. Note the "no fee" is only applicable to annual registration fees.
To get DC Veteran tags, you must provide the following:
Proof of military service—a DD 214, WD AGO or DD 256 form (honorably discharged)
Current DC DMV credential
DC DMV vehicle registration
Specialty Veteran tags can only be used on passenger cars, pickup trucks and vans
Note: The spouse of a veteran is also eligible for a DC Veteran tag with proof of the veterans honorably discharged military service documents (as previously listed), marriage certificate, military ID, DC driver license and DC vehicle registration.
DC Woman Veteran Tags are available for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited in the Office of Veterans Affairs Fund, established by section 705 of the Office of Veterans Affairs Establishment Act of 2001, effective October 3, 2001 (DC Law 14-28; DC Official Code § 49-1004).
Veterans with a service-connected permanent and total disability, as determined and evidenced in an official letter from the Department of Veterans Affairs, shall not be charged the application fee, registration fee or renewal fee for one set of tags. This does not apply to commercial vehicles
To get DC Woman Veteran tags, you must provide the following:
Proof of military service—a DD 214, WD AGO, or DD 256 form.
Discharge typed accepted—Honorable, General and Other Than Honorable.
Current DC DMV credential
Disabled American Veteran (DAV)
Disabled American Veteran (DAV) tags are available for a normal registration fees.
Veterans with a service-connected permanent and total disability, as determined by the Department of Veterans Affairs letter indicating "Total and Permanent", may receive one set of tags (i.e., DAV, Veteran, passenger, etc) at no fee for a non-commercial vehicle. Note: the "no fee" is only applicable to annual registration fees.
Veterans with a passenger motor vehicle who are certified as a member of the District of Columbia Disabled American Veterans by the Commander of the District of Columbia Disabled American Veterans.
To receive the Disabled American Veteran Tag with symbolyou must provide the authorization letter from the Department of Veterans Affairs as well as an approved DC DMV Disability Tag/Placard application .
The Pride Lives Here tags are available for a one time application fee of $25 and a yearly display fee of $20. Both the application and yearly display fee will be deposited into the Office of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning Affairs Fund.
Washington Capitals
Washington Capitals tags are available in support of the Washington Capitals hockey team and their 2018 Stanley Cup win for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited in the General Fund of the District of Columbia.
Washington Mystics
Washington Mystics tags are available in support of the Washington Mystics basketball team and their 2019 Women's National Basketball Association Championship win for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited in the General Fund of the District of Columbia.
Washington Wizards
Washington Wizards tags are available in support of the Washington Wizards basketball team for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees. Funds collected will be deposited in the General Fund of the District of Columbia.
The We Demand Statehood tags are available in support of District residents’ right to voting representation and comes as bills to make DC the Nation’s 51st state have been reintroduced to Congress. Residents interested in obtaining We Demand Statehood tags will pay a one-time application fee of $51 and a yearly display fee of $26. Both the application and yearly display fee will be deposited into the New Columbia Statehood Fund.
Veterans Specialty
Veterans Specialty tags are available for each branch of the US Armed Forces for a one time application fee and an annual fee, in addition to annual registration fees, for the following branches:
Army
Navy
Marines
Air Force
Coast Guard
Vision Zero Bicycle Awareness
Vision Zero Bicycle Awareness tags are available to enhance motorists' awareness of bicycles on the District's roadways. Residents interested in obtaining Bicycle Awareness tags will pay a one-time application fee of $25 and a yearly display fee of $20. Both the application and yearly display fee will be deposited into the Vision Zero Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Fund.
| 468 |
54 | who were the code talkers and what did they do | https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/american-indian-code-talkers | American Indian Code Talkers
The idea of using American Indians who were fluent in both their traditional tribal language and in English to send secret messages in battle was first put to the test in World War I with the Choctaw Telephone Squad and other Native communications experts and messengers. However, it wasn’t until World War II that the US military developed a specific policy to recruit and train American Indian speakers to become code talkers.
What is a code talker? A code talker is the name given to American Indians who used their tribal language to send secret communications on the battlefield. Most people have heard of the famous Navajo (or Diné) code talkers who used their traditional language to transmit secret Allied messages in the Pacific theater of combat during World War II. But did you know that there were at least 14 other Native nations, including the Cherokee and Comanche, that served as code talkers in both the Pacific and Europe during the war? The idea of using American Indians who were fluent in both their traditional tribal language and in English to send secret messages in battle was first put to the test in World War I with the Choctaw Telephone Squad and other Native communications experts and messengers. However, it wasn’t until World War II that the US military developed a specific policy to recruit and train American Indian speakers to become code talkers. The irony of being asked to use their Native languages to fight on behalf of America was not lost on code talkers, many of whom had been forced to attend government or religious-run boarding schools that tried to assimilate Native peoples and would punish students for speaking in their traditional language.
The US Army was the first branch of the military that began recruiting code talkers from places like Oklahoma in 1940. Other branches, such as the US Marines and Navy, followed a few years later, and the first class of 29 Navajo code talker US Marine recruits completed its training in 1942. Apart from basic training, these men had to develop and memorize a unique military code using their mostly unwritten language, and were placed in a guarded room until this task was completed.
The first type of code they created, Type 1 code, consisted of 26 Navajo terms that stood for individual English letters that could be used to spell out a word. For instance, the Navajo word for “ant,” wo-la-chee, was used to represent the letter “a” in English.
Type 2 code contained words that could be directly translated from English into Navajo, and the code talkers also developed a dictionary of 211 terms (later expanded to 411) for military words and names that didn’t originally exist in the Navajo language. For example, since there was no existing Navajo word for “submarine,” the code talkers agreed to use the term besh-lo, which translates to “iron fish.”
The War in the Pacific
Explore The National WWII Museum's curriculum for its Summer Teacher Institute.
Most code talkers were assigned in pairs to a military unit. During battle, one person would operate the portable radio while the second person would relay and receive messages in the Native language and translate them into English. Their work was highly dangerous especially in the Pacific, because Japanese soldiers would deliberately target officers, medics, and radiomen, and code talkers had to keep moving as they transmitted their messages. The work of hundreds of code talkers was essential to Allied victory in World War II, and they were present at many important battles, including at Utah Beach during the D-Day invasion in France, and at Iwo Jima in the Pacific. In fact, 5th Marine Division signal officer Major Howard Connor stated, “Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima.”
Despite their heroic contributions during the war, American Indian code talkers were told that they had to keep their work secret. They couldn’t even tell their family members about their communications work. Since the codes that they developed remained unbroken, the US military wanted to keep the program classified in case the code talkers were needed again in future wars. Even when the WWII code talker program was declassified in 1968, national recognition of code talkers was slow. While there was some recognition in the 1970s and 1980s, it wasn’t until 2001 that Congressional Gold Medals were given to the Navajo and other code talkers.
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In her December 8, 1941, My Day column, Eleanor Roosevelt reflects on the moment she learned of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor and other locations, describing the nation’s shift from uncertainty to resolve.
Every day, memories of World War II—its sights and sounds, its terrors and triumphs—disappear.
945 Magazine Street, New Orleans, LA 70130
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54 | who were the code talkers and what did they do | https://americanindian.si.edu/static/why-we-serve/topics/code-talkers/ | Code Talkers
All the services, like the army, and divisions and companies, and battalions, regiments . . . we just gave them clan names. Airplanes, we named after birds . . . like the buzzard is bomber, and the hawk is a dive bomber, and the patrol plane is a crow, and the hummingbird is the fighter.
William McCabe, (Diné [Navajo]) United States Marine Corps
During World Wars I and II, hundreds of Native American servicemen from more than twenty tribes used their Indigenous languages to send secret, coded messages enemies could never break. Known as code talkers, these men helped U.S. forces achieve military victory in some of the greatest battles of the twentieth century.
Mathers Museum of World Cultures, Indiana University
Choctaw telephone squad, returned from fighting in World War I. Camp Merritt, New Jersey, June 7, 1919. From left: Corporal Solomon Bond Louis, Private Mitchell Bobb, Corporal James Edwards, Corporal Calvin Wilson, Private Joseph (James) Davenport, Captain Elijah W. Horner.
In addition to Choctaw language speakers, Ho-Chunks, Eastern Cherokees, Comanches, Cheyennes, Yankton Sioux, and Osages were among the Native men who served as code talkers during World War I.
Ultimately, approximately 534 American Indian code talkers were deployed in World War II. The U.S. Marine Corps, which operated the largest code-talking program, sent approximately 420 Diné (Navajo) language speakers to help win the war in the Pacific. In Europe, Comanche code talkers participated in the D-Day invasion of Nazi-occupied France as well as many of the major campaigns that crushed the Third Reich.
State Historical Society of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
Meskwaki code talkers, February 1941. Top, left to right: Judie Wayne Wabaunasee, Melvin Twin, Dewey Roberts Sr., Mike Wayne Wabaunasee; Bottom: Edward Benson, Frank Jonas Sanache Sr., Willard Sanache, Dewey Youngbear. The men were assigned to the 168th Infantry, 34th Red Bull Division and were sent to North Africa, where they participated in the attacks on Italy under heavy shelling. Three of the men were captured and confined to Italian and German prison camps.
Consequently, in 1940 and 1941, the army recruited Comanche, Meskwaki, Chippewa, and Oneida language speakers to train as code talkers; they later added eight Hopi speakers. In April 1942, the Marine Corps trained twenty-nine Navajo men in combat and radio communications. They went on to serve as the foundation of the largest code-talking program in the military.
National Archives photo no. 127-MN-69889-B
Navajo code talkers Corporal Henry Bahe Jr. and Private First Class George H. Kirk. Bougainville, South Pacific, December 1943.
Dispersed across six marine divisions fighting in the Pacific, the Navajo radiomen saw action in many pivotal battles, including Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Tarawa, Makin, Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Saipan, Guam, Tinian, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.
The first Native code talkers served during World War I, using tribal languages to transmit messages that German eavesdroppers found impossible to decipher. The code talkers of 1918 made a lasting impression on the U.S. military.
Courtesy of the Oklahoma State Senate
Wayne Cooper, Indian Code Talkers, 2000. Oil on canvas.
The painting depicts code talker Charles Chibitty (Comanche) after landing at Utah Beach during World War II.
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54 | who were the code talkers and what did they do | https://www.neh.gov/article/code-talkers-were-americas-secret-weapon-world-war-ii | Code Talkers Were America’s Secret Weapon in World War II
Photo caption
Navajo code talkers photographed in 2005 at Monument Valley, Utah. Photograph by Kenji Kawano.
The “day of infamy” arrived on December 7, 1941, at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. News of the Japanese attack came by radio from President Roosevelt to many parts of the Navajo Nation homeland in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. The attack set in motion the United States’s entry into World War II and moved young Diné men to enlist, though some were still in high school and underage, including my father, Benson Tohe, who signed up with the consent of his parents. They came from rural backgrounds and military-style boarding schools that had already prepared them to live the harsh life of soldiers. Committed to helping Nahasdzáán, Mother Earth, and the United States, they joined the Marines and were selected to become code talkers, not knowing they would be tasked with developing and using the Navajo language as a secret weapon.
They came, ironically, from government and parochial schools that forbade them to speak their mother tongue and where they were expected to become Americanized through severe forms of assimilation and punishment meant to erase Indigenous identity and languages. Eradicating Native languages has resulted in the systematic loss of Indigenous languages throughout the United States since colonization began. Navajo code talker Keith Little said about the schools, “They had the real strong disciplinary rule that we don’t talk our native language, . . . to be converted to Christianity, and to take us away from our cultural religions and our beliefs.” Astonished that they were now asked to develop the Navajo language to aid the war effort, the Navajo soldiers created the code in only a few months. Because the Japanese had broken all the codes sent over the radio waves, the Marines were desperate to find a secure way to communicate vital information with precious little time. After several successful tests, the Navajo language was approved as a communication code.
The code contained approximately 450 words, spelled phonetically and memorized. Their code book used one to three Navajo words for each alphabet letter, which consisted of animal names and short words used to spell vital information about the locations of the Japanese military and U.S. soldiers, to say where to position artillery, and to relay wartime communication.
In cases where no names for artillery existed in the Navajo language, they created shortcut words based on the behavior of animals. Thousands of messages transmitted intelligence in Navajo and were translated into English throughout many of the islands in the South Pacific, where the Navajo code talkers served exclusively (soldiers from 14 other Native nations served as code talkers during the war in Europe and the Pacific). Major Howard Connor, the fifth Marines division signal officer remarked, “Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima.”
They returned home without fanfare to continued poverty, lack of economic opportunity, and nonexistent voting rights yet persevered and overcame obstacles that helped change the Navajo Nation and their communities. Approximately 461 Navajo Marines served as code talkers, with 13 killed in action. Upon their discharge, the code talkers swore to never reveal their role in case the code would be needed again. My family and the descendants knew nothing of the unique service the code talkers gave until 1968, when the code was declassified, and the public learned of what my father and the code talkers accomplished through their bravery, resilience, and ingenuity. A language once forbidden became a weapon that was quick, accurate, and never deciphered. Most important, it saved many American lives. Fewer than five code talkers remain. They have been honored by the United States and the Navajo Nation with medals and a National Navajo Code Talker Day on August 14.
The Photographer
Photo caption
—Ruth Bazhnibah Kawano
After visiting the Navajo Nation as a tourist in 1974, Japanese-born photographer Kenji Kawano decided to stay. He found a place to live in Ganado, Arizona, and worked odd jobs as a bus-boy, a gas station attendant, and a janitor to support himself. In 1975, he photographed his first Navajo code talker, beginning a decades-long project devoted to making portraits of these storied American veterans of World War II. He married a Navajo woman, Ruth, also known as Bazhnibah, in 1978. Ruth became a photographer in her own right and works alongside Kenji, whose code talker portraits can be seen in his book Warriors (1990) and were recently on long-term exhibit at the Navajo Nation Museum in Window Rock, Arizona. See the Kawanos’ photos of NEH Chair Shelly Lowe in this issue.
About the author
Laura Tohe is Diné. She is Tsénahabiłnii, Sleepy Rock People clan, and born for the Tódich’inii, Bitter Water People clan. She is Arizona State University Professor Emerita and is an Arizona Speaks presenter on the Navajo Code Talkers for Arizona Humanities. In 2015, Tohe was named the Navajo Nation Poet Laureate. She is the author of the oral history book Code Talker Stories.
Republication statement
The text of this article is available for unedited republication, free of charge, using the following credit: “Originally published as “Codetalkers: America's Secret Weapon in World War II” in the Summer 2022 issue of Humanities magazine, a publication of the National Endowment for the Humanities.” Please notify us at [email protected] if you are republishing it or have any questions.
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54 | who were the code talkers and what did they do | https://guides.loc.gov/navajo-code-talkers | Introduction
Navajo Code Talkers: A Guide to First-Person Narratives in the Veterans History Project
Navajo language speakers were recruited by the Marine Corps during World War II to send secret communications. This guide features a selection of oral histories available online that document the experiences of these veterans.
Author: Nathan Cross, Archivist, Veterans History Project
Created: June 17, 2021
Introduction
This guide provides an introduction to Veterans History Project (VHP) holdings related to the Navajo Code Talkers. Collections from these veterans consist primarily of oral history interviews, which provide valuable insight into the personal experiences of Code Talkers. The biographical pages within this guide were compiled based on the veterans' VHP collections.
Please select the menu option Code Talker Profiles from the navigation menu to view biographical summaries and oral history interviews from the Code Talkers who have participated in the Veterans History Project.
Background
While a lack of official records has made it difficult to determine exact numbers, it is estimated that more than 400 Navajo men served as Code Talkers in the U.S. Marine Corps during the Second World War. Marine Corps officials and later historians have credited their work as a significant factor in the U.S. victory in the Pacific.
During World War I, Army units pioneered the use of Ho-Chunk, Choctaw, Cherokee, Comanche, Osage, and Sioux Code Talkers to send secure voice communications based on their Native languages. The Army again used Native American Code Talkers during World War II on an ad hoc basis, wherein different units formed Code Talker cadres when they had a sufficient number of Native speakers from the same tribe. This included a group of seventeen Comanche Code Talkers with the 4th Infantry Division, as well as a group of seventeen Chippewa and Oneida Code Talkers with the 32nd Infantry Division. 1 A Congressional Gold Medal issued in 2013 recognized the contributions of Code Talkers from 33 different tribes. The Marine Corps' Navajo Code program was the most systematic and extensive of these programs, and by the end of the war all six Marine Divisions employed Navajo Code Talkers.
In the early weeks and months of the war in the Pacific, the Japanese had shown an aptitude for intercepting and decrypting radio messages. The existing encryption methods the Americans relied on were also painfully slow and tedious. The idea to use the Navajo language as the basis of a secure radio code was proposed to the Marine Corps by Philip Johnston, a veteran of World War I who had spent much of his childhood on the Navajo Reservation where his parents worked as missionaries. Though Johnston may have had the initial idea to create a Navajo code, the Code itself was designed and implemented by the first cadre of 29 Code Talkers. These "First Twenty-Nine"—with little formal cryptographic training—devised a code built on word substitution - common military terms were assigned a Navajo code word, and each letter of the English alphabet was also assigned at least one code word so that other terms could be spelled out using the Code.
The Navajo Code provided a huge boost in efficiency to the Marine Corps in an hour of need. A formal training school was established at Camp Elliott, California to train new Code Talkers. A three-line message that would have taken 30 minutes to send using the old encryption methods could be encoded, transmitted, and decoded by Navajo Code Talkers in 20 seconds. The Code consisted of designated Navajo terms for each letter in the Roman alphabet, as well as for many military terms. Becoming a Code Talker meant memorizing more than 400 terms, and trainees could not take notes or write anything down. Many of the Code Talkers would later reflect that the traditions of oral history and storytelling that they grew up with helped them with this massive memorization challenge.
Once the concept of the Navajo Code had been proven, the Code Talkers were pushed through training and out to their units as fast as possible. Some of the original 29 Code Talkers would participate in the latter stages of the Guadalcanal campaign in late 1942. Code Talkers were usually assigned to the communications sections at the battalion, regimental, and division headquarters levels, and were employed to coordinate operations between friendly units and to call for fire support from artillery or aircraft. The Code Talkers were all trained as Marines and as general service communications specialists, so when not sending coded messages they often performed general communications work or served as riflemen. The Code Talkers were often performing other duties until they were notified that an "Arizona Message" or "New Mexico Message" needed to be sent - the coded terms used to indicate that a message needed to be sent in the Navajo Code.
After Guadalcanal, the Code Talkers would participate in all of the Marine Corps' major operations in the Pacific theater. By the Battle of Iwo Jima in February of 1945, the Code Talkers had proven themselves invaluable, to the point that Marine officers had become reliant on them to coordinate their operations. Major Howard Connor, who was the 5th Marine Division’s communications officer during the fight for Iwo Jima, stated that, "the entire operation was directed by Navajo code…. During the first forty-eight hours, while we were landing and consolidating our shore positions, I had six Navajo radio nets operating around the clock. In that period alone they sent and received over eight hundred messages without an error."
The experiences of the Code Talkers are remarkable, in part due to the discrimination that Native Americans faced before, during, and after the war. Many of them were forced to attend government boarding schools as children, where they were required to speak only in English. Navajos were denied the right to vote in Arizona until 1948, in New Mexico until 1953, and in Utah until 1957—a form of discrimination which persisted despite the fact that the Snyder Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the U.S. They were frequently denied service at hotels and restaurants when traveling outside the Navajo reservation. After the war, there was initially no way for them to use many of their veterans' benefits on the reservation.
For twenty-five years, the Code Talkers’ heroics were hidden from public view. The program was classified as "top secret" upon creation, and when the war ended the Code Talkers were warned not to tell anyone the specifics of their work with the Code. It was not until 1968—when new technical encryption methods made the Navajo Code obsolete—that it was declassified.
Recognition then began to arrive for the role that the Code Talkers had played in World War II. In 1971, President Richard Nixon sent a letter of appreciation and congratulations to the Navajo Tribal Council. For the Bicentennial Parade in Washington, D.C. in 1976, Code Talker veterans walked at the front of the procession. President Ronald Reagan declared in 1982 that August 14th would henceforth be recognized as "National Navajo Code Talkers Day." Senator Jeff Bingaman of New Mexico introduced the Honoring the Navajo Code Talkers Act in Congress in 2000, an Act that was signed into law by President Bill Clinton. The passage of this Act meant that in 2001, the surviving members of the “first twenty-nine” Code Talkers who created the code were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal by President George W. Bush. The other Code Talker veterans who were not part of the first twenty-nine were awarded the Congressional Silver Medal.
The Code Talkers' achievements have made them an inspiration to people of all backgrounds, and many of them took on leadership roles after the war, where they have served as role models for younger Americans. Thomas H. Begay was a senior administrator for the Bureau of Indian Affairs who helped many Navajos find work and educational opportunities. Wilfred E. Billey served for more than 40 years as a teacher, guidance counselor, and high school principal who helped countless students to find their way in life. Teddy Draper, Sr. , Albert Smith and John Kinsel also worked as educators, while Keith Little worked as an English teacher at the Intermountain Indian School in Utah while he was in college, before becoming an executive in the logging industry. Thomas Claw worked for the Bureau of Indian Affairs as a water master - in this role he was responsible for the irrigation of 80,000 acres of farmland. Samuel Billison earned a PhD in education while working as a teacher, principal, and administrator, and also served on the Navajo Nation Council. Dan Akee and Roy O. Hawthorne both became spiritual leaders as Christian ministers, and Samuel Holiday became a traditional medicine man, all driven by a desire to assist others in finding healing and comfort. Roy Hawthorne, Samuel Holiday, Merril Sandoval , and Samuel "Jesse" Smith all also served as law enforcement officers after their time in the military.
The majority of the Code Talkers featured in this research guide became involved with the Navajo Code Talkers Association, an organization dedicated to educating the public on the role the Code Talkers played in World War II and preserving their legacy. They have traveled around the country and around the world to share their experiences and inform people about the history of the Code Talkers.
Their stories are noteworthy not only for their courage as Marines during America's bloodiest war, but also for the compassion, leadership, and dedication to continued service to others that so many of them displayed after the war. Their success is an example of how American society's diversity is a source of strength - a language that government- and church-run boarding schools had tried to eliminate ended up saving countless American lives on the blood-soaked battlefields of the Pacific.
Notes
William C. Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 14-34. Back to text
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54 | who were the code talkers and what did they do | https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/americas-first-code-talkers | Utility navigation
America’s First “Code Talkers”
When the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, Native American individuals and nations faced a difficult decision. How might a people treated with inequity respond to a call of action for the safety of global democracy?
Despite the challenges, approximately 12,000 Native Americans served in roles across all aspects of the American Expeditionary Forces (A.E.F.) during World War I – non-segregated. One unique exception was the notable Code Talkers, a role in which some Native American soldiers served as a key communications defense.
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What is Code Talking?
During any battle, transmitting information to troops quickly and securely is vital. In WWI, one of the fastest ways was to communicate through telephone lines. However, by 1917 these lines were often compromised by German spy technology. Germans tapped into the lines and used special technology like distance listening devices to stay ahead of Allied forces. Other communications methods such as buzzer phone codes were more secure but slow. Sending messengers was dangerous and unreliable, as on average one in four was captured or killed.
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Black and white lithograph of a crawling messenger by Lucien Hector Jonas, a French soldier-artist and illustrator of WWI. Object ID: 2016.94.7 →
The unique nature of Native American languages, mainly unrecorded and unstudied inside and outside of the U.S., addressed this problem. Not understood by outsiders, including Germans, Native American Code Talkers could send messages that the enemy could not decipher, successfully concealing battle plans and tactics which led to several Allied victories.
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SIOUX INDIAN CODE ON PHONE FOOLED HUNS
DECATUR, Ill.—There was one code Fritz never got onto in France. That was the Sioux. Private John Leas, just back from France, tells of it.
"A good many German spies got over into the allied line," said Leas, who was in charge of a communicating battery, "and there was some tapping of lines and listening in by German agents who understood English perfectly. We got around that in a clever way. We got Siox [sic] Indians on the telephones to send and receive orders."
The Oklahoma City Times. (Oklahoma City, OK) 28 Jun. 1919, p. 5. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/sn86064187/1919-06-28/ed-1/ .
Who were the Code Talkers?
The first recorded use of Native American Code Talkers took place shortly before June 21, 1918. During a battle against German forces in France near Château Thierry, two men from the Ho-Chunk Nation – Robert Big Thunder and John Longtail – were relied upon to send necessary communications that the enemy could not understand.
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Robert Big Thunder’s identification card noting his use of “Indian code signal.” U.S. National Archives, NAID: 134590308 →
Another clear record occurred during the Meuse-Argonne Campaign in France on Oct. 7-8, 1918. The Eastern Band Cherokee operated as Code Talkers after a test proved that all Allied communications were being intercepted by German forces. Soon after, men from the Choctaw and Oklahoma Cherokee Nations were employed as Code Talkers as well. A group of eight Choctaw Code Talkers enabled Americans to capture an entire German line with minimal losses.
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"The Allied Offensive in the Meuse-Argonne" from the "Literary Digest History of the World War, Vol. 6." Object ID: 1980.9.25 →
From Nov. 5-10, 1918, 18 enlisted men and three non-commissioned officers – all Native American – were tasked with creating code words for essential communication that did not have equivalents in Choctaw. They completed their task just as the armistice was called, so their new codes were not used during WWI.
This letter was sent to Lieutenant John Eddy as part of a data collecting initiative about Native Americans in Service. Eddy was the former Superintendent of the Crow Reservation in Montana and decided to send surveys out while in recovery from being gassed on the battlefield. The letter shows the Choctaw codes designed by the selected group of Native Americans who had been tasked with their creation right at the end of the war.
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Individuals from some other nations such as the Comanche have left some information behind on documents. For example, Calvin Atchavit of the 90th Division's “Indian Card” lists him as having earned a War Cross from the Belgian government for “talking over the lines when they were tapped by the enemy.” The details of so many have yet to be uncovered, as the military bureaucracy formally recorded so little.
Despite the U.S. government’s attempts to strip Native Americans of their languages in boarding schools, these individuals took on the duties asked of them without the expectation of recognition.
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Legacy and Delayed Recognition
World War I Code Talkers played a crucial role in the U.S. military that others could not, thanks to their languages. After decades of the U.S. government trying to erase Indigenous languages, these soldier’s multilingualism turned out to be an asset to the Allied cause and to the U.S. military. Those who shared stories with their families about their work and their service – steeped uniquely in their cultural identity – left their communities with great pride. Additionally, the U.S. military did not forget about these communication roles during WWI. Their key success guided the use of Code Talkers for vital communications during the next global war: World War II.
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Corporal Henry Bake, Jr., (left) and Private First Class George H. Kirk, Navajo Indians serving with a Marine Signal Unit, operate a portable radio set in a clearing they've just hacked in the dense jungle close behind the front lines. Image produced or created in Dec. 1943. National Archives, NAID: 593415 →
Despite the WWI Code Talkers’ contributions, the U.S. government did not immediately recognize them for their special actions. Much of what is known today comes from the statements of individuals, their commanding officers and their families. Their own communities began efforts to gain recognition for WWI Code Talkers in 1986, when the Choctaw Nation established their own medal and memorial. Since then, many other Native American communities have undertaken memorialization efforts. In 2008, the Code Talkers Recognition Act was passed, leading to a 2013 Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony for both WWI and WWII Code Talkers, with each nation creating its own medal design.
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Native Americans participate in the Congressional Gold Medal ceremony at the Capitol Building in Washington D.C., Nov. 20, 2013. Native American code talkers were honored during the ceremony. U.S. Department of Defense →
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Virtual Reality Experience
The Code Talker story like you've never seen it before:
Our Worlds tells the incredible story of America’s original Code Talkers in stunning virtual reality – immersing viewers in the presence of Choctaw soldiers fighting in France, presented in XR360°.
Located in the Main Gallery during open hours.
Learn more about Code Talkers:
Want to know more about individual Code Talkers and their stories? Watch Dr. Bill Meadows, historian and author of “The First Code Talkers: Native American Communicators in World War I,” as he explores recent discoveries in research and delves into the post-war impact and popular myths of the first Code Talkers.
For Classrooms:
Explore the “How WWI Changed America” teacher toolkit, which includes a dedicated section on Native American Service. Find resources such as a short documentary video, primary sources, a podcast and tools for analysis, as well as a lesson to help students learn about Native American service and citizenship.
How WWI Changed America: Native Americans in WWI
The contributions of Native Americans to the war effort helped win the war and, in 1924, citizenship for all Indigenous peoples in the U.S. This short video shares a small portion of their story.
Resurrecting the Warrior: The Great War, American Indian Soldiers, and Spiritual Transformations - Patricia Cecil
After the stripping of their weapons and confinement to reservations in the late 19th century, many Native American nations -- especially Plains communities with strong warrior societies like Kiowa and Comanche -- recognized the United States' entrance into the World War I as a time when they could “become warriors again.” As Native communities sent their young men to serve, they revived and openly practiced sacred spiritual traditions in direct defiance of United States reservation and assimilation policies.
When they returned from overseas, veterans did not shed their warrior roles but embraced their communities’ concepts of warriors as leaders and those entrusted to ensure their people’s survival. In doing so, many veterans became spiritual advocates, becoming active participants in the reemergence of traditional expressions of faith as well as advocates for newer spiritual practices, like the Native American Church.
Specialist Curator for Faith and Religion Patricia Cecil investigates their experiences.
Service and Citizenship: American Indians and WWI - Natalie Lovgren
From combat and cryptology to logistics and labor, approximately 12,000 American Indian soldiers served with the American Expeditionary Forces during the Great War. Despite their service and the accolades awarded for their actions, many were not officially recognized as citizens by the United States government.
In supporting the war effort – a means of honoring and protecting the land they had inhabited for millennia – they hoped to gain this status under the law.
On the 100th anniversary of the Indian Citizenship Act, join specialist curator Natalie Lovgren as she delves into the history and legacy of American Indian service during WWI.
All About WWI
10 a.m. - 5 p.m.
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55 | where did the queen's crown come from | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom | Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom
29 languages
British royal regalia
Crown Jewels
St Edward's Crown is the centrepiece of the British coronation regalia.
Overview
Country
Managers
The Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, originally the Crown Jewels of England, are a collection of royal ceremonial objects kept in the Jewel House at the Tower of London , which include the coronation regalia and vestments worn by British monarchs . [b]
The coronation regalia are the only working set in Europe and the collection is the most historically complete of any royal regalia in the world. [6] Objects used at the coronation ceremony variously denote the monarch's roles as head of state of the United Kingdom , Supreme Governor of the Church of England , and head of the British armed forces. The regalia feature heraldic devices and national emblems of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and other Commonwealth countries.
Use of regalia by monarchs in England can be traced back to when the country was converted to Christianity in the Early Middle Ages . A permanent set of coronation regalia, once belonging to Edward the Confessor , was established after he was made a saint in the 12th century. The sacred holy relics were kept at Westminster Abbey , venue of coronations since 1066, while monarchs wore another set of regalia at religious feasts and State Openings of Parliament . Collectively, these objects came to be known as the Jewels of the Crown . Most of the collection dates from around 1660 when Charles II ascended the throne. The medieval and Tudor regalia had either been sold or melted down after the monarchy was abolished in 1649 during the English Civil War . Only four original items predate the Restoration : a late 12th-century anointing spoon (the oldest object) and three early 17th-century swords. The regalia continued to be used by British monarchs after the kingdoms of England and Scotland united in 1707.
The regalia contain around 23,578 gemstones, among them Cullinan I (530 carats (106 g)), the largest clear cut diamond in the world, set in the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross. It was cut from the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found, the eponymous Cullinan, discovered in South Africa in 1905 and presented to Edward VII . In the Imperial State Crown are Cullinan II (317 carats (63 g)), the Stuart Sapphire , St Edward's Sapphire , and the Black Prince's Ruby – a large red spinel. The Koh-i-Noor diamond (105 carats (21 g)) was acquired by Queen Victoria from the Sikh Empire and has featured on three consort crowns. A small number of disused objects at the Tower are either empty or set with glass and crystal replicas.
At a coronation, the monarch is anointed using holy oil poured from an ampulla into the spoon, invested with robes and ornaments, and crowned with St Edward's Crown . Afterwards, it is exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown, which is also usually worn at State Openings of Parliament. Wives of kings, known as queens consort, are invested with a plainer set of regalia. [c] Also regarded as crown jewels are state swords, trumpets, ceremonial maces, church plate, historical regalia, banqueting plate, and royal christening fonts. They are part of the Royal Collection and belong to the institution of monarchy, passing from one sovereign to the next. In the Jewel House they are seen by 2.5 million visitors every year.
King Æthelstan , wearing a crown, presents an illuminated manuscript to St Cuthbert , c. 930
By the early 5th century, the Romans had withdrawn from Britain, and the Angles and the Saxons settled. A heptarchy of new kingdoms began to emerge. One method used by regional kings to solidify their authority was the use of ceremony and insignia. [11] The tomb of an unknown king – evidence suggests Rædwald of East Anglia ( r. circa 599 – 624) – at Sutton Hoo illustrates the regalia of a pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon monarch. [12] Inside the early 7th-century tomb, discovered in 1939, was found the ornate Sutton Hoo helmet , consisting of an iron cap, a neck guard, and a face mask decorated with copper alloy images of animals and warriors set with garnets . [13] He was also buried with a decorated sword; a ceremonial shield; and a heavy whetstone sceptre, [g] on top of which is an iron ring surmounted by the figure of a stag. [12]
In 597 CE, a Benedictine monk was sent by Pope Gregory I to start converting Pagan England to Christianity. The monk, Augustine , became the first archbishop of Canterbury . Within two centuries, the ritual of anointing monarchs with holy oil and crowning them (initially with helmets) in a Christian ceremony had been established, and regalia took on a religious identity. There was still no permanent set of coronation regalia; each monarch generally had a new set made, with which they were buried upon death. [14] In 9th-century Europe, gold crowns in the Byzantine tradition were replacing bronze, and gold soon became the standard material for English royal crowns. [15]
King Æthelstan ( r. 924–939) united the various Anglo-Saxon realms to form the Kingdom of England . In the earliest known depiction of an English king wearing a crown he is shown presenting a copy of Bede 's Life of St Cuthbert to the saint himself. [16] Until his reign, kings were portrayed on coins wearing helmets and circlets, [17] or wreath-like diadems in the style of Roman emperor Constantine the Great . Whether they actually wore such an item is not known. [10] Edgar the Peaceful ( r. 959–975) was the first English king to be crowned with an actual crown, and a sceptre was also introduced for his coronation. [18] After crowns, sceptres were the most potent symbols of royal authority in medieval England. [19]
Edward the Confessor
The first great seal of Edward the Confessor
In 1161, Edward the Confessor was made a saint, and objects connected with his reign became holy relics. The monks at his burial place, Westminster Abbey , claimed that Edward had asked them to look after his regalia in perpetuity and that they were to be used at the coronations of all future kings. [21] A note to this effect is contained in an inventory of precious relics drawn up by a monk at the abbey in 1450, recording a tunicle , dalmatic , pallium , and other vestments; a gold sceptre, two rods, a gold crown, comb, and spoon; a crown and two rods for the queen's coronation; and a chalice of onyx stone and a paten made of gold for the Holy Communion . [24] Although the Abbey's claim is likely to have been an exercise in self-promotion, and some of the regalia had probably been taken from Edward's grave when he was reinterred there, it became accepted as fact, [21] thereby establishing the first known set of hereditary coronation regalia in Europe. [25] Westminster Abbey is owned by a monarch, [26] and the regalia had always been royal property – the abbots were mere custodians. In the following centuries, some of these objects would fall out of use and the regalia would expand to include many others used or worn by monarchs and queens consort at coronations. [27]
An object referred to as " St Edward's Crown " is first recorded as having been used for the coronation of Henry III ( r. 1216–1272) and appears to be the same crown worn by Edward. Being crowned and invested with regalia owned by a previous monarch who was also a saint reinforced the king's legitimacy. [28] The crown would be used in many subsequent coronations until its destruction in the 1600s. Few descriptions survive, although one 17th-century historian noted it was "ancient Work with Flowers, adorn'd with Stones of somewhat a plain setting", [29] and an inventory described it as "gold wire-work set with slight stones and two little bells", weighing 2.25 kilograms (79.5 oz). [30] Edward is thought to be the first English king who wore a crown with arches. [31] Known as a 'closed' or imperial crown , the arches and cross symbolised the king as an emperor of his own domain, subservient to no one but God, unlike some continental rulers who owed fealty to more powerful kings or the Holy Roman emperor . [32] Also in the Royal Collection was an item called a state crown , which together with other crowns, rings, and swords, constituted the monarch's state regalia that were kept mainly at royal palaces, separate from the coronation regalia. [33]
Late medieval period
The handing over of crowns symbolised the transfer of power between rulers. Following the defeat in 1282 of the Welsh prince Llewelyn ap Gruffydd by Edward I ( r. 1272–1307), the Welsh regalia, including the crown of the legendary King Arthur , were surrendered to England. According to the Chronicle of Aberconwy Abbey , "and so the glory of Wales and the Welsh was handed over to the kings of England". [34] After the invasion of Scotland in 1296, the Stone of Scone was sent to the Tower of London "in recognition of a kingdom surrendered and conquered". [35] It was fitted into a wooden chair, which came to be used for the investiture of English kings and known as the Coronation Chair . [36] The Scottish regalia were also taken to London and offered at the shrine of Edward the Confessor; [37] Scotland eventually regained its independence. [38] In the treasury of Edward II ( r. 1307–1327) there were no fewer than 10 crowns. [39] When Richard II ( r. 1377–1399) was forced to abdicate, he symbolically handed St Edward's Crown over to his successor with the words "I present and give to you this crown … and all the rights dependent on it". [40]
Monarchs often pledged items of state regalia as collateral for loans. Edward III ( r. 1327–1377) pawned his magna corona to Baldwin of Luxembourg in 1339 for more than £16,650, [41] equivalent to £22,470,562 in 2023. [42] Three crowns and other jewels were held by the Bishop of London and the Earl of Arundel in the 1370s as security for £10,000. [43] One crown was exchanged with the Corporation of London in 1386 for a £4,000 loan. Mayors, knights, peers, bankers, and other wealthy subjects sometimes released objects on a temporary basis for the royal family to use at state occasions. Monarchs also distributed plate and jewels to troops in lieu of money. [44] At some point in the 14th century, all of the state regalia were moved to the White Tower at the Tower of London owing to a series of successful and attempted thefts in Westminster Abbey. [h] The holy relics of the coronation regalia stayed behind intact at the Abbey. [45] Having fallen out of use in England in the 13th century, [46] two arches topped with a monde and cross reappeared on the state crown during the reign of Henry V ( r. 1413–1422), [43] though arches did not feature on the Great Seal again until 1471. [47]
Tudors and early Stuarts
Elizabeth I , the last Tudor monarch, in her coronation robes 1559
An emerging item of regalia was the orb, described in Tudor inventories as a gold ball with a cross, [51] which underlined the monarch's sovereignty. Orbs had been pictorial emblems of royal authority in England since the early Middle Ages, but a real orb was probably not used at any English coronation until Henry VIII ( r. 1509–1547). [52] State regalia increasingly passed from one monarch to the next. The best example of this was the Tudor Crown , probably created at the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. [51] It first appears in a royal inventory during Henry VIII's reign and was one of three used at the coronation of each of his next three successors, the other two being St Edward's Crown and a "rich crown" made specially for the new monarch. [53] After the English Reformation , when England broke away from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church , the Church of England denounced the veneration of medieval relics and downplayed the history of St Edward's regalia. [54]
The concept of hereditary state regalia was enshrined in English law in 1606 when James I ( r. 1603–1625), the first Stuart king to rule England, decreed a list of "Roiall and Princely ornaments and Jewells to be indyvidually and inseparably for ever hereafter annexed to the Kingdome of this Realme". [51] [i] After James died, his son, Charles I ( r. 1625–1649) ascended the throne. Desperate for money, one of his first acts was to load 41 masterpieces from the Jewel House onto a ship bound for Amsterdam – the hub of Europe's jewel trade. This hoard of unique treasures, including the Mirror of Great Britain brooch, a 14th-century pendant called the Three Brothers , a 4.7-kilogram (10 lb) gold salt cellar known as the Morris Dance, and much fine Elizabethan plate, was expected to swell the king's coffers by £300,000, but fetched only £70,000. [55]
Charles's many conflicts with Parliament , stemming from his belief in the divine right of kings and the many religious conflicts that pervaded his reign, triggered the English Civil War in 1642. [56] Parliament deemed the regalia "Jewels of the Crown ": their ownership was vested in the monarch by virtue of his public role as king and not owned by him personally. [57] To avoid any legal risk to his subjects, Charles asked his wife, Henrietta Maria , to smuggle the inalienable property of the Crown abroad and sell it on the Dutch jewellery market. Upon learning of the scheme, the House of Lords and House of Commons both declared anyone involved in trafficking the Crown Jewels to be enemies of the state. [58] [j] Henrietta succeeded in disposing of a small quantity of jewels, albeit at a heavy discount, and shipped munitions back to England for the royalist cause. [59] Two years later, Parliament seized 187 kilograms (412 lb) of rare silver-gilt pieces from the Jewel House and used the proceeds to bankroll its own side of the war. [60]
Charles I standing beside Henry VIII's Crown, 1631
After nine years of war, Charles was defeated and executed, and less than a week later, the Rump Parliament voted to abolish the monarchy. The newly created English Commonwealth found itself short of money. To raise funds, the Act for the Sale of the Goods and Personal Estate of the Late King, Queen and Prince was brought into law, and trustees were appointed to value the Jewels – then regarded by Oliver Cromwell as "symbolic of the detestable rule of kings" [61] and "monuments of superstition and idolatry" [62] – and sell them to the highest bidder. [k] The most valuable object was Henry VIII's Crown, valued at £1,100. [63] Their gemstones and pearls removed, most of the coronation and state regalia were melted down and struck into coins by the Mint . [64]
Two nuptial crowns survived: the Crown of Margaret of York and the Crown of Princess Blanche had been taken out of England centuries before the Civil War when Margaret and Blanche married kings in continental Europe. Both crowns and the 9th-century Alfred Jewel give a sense of the character of royal jewellery in England in the Middle Ages. [65] Another rare survivor is the 600-year-old Crystal Sceptre , a gift from Henry V to the Lord Mayor of London, who still bears it at coronations. [66] [l] Many pieces of English plate that monarchs had presented to visiting dignitaries before the interregnum can be seen in museums throughout Europe. [68] Cromwell declined Parliament's invitations to be made king and became Lord Protector . It was marked by a ceremony in Westminster Hall in 1657 where he donned purple robes, sat on the Coronation Chair, and was invested with many traditional symbols of sovereignty, except a crown. [69] A crown—probably made of gilded base metal—was placed beside Cromwell at his lying in state in 1660. [70]
Restoration to present
The monarchy was restored after Cromwell's death. For the English coronation of Charles II ( r. 1660–1685), who returned from exile abroad, [71] new Jewels were made based on records of the lost items. [61] They were supplied by the banker and royal goldsmith, [m] Sir Robert Vyner , at a cost of £12,184 7s 2d [61] – as much as three warships. [73] It was decided to fashion the replicas like the medieval regalia and to use the original names. These 22-carat gold objects, [15] made in 1660 and 1661, form the nucleus of the Crown Jewels: St Edward's Crown, two sceptres, an orb, an ampulla, a pair of spurs, a pair of armills or bracelets, and a staff. A medieval silver-gilt anointing spoon and three early Stuart swords had survived and were returned to the Crown, [74] and the Dutch ambassador arranged the return of extant jewels pawned in Holland. [75] The king also spent £11,800 acquiring 2,270 kilograms (5,000 lb) of altar and banqueting plate, and he was presented with conciliatory gifts. [76]
Thomas Blood and his accomplices attempting to steal the regalia, drawn 1793
In 1669, the Jewels went on public display for the first time in the Jewel House at the Tower of London. The Deputy Keeper of the Jewel House took the regalia out of a cupboard and showed it to visitors for a small fee. [77] This informal arrangement was ended two years later when Thomas Blood , an Irish-born army officer loyal to Parliament, attacked the 77-year-old and stole a crown, a sceptre, and an orb. Blood and his three accomplices were apprehended at the castle perimeter, but the crown had been flattened with a mallet in an attempt to conceal it, and there was a dent in the orb. [78] He was pardoned by the king, who also gave him land and a pension; it has been suggested that Blood was treated leniently because he was a government spy. [79] Ever since, the Jewels have been protected by armed guards. [80]
Since the Restoration, there have been many additions and alterations to the regalia. [n] A new set was commissioned in 1685 for Mary of Modena , the first queen consort to be crowned since the Restoration (Charles II was unmarried when he took the throne). Another, more elaborate set had to be made for Mary II ( r. 1689–1694), who was crowned as joint sovereign with her husband William III ( r. 1689–1702). [61] After England and Scotland were united as one kingdom by the Acts of Union 1707 , the Scottish regalia were locked away in a chest, [81] and the English regalia continued to be used by British monarchs . Gemstones were hired for coronations – the fee typically being 4% of their value – and replaced with glass and crystals for display in the Jewel House, a practice that continued until the early 20th century. [61]
As enemy planes targeted London during the Second World War, the Crown Jewels were secretly moved to Windsor Castle . [82] The most valuable gemstones were taken out of their settings by James Mann , Master of the Armouries , and Sir Owen Morshead , the Royal Librarian. They were wrapped in cotton wool, placed in a tall glass preserving-jar, which was then sealed in a biscuit tin, and hidden in the castle's basement. Also placed in the jar was a note from the King, stating that he had personally directed that the gemstones be removed from their settings. As the Crown Jewels were bulky and thus difficult to transport without a vehicle, the idea was that if the Nazis invaded, the historic precious stones could easily be carried on someone's person without drawing suspicion and, if necessary, buried or sunk. [83]
After the war, the Jewels were kept in a vault at the Bank of England for two years while bomb damage to the Jewel House was repaired. [84] In May 2023, [85] St Edward's Crown was placed on the head of Charles III ( r. 2022–present) in the only ceremony of its kind in Europe. [86] [o] Other European monarchies have abandoned coronations in favour of secular ceremonies. [88] The Crown Jewels consist of approximately 140 objects, [2] which are permanently set with around 23,578 precious and semi-precious stones and are seen by around 2.5 million visitors every year. [89]
Crowns are the main symbols of royal authority. [90] All crowns in the Tower are decorated with alternating crosses pattée and fleurs-de-lis , a pattern which first appears on the great seal of Richard III , [47] and their arches are surmounted with a monde and cross pattée. Most of the crowns also have a red or purple velvet cap and an ermine border. [91]
St Edward's Crown
Imperial State Crown
A much lighter crown is worn by the monarch when leaving Westminster Abbey, and at the annual State Opening of Parliament. [100] The current Imperial State Crown was made in 1937 for George VI and is a copy of the one made in 1838 for Queen Victoria, which had fallen into a poor state of repair, [101] and had been made using gems from its own predecessor, the State Crown of George I . [102] In 1953, the crown was resized to fit Elizabeth II, and the arches were lowered by 2.5 cm (1 in). [103] The gold, silver and platinum crown is decorated with 2,868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds and 5 rubies. [104] Among the largest stones are the 317-carat (63 g) Cullinan II diamond, also known as the Second Star of Africa, added to the crown in 1909 (the larger Cullinan I is set in the Sovereign's Sceptre). The 170-carat (34 g) Black Prince's Ruby , set in the front cross, is not actually a ruby but a large cabochon red spinel . According to legend it was given to Edward the Black Prince by the Spanish king Peter of Castile in 1367 and Henry V wore it at the Battle of Agincourt . [105] How the stone found its way back into the Royal Collection after the Interregnum is unclear, but a substantial "ruby" was acquired for the Crown Jewels in 1661 at a cost of £400, and this may well have been the spinel. [106] On the back of the crown is the 104-carat (20.8 g) cabochon Stuart Sapphire , and in the top cross is St Edward's Sapphire , reputedly taken from the ring of the Confessor when his body was re-interred at the Abbey in 1163. [105] Below the monde hang four pearls, three of which are often said to have belonged to Elizabeth I , but the association is almost certainly erroneous. [107]
Consort crowns
After the Restoration, wives of kings – queens consort – traditionally wore the State Crown of Mary of Modena , who first wore it at her coronation in 1685. Originally set with 561 hired diamonds and 129 pearls, it was re-set with crystals and cultured pearls for display in the Jewel House along with a matching diadem that consorts wore in procession to the Abbey. The diadem once held 177 diamonds, 1 ruby, 1 sapphire, and 1 emerald. [108] By the 19th century, that crown was judged to be too theatrical and in a poor state of repair, so in 1831 the Crown of Queen Adelaide was made for Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen using gemstones from her private jewellery. [109]
Hand-coloured photograph of the crown made for Queen Mary , with eight half-arches and the Koh-i-Noor set in the front cross, published 1919
Thus began a tradition of each queen consort having a custom-made crown. [110] In 1902 the Crown of Queen Alexandra , a European-style crown – flatter and with eight half-arches instead of the typical four – was made for Alexandra of Denmark to wear at her coronation . Set with over 3,000 diamonds, it was the first consort crown to include the Koh-i-Noor diamond presented to Queen Victoria in 1850 following the British conquest of the Punjab . Originally 191 carats (38 g) and set in an armlet, it was cut down to an oval brilliant weighing 105 carats (21 g), which Victoria mounted in a brooch and circlet. [111] The Crown of Queen Mary was the second to contain the Koh-i-Noor; also unusual for a British crown owing to its eight half-arches, it was made in 1911 for Mary of Teck . Mary purchased the Art Deco -inspired crown with her own money hoping it would become an heirloom used by future queens consort. [112] Altogether, it was adorned with 2,200 diamonds, and contained the 94.4-carat (19 g) Cullinan III and 63.4-carat (13 g) Cullinan IV diamonds. Its arches were made detachable in 1914 allowing it to be worn as an open crown or circlet. [113]
After George V's death, Mary continued wearing the crown (without its arches) as a queen mother , so the Crown of Queen Elizabeth was created for Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon , later known as the Queen Mother, to wear at her coronation in 1937. [114] It is the only British crown made entirely out of platinum, [113] and was modelled on Queen Mary's Crown, but has four half-arches instead of eight. [115] The crown is decorated with about 2,800 diamonds, with the Koh-i-Noor in the middle of the front cross. It also contains a replica of the 22.5-carat (5 g) Lahore Diamond given to Queen Victoria by the East India Company in 1851, [116] and a 17.3-carat (3 g) diamond given to her by Abdülmecid I , Sultan of the Ottoman Empire , in 1856. [115] The crown was laid on top of the Queen Mother's coffin in 2002 during her lying in state and funeral. [117] The crowns of Queen Alexandra and Queen Mary feature crystal replicas of the Koh-i-Noor, which has been the subject of repeated controversy, with governments of both India and Pakistan claiming to be the diamond's rightful owners and demanding its return ever since gaining independence from the UK.
Queen Camilla was crowned using Queen Mary's crown at her coronation with Charles III on 6 May 2023. [85] Alterations included re-setting the crown with the original Cullinan diamonds and reducing the number of half-arches from eight to four. The Cullinan V brooch replaced the Koh-i-Noor and a new purple velvet cap was also fitted into the crown. [118] [119] It was officially renamed Queen Camilla's Crown in January 2025. [120]
Prince of Wales coronets
Non-coronation crowns
Processional objects
The swords of state reflect a monarch's role as Head of the British Armed Forces and Defender of the Faith . [135] Three are carried before the monarch into the Abbey: the blunt Sword of Mercy (also known as Curtana ), the Sword of Spiritual Justice, and the Sword of Temporal Justice. [50] All are believed to have been supplied at the time of James I between 1610 and 1620, probably by a member of the Worshipful Company of Cutlers , [136] using blades created in the 1580s by Italian bladesmiths Giandonato and Andrea Ferrara . They were deposited with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Charles II. Before that point, new swords had been made for each coronation since the 15th century. [50] Sold in the civil war, they were returned at the Restoration, and their use was first recorded at the coronation of James II in 1685. [136]
The two-handed Sword of State, made in 1678, symbolises the monarch's authority and is also carried before the monarch at State Openings of Parliament. [137] Its wooden sheath, made in 1689, is bound in crimson velvet decorated with silver-gilt emblems of England, Scotland and Ireland, fleurs-de-lis, and portcullises. [138] The lion of England and unicorn of Scotland form the cross-piece to the sword's handle. The sword weighs 3.6 kg (8 lb) and is 1.2 m (4 ft) long. During a coronation it must be held for much of the service pointing upwards without touching the body by the Lord President of the Privy Council . [139]
Before the investiture, the unwieldy Sword of State is exchanged for the lighter Sword of Offering, which is described as "the one true coronation sword". Commissioned by George IV for his extravagant 1821 coronation , its gilded leather sheath is encrusted with 1,251 diamonds, 16 rubies, 2 sapphires and 2 turquoises. [140] The sword has a partly blued and gilt steel blade, [141] and its handle is set with 2,141 diamonds, 12 emeralds and 4 rubies. [140] The stones are arranged to form roses, thistles, shamrocks, oak leaves and acorns. Two diamond lion heads, one at each end of the cross-piece, have ruby eyes. [142] George paid more than £5,000 for the sword out of his own pocket in a radical change from the austere £2 swords used by his 18th-century predecessors. It remained in the Royal family's personal ownership until 1903 when it was deposited with the Crown Jewels and has been used at every coronation since 1911. [140] A monarch is girded and blessed using the sword, which is returned to the Keeper of the Jewel House by the Abbey for a token sum of £5, [73] [q] and is borne unsheathed for the rest of the ceremony. [140]
The 17th-century Irish Sword of State was held by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (a viceroy ) prior to Ireland's independence from the UK in 1922 and has been displayed in the Jewel House since 1959. The handle takes the form of a lion and a unicorn and is decorated with a Celtic harp . Each new viceroy was invested with the sword at Dublin Castle where it usually sat across the arms of a throne, representing the king or queen in their absence. It was borne in procession in front of monarchs during their official visits to Dublin. In June 1921 the sword was present at the official opening of the Parliament of Northern Ireland by George V. The sword was displayed at Dublin Castle in 2018 as part of the 'Making Majesty' exhibition – the first time it had been to Ireland in 95 years. [143]
St Edward's Staff
Trumpeters and a mace bearer at the English coronation of James II
The Crown Jewels include 16 silver trumpets dating from between 1780 and 1848. [91] Nine are draped with red silk damask banners embroidered with coats of arms in gold, originally made for Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838. They have not been used since the Corps of State Trumpeters was disbanded as a cost-cutting measure in the 19th century. [148] The trumpeters' main job was to sound a fanfare at key points in the coronation, and they also played at the banquet afterwards in Westminster Hall. [149] Today, the Band of the Household Cavalry and the Central Band of the Royal Air Force play their own trumpets at state occasions. [150] [151]
Anointing objects
A replica of the 1661 Ampulla housed in the triforium at Westminster Abbey
The Ampulla, 20.5 cm (8 in) tall and weighing
660 g (1 lb 7+1⁄4 oz), is a hollow gold vessel made in 1661 and shaped like an eagle with outspread wings. Its head unscrews, enabling the vessel to be filled with oil, which exits via a hole in the beak. [155] The original ampulla was a small stone phial , sometimes worn around the neck as a pendant by kings, and otherwise kept inside an eagle-shaped golden reliquary. [156] According to 14th-century legend, the Virgin Mary appeared to Thomas Becket , Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 until 1170, and presented him with a gold eagle and some oil for anointing English kings. [155] This ampulla was first recorded as being used at Henry IV 's coronation in 1399 and was deposited for safekeeping with St Edward's regalia at the Abbey by Richard III in 1483. [54] Known as the Holy Oil of St Thomas, the same batch was used to anoint all subsequent kings and queens (except Mary I ) until it eventually ran out in 1625. It is unclear why, after the Restoration, the vessel itself came to be reinterpreted as an eagle standing on a domed base. [156] In terms of religious importance, the anointing objects are second only to St Edward's Crown, [157] and in 2013 the ampulla stood beside the crown on the altar of Westminster Abbey at a service marking the 60th anniversary of Elizabeth II's coronation . [158]
Coronation Spoon
The silver-gilt Coronation Spoon
Queen Victoria wearing a copy of the Imperial Mantle, kept in the Museum of London , [162] 1838
All the robes have priestly connotations and their form has changed little since the Middle Ages. A tradition of wearing St Edward's robes came to an end in 1547 after the English Reformation , but was revived in 1603 by James I to emphasise his belief in the divine nature of kingship. [163] As well as robes, a monarch also wore cloth-of-gold buskins or sandals, depending on his or her foot size. [164] These holy relics were destroyed along with royal crowns and ornaments in the Civil War. New robes were made for each monarch starting with Charles II, a practice that ended in 1911, when George V reused the 1902 Supertunica (a dalmatic ), and the Imperial Mantle (a cope ), fashioned for George IV in 1821. [163] [s] They were also worn by his successors George VI, Elizabeth II and Charles III. Together, the gold robes weigh approximately 10 kg (22 lb). [166] A new Stole Royal was made in 2023 for Charles III by the Royal School of Needlework , taking inspiration from the 1953 stole of his predecessor, Elizabeth II. It is adorned with emblems of the four countries of the United Kingdom, a dove representing the Holy Spirit , a Tudor-style crown, and a pattern based on the Cosmati Pavement in Westminster Abbey. [167]
Prick spurs remade for Charles II are presented to the monarch. They are made of solid gold, richly embossed with floral patterns and scrolls, and have crimson velvet straps embroidered in gold. Both necks terminate in a Tudor rose with a spike at its centre. Also known as St George 's Spurs, they are emblems of knighthood and chivalry, and denote the sovereign's role as head of the armed forces. Gold spurs are first known to have been used in 1189 at the coronation of Richard I, though it is likely they were introduced for Henry the Young King in 1170, and this element of the service was probably inspired by the initiation ceremony of knights. A pair of mid 14th-century spurs were added to St Edward's regalia at the Abbey in 1399 and used at all coronations until their destruction in 1649. [168] Historically, spurs were fastened to a monarch's feet, but since the Restoration they are simply presented to the monarch. [169]
The Armills are gold bracelets of sincerity and wisdom. [170] Like spurs, they were first used at English coronations in the 12th century. [171] By the 17th century, armills were no longer delivered to the monarch, but simply carried at the coronation. A new pair had to be made in 1661; they are 4 cm (1.6 in) wide, 7 cm (2.8 in) in diameter, and champlevé enamelled on the surface with roses, thistles and harps (the national symbols of England, Scotland and Ireland) as well as fleurs-de-lis. [172] For Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953, the tradition of wearing armills was revived, and a new set of plain 22-karat gold armills lined with crimson velvet presented to the Queen on behalf of various Commonwealth governments. Each bracelet is fitted with an invisible hinge and a clasp in the form of a Tudor rose. The hallmark includes a tiny portrait of the Queen, [173] who continued to wear them upon leaving the Abbey and could be seen wearing them later, along with the Imperial State Crown and Sovereign's Ring, at her appearance on the balcony of Buckingham Palace . [174]
Sovereign's Orb
An orb, a type of globus cruciger , was first used at an English coronation by Henry VIII in 1509, and then by all subsequent monarchs apart from the early Stuart kings James I and Charles I, who opted for the medieval coronation order. The Tudor orb was deposited with St Edward's regalia at Westminster Abbey in 1625. [175] Since 1661 the Sovereign's Orb is a hollow gold sphere about 16.5 cm (6.5 in) in diameter and weighing 1.2 kg (2.6 lb) (more than twice as heavy as the original [175] ) made for Charles II. [176] A band of gems and pearls runs along the equator and there is a half-band on the top hemisphere. Atop the orb is an amethyst surmounted by a jewelled cross, symbolising the Christian world, with a sapphire on one side and an emerald on the other. [177] Altogether, the orb is decorated with 375 pearls, 365 diamonds, 18 rubies, 9 emeralds, 9 sapphires, 1 amethyst and 1 piece of glass. [178] It is handed to the sovereign during the investiture rite of the coronation, and is borne later in the left hand when leaving Westminster Abbey. [179] A small version, originally set with hired gems, was made in 1689 for Mary II to hold at her coronation as joint sovereign with William III; it was never used again at a coronation and was re-set with imitation gems and cultured pearls. The orb is 14.6 cm (5.7 in) in diameter and weighs 1.07 kg (2.4 lb). [176] Both orbs were laid on Queen Victoria's coffin at her state funeral in 1901. Officially, no reason was given for using Mary II's orb, but it may have been intended to reflect Victoria's position as Empress of India . [180]
The Sovereign's Ring has been worn by monarchs at their coronation since William IV in 1831, with the exceptions of Queen Victoria, whose fingers were too small to retain it, [181] and Charles III, who acknowledged the ring but did not wear it. [182] In the centre is a large octagonal sapphire overlaid with rubies forming a cross, surrounded by 14 brilliant diamonds. The general design is intended to represent the red St George's Cross (England) on the blue background of St Andrew's Cross (Scotland). [173] Rubies symbolise all the kingly virtues – such as humility, good morals, and charity – and have featured on coronation rings since the early Middle Ages. [183] A small copy was made for Victoria, who wrote in a letter: "The Archbishop had (most awkwardly) put the ring on the wrong finger, and the consequence was that I had the greatest difficulty to take it off again, which I at last did with great pain" [184] – her jewellers had measured the wrong finger. [185] In 1919 both rings were deposited at the Tower along with the Queen Consort's Ring, which is similar in design and was made in 1831 for Queen Adelaide. [186]
Before 1831, monarchs generally received a new ring symbolising their "marriage" to the nation, [181] with perhaps two exceptions: Richard II offered Westminster Abbey a "solemn jewel, a gold ring set with a precious stone called a ruby, of no small value" to be worn by his successors. Evidence suggests it was later worn by Henry V. [187] Another was the Stuart Coronation Ring, probably used at the English coronations of Charles I and Charles II, and certainly that of James II, who took it into exile with him in France after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. It was returned to the British monarchy 100 years later and belongs to the Royal Collection of Gems and Jewels . The ring has a large ruby etched with a St George's Cross and bordered by 26 diamonds. Since 1830 it has been on permanent loan from Windsor Castle to Edinburgh Castle where it is displayed with the Honours of Scotland. [188] The coronation ring of Mary II survives in the Portland Collection at Welbeck Abbey . [189]
The head of the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross
The sceptre , a symbolic ornamental rod held by the monarch at a coronation, is derived from the shepherd's staff via the crozier of a bishop. [190] Two gold sceptres made in 1661 are part of the coronation regalia. The Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross is a token of his or her temporal power as head of state. The whole object is 92 cm (3 ft) long, weighs around 1.17 kg (2.6 lb), and is decorated with 333 diamonds, 31 rubies, 15 emeralds, 7 sapphires, 6 spinels, and 1 composite amethyst. [191] In 1910, it was redesigned to incorporate Cullinan I , also known as the Great Star of Africa, which, at over 530 carats (106 g), is the largest clear cut diamond in the world. [192] It was part of a rough diamond weighing 3,106 carats (621.2 g) found in South Africa in 1905, and was named after Thomas Cullinan , the chairman of the mining company. The gold clasps holding it can be opened and the stone removed to be worn as a pendant hanging from Cullinan II, which is set in the Imperial State Crown, to form a brooch – Queen Mary often wore it like this. [105] Above the pear-shaped diamond is the amethyst surmounted by a cross pattée encrusted with an emerald and small diamonds. [192]
The Sovereign's Sceptre with Dove, which has also been known as the Rod of Equity and Mercy, is emblematic of the monarch's spiritual role. It is slightly longer, at 1.1 m (3.6 ft), but weighs about the same as the Sceptre with Cross. The sceptre is decorated with 285 gemstones, including 94 diamonds, 53 rubies, 10 emeralds, 4 sapphires and 3 spinels. [191] Circling the rod are bands of precious stones. At the top is a gold monde set with diamonds and topped by a plain cross, upon which sits a white enamelled dove with its wings outspread, representing the Holy Ghost . [193] A sceptre like this first appeared in the 11th century and was probably based on the German sceptre, which was topped by an Imperial Eagle . [190] The Sceptre with Dove is the penultimate piece of regalia to be delivered. Holding both sceptres, the monarch is crowned with St Edward's Crown. [185]
The Crown Jewels include two sceptres made for Mary of Modena in 1685: a gold sceptre with a cross known as the Queen Consort's Sceptre with Cross, and another made of ivory topped by a dove known as the Queen Consort's Ivory Rod with Dove. Unlike the sovereign's dove, this one has folded wings and is relatively small. For the coronation of Mary II, the wife and joint sovereign of William III, a more elaborate gold sceptre with dove was commissioned in 1689. It has not been used since, and went missing for several decades, only to be found in 1814 at the back of a cupboard in the Tower of London. [178]
Altar plate
Altar dishes behind George V at his coronation in 1911
In the Jewel House there is a collection of chalices , patens , flagons , candlesticks, and dishes – all silver-gilt except five gold communion vessels – that are displayed on the altars of Westminster Abbey during coronations. [194] Although not regalia these items, known as plate (from the Spanish plata, meaning silver), [195] are considered to be Crown Jewels by virtue of their long association with the Jewel House. [196]
One of the most striking pieces is a large dish 95 cm (3.12 ft) across and weighing 13 kg (28.7 lb), in the centre of which is a relief depiction of the Last Supper . Around the edge are four engravings of biblical scenes: the Washing of the Feet , the Walk to Emmaus , the Coming of the Holy Ghost , and Christ's Commission to the Apostles . Made in 1664 for James, Duke of York , and later acquired by Charles II, it stands on the high altar during a coronation ceremony. [197] At each end of the altar stands a 91 cm (3 ft) tall candlestick made in the 17th century, which is engraved all over with scrolls, leaves and flowers. [198]
An altar dish and flagon were made in 1691 for the royal Church of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London. The dish measures 70 cm (2.3 ft) across and depicts the Last Supper above the coat of arms of co-monarchs William III and Mary II. [199] The flagon stands 42.5 cm (1.4 ft) tall. [200] Both pieces are still used in the chapel on Easter, Whitsun and Christmas, and they were first displayed at a coronation in 1821. [201]
Another dish still in regular use is the Maundy Dish – one of six used by the King at Royal Maundy for handing out alms to elderly people in recognition of their service to the church and local community. The ceremony, which takes place in a different cathedral every year, entirely replaced the ancient custom of washing the feet of the poor in 1730, and the dish, though it bears the royal cypher of William and Mary, dates from the reign of Charles II. Two purses containing specially minted coins are taken from the dish and presented to each recipient. [202]
Banqueting plate
The Exeter Salt top centre with salt spoons either side, a caddinet (spice box) lower left, and a cruet lower right
The last coronation banquet held at Westminster Hall took place in 1821 for George IV. [203] Silverware used at those banquets include the Plymouth Fountain, a wine fountain made around 1640 by a German goldsmith and presented to Charles II by the city of Plymouth . Gilded for George II in 1726, it is 77.5 cm (2.5 ft) tall and decorated with flowers, fruit, dolphins, mermaids and sea monsters. [204] The nautical theme is continued in the silver-gilt Wine Cistern, also known as the Grand Punch Bowl, which is cast as a giant oyster shell. It weighs 257 kg (567 lb), measures 0.76 m × 1.38 m × 1.01 m (2.5 ft × 4.5 ft × 3.3 ft), and can hold 144 bottles of wine on ice. [205] It was commissioned in 1829 by George IV but not completed until after his death. It is the heaviest surviving piece of English banqueting plate. [206] In 1841, the cistern was re-purposed as a punch bowl , with the addition of a large ivory-stemmed ladle, which has a silver-gilt bowl in the form of a nautilus shell . [207]
The Exeter Salt is a 45-centimetre (1.5 ft) tall salt cellar in the form of a castle on a rocky outcrop. Each of its four main compartments held about 29 g (1 oz) of salt, while smaller ones held pepper and other spices. [208] It was made c. 1630 in Germany and is set with 73 gems probably added later. The Salt was bought in Hamburg in 1657 by the city's British Resident as a peace offering to the Russian court, which had cut all ties with Britain during the Interregnum . He was turned away at the Russian border and eventually took it home to London. In 1660, it was acquired from a private dealer for £700 by the city of Exeter and presented to Charles II. [209]
Eleven smaller salts named after St George were originally made for a St George's Day banquet of the Knights of the Garter in the late 17th century. A twelfth, the Queen Elizabeth Salt, was made in 1572 during the reign of Elizabeth I for a member of the aristocracy; it was later acquired by Charles II. Twelve spoons made for George IV in 1820 complement these salts. [210]
Baptismal plate
The Lily Font on top of the Charles II font and basin at the christening of Edward, Prince of Wales in 1842
Three silver-gilt objects (comprising a total of six parts) associated with royal christenings are displayed in the Jewel House. Charles II's 95-centimetre (3 ft 1 in) tall font was created in 1661 and stood on a basin to catch any spills. [91] Surmounting the font's domed lid is a figure of Philip the Evangelist baptising the Ethiopian eunuch . [211] While Charles's marriage to Catherine of Braganza produced no heir, the font may have been used to secretly baptise some of his 13 illegitimate children. [212] In 1688, James Francis Edward Stuart , son of James II and Mary of Modena, was the first royal baby to be christened using this object. [213]
A ewer and basin of French design made in 1735 were only used at two christenings. The 46-centimetre (1 ft 6 in) tall ewer's handle is topped by a figure of Hercules slaying the Hydra , an unlikely motif for baptismal plate, suggesting it originally had an alternate purpose. Indeed, it was first used in 1738 at the impromptu christening of a "very ill" future George III only hours after his birth. [214] His father, Frederick, Prince of Wales , was banished from the royal court and forbidden to use the Charles II font. [212] An inscription on the ewer records its presence at the 1780 christening of George III's youngest son, Prince Alfred . [214]
The Lily Font was made in 1840 for the christening of Victoria, Princess Royal , the first child of Queen Victoria, who declined to use the Charles II font because of its unseemly history. The 1661 font was recycled as a plinth (pictured) and its basin found a new role as an altar dish. [212] The Lily Font stands 43 centimetres (1 ft 5 in) tall and weighs approximately 10 kg (22 lb). [215] It is decorated with water lilies, symbolising purity and new life, and cherubs plucking lyres . The object has been used for the christenings of all of Elizabeth II's children and grandchildren (except Princess Eugenie ) with holy water brought from the River Jordan . [216]
Ownership, management and value
See also
^ Three maces from the Jewel House are on permanent loan to the Palace of Westminster . [1] Objects can be temporarily moved to other exhibitions.
^ Technically, the Crown Jewels are the regalia and vestments used or worn by monarchs at a coronation. [4] However, the term has been commonly used to refer to the contents of the Jewel House since at least the 17th century. [5] The inventory in Keay (2011) extends to items displayed in the Martin Tower.
^ Husbands of queens regnant are not crowned in the United Kingdom. [7]
^ British Museum number 1990,0102.24
^ British Museum number 1957,0207.15
^ British Museum number 1956,1011.2
^ British Museum number 1939,1010.160
^ "An Order of the House concerning the Pawning of the Crown Jewels at Amsterdam" can be found in Rushworth, John (1721), Historical Collections , vol. 4, p. 736.
^ For the inventory see Millar, Oliver, ed. (1972). " The Inventories and Valuations of the King's Goods 1649–1651 " in The Volume of the Walpole Society, vol. 43. pp. 20–51.
^ The Lord Mayor of London carried the Crystal Sceptre at the coronation of Charles III. [67]
^ Vyner outsourced work to fellow members of the Goldsmiths' Company . [72]
^ There is a list of additions and alterations up to Queen Victoria's 1838 coronation in Jones, pp. 63–72. For a timeline of changes between 1855 and 1967 see Holmes and Sitwell, pp. 76–78. A thorough history is contained in Blair, vol. 2.
^ In 1937 and 1953 the coronation was rehearsed using a set of replicas made by Messrs Robert White and Sons. After 1953 the set was purchased jointly by the Abbey and the Ministry of Works , and it has been displayed in the Abbey's triforium since 2018. [87]
^ The Tudor Crown was reinstated in 2022 by Elizabeth's successor, Charles III. [99]
^ Prior to decimalisation in 1971 the sword was redeemed for 100 shillings . [140]
^ Objects are listed in the order in which they are presented to a monarch.
^ George IV never wore the Supertunica. Westminster Abbey took custody of the robe and it was donated to the Crown by a private owner in 1911. [165]
^ Further reading on this subject:
Nash, Michael L. (2017). "The Jewels of the Kingdom". Royal Wills in Britain from 1509 to 2008. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 61–86. ISBN
.
^ In 1995, three disused crown frames then owned by the jewellers Asprey & Garrard , which are now kept in the Tower of London, were valued for an export licence application: [222]
^ Keay (2002), p. 3.
^ Keay (2011), dust jacket.
^ Keay (2011), p. 9.
^ Keay (2011), p. 12.
^ Keay (2011), pp. 13–18.
^ Keay (2011), p. 17.
^ Nicholas, p. 220.
^ Steane, p. 71.
^ Rose, p. 13.
"Profile: Westminster Abbey" . BBC News. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 1 August 2018.
^ Rose, p. 16.
^ Rose, p. 14.
^ Holmes, p. 217.
^ Twining, p. 132.
^ Rose, p. 24–25.
^ Dale Hoak in Hoak, "The iconography of the crown imperial", pp. 55, 63.
^ Keay (2011), p. 22.
^ Breeze, et al., p. 216.
^ Twining, p. 117.
^ Steane, p. 34.
^ Stratford, p. 11.
^ UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from
^ Collins, p. 75.
^ Rose, p. 25.
^ a b Collins, p. 11.
^ Keay (2011), pp. 27–28.
^ David Dean in Hoak, "Image and ritual in the Tudor parliaments", p. 243.
^ Rose, pp. 44–45.
^ Strong, pp. 191–193.
^ a b Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 257.
^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 52; Collins, p. 168.
^ Keay (2011), pp. 37–38.
^ Barker, p. 46.
^ Barker, pp. 48–49.
^ Rose, p. 17.
^ Keay (2011), p. 43.
^ Keay (2011), pp. 20–21.
^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 7.
^ Collins, p. 12.
^ Philippa Glanville in Abramova and Dmitrieva, "The Goldsmiths and the Court: Silver in London 1600–65", p. 56. and Holmes, p. 54.
^ Mears, et al., pp. 46–47.
^ Hammond, p. 20.
^ Rose, p. 20.
^ Barker, p. 66.
^ Douglas S. Mack in McCracken-Flesher, "Can the Scottish Subaltern Speak? Nonelite Scotland and the Scottish Parliament", p. 145.
^ Aronson, p. 81.
^ Jenkins & Trowles, p. 41.
^ Morris, p. 27.
^ Rose, p. 22.
^ a b Mears, et al., p. 23.
^ Keay (2002), p. 23.
"Victorian Coat of Arms" . Victoria State Government. Archived from the original on 27 February 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
"Royal Cypher" . College of Arms. 27 September 2022.
^ Mears, et al., p. 29.
^ Keay (2011), pp. 174–175.
^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 30.
^ Keay (2011), p. 183.
^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 102.
^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 38.
^ Mears, et al., p. 25.
^ Keay (2011), p. 137.
^ Keay (2011), p. 175.
^ Twining, p. 167.
^ Allison and Riddell, p. 134.
Queen Camilla's Crown, formerly known as Queen Mary's Crown, was renamed in 2025.
^ Mears, et al., p. 31.
^ Allison and Riddell, p. 265.
^ Mears, et al., p. 24.
^ Rose, pp. 46–47.
^ Twining, p. 172.
^ Keay (2011), p. 127.
^ Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 265.
^ Keay (2011), p. 63.
^ Jones, p. 54.
"Mace (The)" . Parliament.uk. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
^ Mears, et al., p. 8.
^ King George's Jubilee Trust, p. 25.
^ Keay (2011), p. 48.
^ Strong, pp. 78–79.
^ Strong, pp. 270–271.
^ Valerie Cumming in MacGregor, "'Great vanity and excesse in Apparell'. Some Clothing and Furs of Tudor and Stuart Royalty", p. 327.
^ Cox, p. 279.
^ Mears, et al., p. 14.
^ Barker, p. 94.
^ Rose, p. 52.
^ a b Mears, et al., p. 19.
^ King George's Jubilee Trust, pp. 26, 31.
^ Twining, p. 173.
^ Rose, p. 26.
^ Hibbert, p. 35.
^ Arts Council of Great Britain, p. 58.
^ Schroder, p. xxvi.
^ Dixon-Smith, et al., p. 64.
Office for the Royal Maundy (2011). The Maundy Service (PDF). Westminster Abbey.
"Coronation banquets" . Parliament.uk. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
^ Keay (2011), p. 150.
^ Olivia Fryman in Bird and Clayton, "Ceremony and Coronation", p. 82.
^ Mears, et al., pp. 39–40.
^ Keay (2002), p. 43.
^ Ronald Lightbown in MacGregor, "The King's Regalia, Insignia and Jewellery", p. 259.
"Ethiopian Manuscripts" . Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . Vol. 263. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 19 July 1995. col. 1463W.
"Royal Residences" . Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . Vol. 407. United Kingdom: House of Commons. 19 June 2003. col. 353W.
"Crown Jewels factsheet" (PDF). Historic Royal Palaces. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
^ Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art, pp. 48–50.
^ a b c United Kingdom Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth "consistent series" supplied in
Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2024). "What Was the U.K. GDP Then?" . MeasuringWorth . Retrieved 15 July 2024.
^ Hoey, p. 64.
^ Hoey, p. 197.
.
Barclay, Andrew (2008). "The 1661 St Edward's Crown – Refurbished, Recycled or Replaced?". The Court Historian. 13 (2): 149–170. doi : 10.1179/cou.2008.13.2.002 . S2CID 159809217 .
.
Bird, Rufus; Clayton, Martin, eds. (2017). Charles II: Art and Power. Royal Collection Trust. ISBN
.
Boutell, Charles (1983). Brooke-Little, J. P. (ed.). Boutell's Heraldry . Warne. ISBN
.
.
.
Cox, Noel (1999). "Coronation Robes of the Sovereign". Arma, the Journal of the Heraldry Society of Southern Africa. 5 (1): 271–280.
Dixon-Smith, Sally; Edwards, Sebastian; Kilby, Sarah; Murphy, Clare; Souden, David; Spooner, Jane; Worsley, Lucy (2010). The Crown Jewels: Souvenir Guidebook. Historic Royal Palaces. ISBN
.
.
.
.
Holmes, Martin (1959). "New Light on St. Edward's Crown". Archaeologia. 97: 213–223. doi : 10.1017/S0261340900010006 .
.
Jenkins, Susan; Trowles, Tony (2018). The Queen's Diamond Jubilee Galleries: Westminster Abbey. Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers. ISBN
.
.
.
.
. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 January 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
.
Shenton, Caroline (2021). National Treasures: Saving the Nation's Art in World War II. London: John Murray. ISBN
.
.
The Crown Jewels at the website of the British royal family
Videos:
Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"British sovereigns" and "King of the United Kingdom" redirect here. For the coin, see Sovereign (British coin) . For the current British monarch, see Charles III . For a list of all British heads of state, see List of British monarchs .
King of the United Kingdom
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the form of government used by the United Kingdom by which a hereditary monarch reigns as the head of state , with their powers regulated by the British constitution . The term may also refer to the role of the royal family within the UK's broader political structure . The monarch since 8 September 2022 is King Charles III , who ascended the throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth II , his mother.
The monarch and their immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic and representational duties. Although formally the monarch has authority over the government —which is known as " His/Her Majesty's Government "—this power may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and within constraints of convention and precedent . In practice the monarch's role, including that of Head of the Armed Forces , is limited to functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the prime minister , which are performed in a non-partisan manner. [3] The UK Government has called the monarchy "a unique soft power and diplomatic asset". [4] The Crown also occupies a unique cultural role, serving as an unofficial brand ambassador for British interests and values abroad, increasing tourism at home, and promoting charities throughout civil society . [5] [6]
The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England and early medieval Scotland , which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century. England was conquered by the Normans in 1066, after which Wales also gradually came under the control of Anglo-Normans . The process was completed in the 13th century when the Principality of Wales became a client state of the English kingdom. The Anglo-Normans also established the Lordship of Ireland . Meanwhile, Magna Carta began the process of reducing the English monarch's political powers. In the 16th century, English and Scottish monarchs played a central role in what became the religious English Reformation and Scottish Reformation , and the English king became King of Ireland . Beginning in 1603, the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign . From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England , which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . Following the installation of William III and Mary II as co-monarchs in the Glorious Revolution , the Bill of Rights 1689 , and its Scottish counterpart the Claim of Right Act 1689 , further curtailed the power of the monarchy and excluded Catholics from succession to the throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain , and in 1801, the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .
Beginning in the 16th century, the monarch was the nominal head of what came to be the vast British Empire , which covered a quarter of the world's land area at its greatest extent in 1921. The title Emperor of India was added to the British monarch's titles between 1876 and 1948. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the evolution of the Dominions of the Empire into separate, self-governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations . Also in this period, the monarchy in Ireland eventually became limited to Northern Ireland . In the years after World War II , the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, effectively bringing the Empire to an end. George VI and his successors adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fourteen other independent sovereign states that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms . Although the monarch is shared, each country is sovereign and independent of the others, and the monarch has a different, specific, and official national title and style for each realm. Although the term is rarely used today, the fifteen Commonwealth realms are, with respect to their monarch, in personal union . The monarch is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories .
Constitutional role
Ministerial folder with the monarch's cypher
In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom , the monarch (exclusively referred to in legislation as "the Sovereign ", [7] and styled His or Her Majesty [8] ) is the head of state . The monarch's image is used to signify British sovereignty and government authority – their profile, for instance, appears on Bank of England notes and all British coins and their portrait in government buildings. [9] The Sovereign is further both mentioned in and the subject of songs, loyal toasts, and salutes. " God Save the King " (or, alternatively, "God Save the Queen") is the British national anthem . [10] Oaths of allegiance are made to the Sovereign and their lawful successors. [11]
The monarch takes little direct part in government. The authority to use the sovereign's formal powers is almost all delegated, either by statute or by convention , to ministers or officers of the Crown , or other public bodies . Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown, such as Crown Appointments, [12] even if personally performed by the monarch, such as the King's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament , depend upon decisions made elsewhere. In formal terms:
Judicial power is vested in the various judiciaries of the United Kingdom , which by constitution and statute [14] are independent of the Government.
The Church of England , of which the sovereign is the titular head, has its own legislative, judicial, and executive structures.
Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council , Royal commission or otherwise.
The sovereign's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions, such as granting honours . This role has been recognised since the 19th century. The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the "dignified" rather than the "efficient" part of government. [15]
Royal prerogative
That part of the government's executive authority which remains theoretically and nominally vested in the sovereign is known as the royal prerogative . The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent, exercising prerogative powers only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament, often through the prime minister or Privy Council . [16] In practice, prerogative powers are exercised only on the prime minister's advice – the prime minister, and not the sovereign, has control. The monarch holds a weekly audience with the prime minister; no records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential. [17] The monarch may express his or her views, but, as a constitutional ruler, must ultimately accept the decisions of the prime minister and Cabinet, who by definition enjoy the confidence of the House of Commons. In Bagehot's words: "the sovereign has, under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, the right to warn." [18]
Although the royal prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise, it is limited. Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament. For example, the sovereign cannot impose and collect new taxes; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. According to a parliamentary report, "The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers", and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation. [19]
The royal prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers, regulate the civil service, issue passports, declare war, make peace, direct the actions of the military, and negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases. The sovereign is the Head of the Armed Forces (the Royal Navy , the British Army , and the Royal Air Force ), and accredits British High commissioners and ambassadors, and receives heads of missions from foreign states. [19]
Appointment of the prime minister
The sovereign has the power to appoint the prime minister. In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions, the monarch appoints the individual who commands the support of the House of Commons, usually the leader of a party or coalition that has a majority in that House. The prime minister takes office by attending the monarch in a private audience, and after " kissing hands " that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. [20] The sovereign also has the power to dismiss the prime minister, but the last time this power was exercised was in 1834, when William IV dismissed Lord Melbourne ; [21] since then, prime ministers have only left office upon their resignation, which they are expected to offer to the monarch upon losing their majority in the House of Commons.
King Charles III with Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer and Deputy Prime Minister Angela Rayner , 2025
While the sovereign also appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown , by convention they do so only on the recommendation of the prime minister. It is therefore the prime minister who controls the composition of the government. In practice, the prime minister will request a member of the government resign in preference to advising the monarch to dismiss them; such ministers are euphemistically described as "leaving the government".
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority, the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support, though it would usually be the leader of the largest party. [22] Since 1945, there have only been three hung parliaments. The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed prime minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilson's Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party. The second followed the May 2010 general election , in which the Conservatives (the largest party) and Liberal Democrats (the third-largest party) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II. The third occurred shortly thereafter, in June 2017 , when the Conservative Party lost its majority in a snap election, though the party remained in power as a minority government .
Summons, prorogation and dissolution of Parliament
In 1950 the Monarch's Private Secretary Sir Alan "Tommy" Lascelles , writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper, asserted a constitutional convention: according to the Lascelles Principles , if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position, the monarch could refuse and would do so under three conditions. When Harold Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974, Queen Elizabeth II granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition. The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority. [25] The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss the prime minister, but in practice, the prime minister's term nowadays comes to an end only by electoral defeat, death, or resignation.
Other royal prerogatives
Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law, royal assent (the monarch's approval) is required. [26] In theory, assent can either be granted (making the bill law) or withheld (vetoing the bill), but since 1708 assent has always been granted. [27]
The sovereign has a similar relationship to the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland as to the government of the UK. The sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament , [28] and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the Senedd . [29] In Scottish matters, the sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government . However, as devolution is more limited in Wales, in Welsh matters the monarch acts on the advice of the prime minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom. The sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly , if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . [30]
The sovereign is deemed the "fount of justice"; although the monarch does not personally rule in judicial cases, judicial functions are performed in his or her name. For instance, prosecutions are brought on the sovereign's behalf, and courts derive their authority from the Crown. The common law holds that the sovereign "can do no wrong", and so cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences. The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity (that is, lawsuits against the government), but not lawsuits against the monarch personally. The sovereign exercises the "prerogative of mercy", which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences. [31] [19]
The sovereign is the " fount of honour ", the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom. The Crown creates all peerages , appoints members of the orders of chivalry , grants knighthoods and awards other honours. [32] Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the prime minister, some honours are within the personal gift of the sovereign and are not granted on ministerial advice. The sovereign alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit . [33]
Sovereign immunity
The sovereign is personally immune from criminal prosecution or arrest, as well as from civil actions, and their property is not subject to execution or foreclosure . The Crown , however, as distinct from the sovereign, can be the subject of proceedings for tort and contract since 1947 . [34]
There are more than 160 laws granting express immunity to the sovereign or their property in various respects. For example, the sovereign is exempt from anti-discrimination legislation and other workers' rights, health and safety, or pensions laws, as well as numerous taxes, and environmental inspectors cannot enter the sovereign's property without permission. [35]
Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom. Alfred the Great secured Wessex, achieved dominance over western Mercia , and assumed the title "King of the Anglo-Saxons". His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England, though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities. The 11th century saw England become more stable, despite a number of wars with the Danes, which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation. [36] The conquest of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy , was crucial in terms of both political and social change. The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo-Saxon period, while the feudal system continued to develop. [37]
William was succeeded by two of his sons: William II , then Henry I . Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda (his only surviving child) as his heir. Following Henry's death in 1135, his nephew, Stephen , claimed the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons . Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy . Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda's son Henry II would succeed him. Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty in 1154. [38]
The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility. Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons, including the future monarchs Richard I and John , but nevertheless managed to expand his kingdom, forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire . Upon Henry's death, his eldest surviving legitimate son Richard succeeded to the throne; Richard was absent from England for most of his reign, for he left to fight in the Crusades . He was killed whilst besieging a castle; John succeeded him. Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, son of John's deceased elder brother Duke Geoffrey II and himself former heir of Richard, was dissatisfied but disappeared the following year after being captured by John in 1202; Arthur's sister, Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany was placed under house arrest by John.
John's reign was marked by conflict with the barons, particularly over the limits of royal power. In 1215, the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta ( Latin for "Great Charter") to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility. Soon afterwards, further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons' War , and French Prince Louis also claimed the throne as Louis I with the support of the rebellious princes as John's nephew-in-law. The war abruptly ended when John died in 1216, leaving the Crown to his nine-year-old son Henry III . [39] Many rebellious lords also turned to support Henry III. In 1217, Louis was defeated and renounced the English throne. Eleanor's claim was not upheld, but according to John's will, she remained under house arrest until her death in 1241. The London Chronicle referred to her as the rightful heir to the throne, while the Lanercost Chronicle recorded a legend of Henry III giving her a golden crown before her death. With Geoffrey leaving no descendants, Henry III became the hereditary heir of the royal family.
Later in Henry's reign, Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion, beginning the Second Barons' War . The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels, but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265. [40] In 1268, Henry III ordered the Amesbury Priory to commemorate both Arthur and Eleanor in commemoration of past kings and queens as well.
The next monarch, Edward Longshanks , was far more successful in maintaining royal power and was responsible for the conquest of Wales . He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland. However, gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor, Edward II , who also faced conflict with the nobility. [41] In 1311, Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial "ordainers" ; however, military victories helped him regain control in 1322. [42] Edward was deposed by his wife Isabella and his son, Edward III , became king.
Edward III claimed the French Crown, setting off the Hundred Years' War between England and France. His campaigns conquered much French territory, but by 1374, all the gains had been lost. Edward's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament, which came to be divided into two Houses; he died in 1377, leaving the Crown to his 10-year-old grandson Richard II . Like many of his predecessors, Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands. In 1399, while he was campaigning in Ireland, his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power. Richard was deposed, imprisoned, and eventually murdered, probably by starvation, and Henry became king as Henry IV. [43]
Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster ; hence, his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster . For most of his reign, Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son, the future Henry V . Henry V's own reign, which began in 1413, was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years' War in France. Although he was victorious, his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule. [44]
The unpopularity of Henry VI's counsellors and his consort, Margaret of Anjou , as well as his own ineffectual leadership, led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster. The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York, so-called because its head, a descendant of Edward III, was Richard, Duke of York , who was at odds with the Queen. Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460, his eldest son, Edward IV , led the Yorkists to victory in 1461, overthrowing Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou. Edward IV was constantly at odds with the Lancastrians and his own councillors after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville , with a brief return to power for Henry VI. Edward IV prevailed, winning back the throne at Barnet and killing the Lancastrian heir, Edward of Westminster , at Tewkesbury . Afterwards he captured Margaret of Anjou, eventually sending her into exile, but not before killing Henry VI while he was held prisoner in the Tower. The Wars of the Roses , nevertheless, continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III . Edward V disappeared, presumably murdered by Richard. Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor , in 1485, when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field . [45]
King Henry VII then neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marrying Elizabeth of York , daughter of King Edward IV and a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end. [46] The reign of the second Tudor king, Henry VIII , was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope, and the fact that his marriage to Catherine of Aragon produced only one surviving child, a daughter, led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and establish the Church of England (the Anglican Church) and divorce his wife to marry Anne Boleyn . [47]
Wales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 . [48] Henry VIII's son and successor, the young Edward VI , continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sister Mary I to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I married Philip of Spain , who was declared king and co-ruler. He pursued disastrous wars in France and she attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism (burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process). Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I . England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World. [49]
Scottish monarchy
"Queen of Scots" and "Queen of Scotland" redirect here. For other uses, see Scottish queen (disambiguation) .
In Scotland, as in England, monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman Empire from Great Britain in the early fifth century. The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts north of the Forth and Clyde, the Britons in the south, including the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and the Gaels or Scotti (who would later give their name to Scotland), of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in Argyll and the southern Hebrides. Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland (known as Scotia to writers in Latin, or Alba to the Scots). [50] The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries, as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed.
Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly; instead, the custom of tanistry was followed, where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin . There was an elective element to early Scottish kings and this practice lingered for much longer in Scotland. For example, the first Stewart monarch, Robert II, was selected from among eligible royal males at Linlithgow in 1370 by the Three Estates of the Scottish Parliament. [51] However, as a result of this elective element, the rival dynastic lines clashed, often violently. From 942 to 1005, seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle. [52] In 1005, Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals. He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition, and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson, Duncan I , instead of a cousin, as had been usual. In 1040, Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth , who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan's son Malcolm . The following year, after killing Macbeth's stepson Lulach , Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III. [53]
With a further series of battles and deposings, five of Malcolm's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king. Eventually, the Crown came to his youngest son, David I . David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV , and then by William the Lion , the longest-reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns . [54] William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed, William was captured by the English. In exchange for his release, William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord. The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189, in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades. [55] William died in 1214 and was succeeded by his son Alexander II . Alexander II, as well as his successor Alexander III , attempted to take over the Western Isles , which were still under the overlordship of Norway. During the reign of Alexander III, Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas. [56]
Alexander III's death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis. Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir. Edward chose Alexander's three-year-old Norwegian granddaughter, Margaret . On her way to Scotland in 1290, however, Margaret died at sea, and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne . A court was set up and after two years of deliberation, it pronounced John Balliol to be king. Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal and tried to exert influence over Scotland. In 1295, when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England, Edward I invaded. During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence , Scotland had no monarch, until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306. [57]
Robert's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328. However, only one year later, Robert died and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, David II . On the pretext of restoring John Balliol's rightful heir, Edward Balliol , the English again invaded in 1332. During the next four years, Balliol was crowned, deposed, restored, deposed, restored, and deposed until he eventually settled in England, and David remained king for the next 35 years. [58]
David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart . The reigns of both Robert II and his successor, Robert III , were marked by a general decline in royal power. When Robert III died in 1406, regents had to rule the country; the monarch, Robert III's son James I , had been taken captive by the English. Having paid a large ransom, James returned to Scotland in 1424; to restore his authority, he used ruthless measures, including the execution of several of his enemies. He was assassinated by a group of nobles. James II continued his father's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty, and a council of regents again assumed power. James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488, leading to another boy-king: James IV . [59]
In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England, attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII. His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field ; the king, many senior noblemen, and hundreds of soldiers were killed. As his son and successor, James V , was an infant, the government was again taken over by regents. James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542, and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six-day-old daughter, Mary . Once again, a regency was established.
Mary, a Roman Catholic, reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland. As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox , a Protestant ascendancy was established. Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , in 1565. After Lord Darnley's assassination in 1567, Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell , who was widely suspected of Darnley's murder. The nobility rebelled against the queen, forcing her to abdicate. She fled to England, and the Crown went to her infant son James VI , who was brought up as a Protestant. Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English queen Elizabeth I. [60]
Personal union and republican phase
In 1603 James VI and I became the first monarch to rule over England, Scotland, and Ireland together.
Elizabeth I's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI , who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII 's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the " Union of the Crowns ". Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I & VI became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604 [61] – they remained two separate kingdoms. James I & VI's successor, Charles I , experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers, especially the power to impose taxes. He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640, unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies (many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans ). His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . In 1642, the conflict between the king and Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began. [62]
The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649, the overthrow of the English monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England . Charles I's son, Charles II , was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland, but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester . In 1653, Oliver Cromwell , the most prominent military and political leader in the nation, seized power and declared himself Lord Protector (effectively becoming a military dictator, but refusing the title of king). Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard . The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing, and he soon resigned. [63] The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest, and to a popular desire to restore the monarchy. In 1660, the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain. [64]
Charles II's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England. Charles had no legitimate children and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother, James, Duke of York . A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose; the "Petitioners", who supported exclusion, became the Whig Party, whereas the "Abhorrers", who opposed exclusion, became the Tory Party . The Exclusion Bill failed; on several occasions, Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass. After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681, Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685. When James succeeded Charles, he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics, thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects. Many opposed James's decisions to maintain a large standing army, appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices, and imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies . As a result, a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II & VII's daughter Mary and her husband William III of Orange to depose the king. William obliged, arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support. Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials, James fled the realm and William and Mary (rather than James II & VII's Catholic son ) were declared joint Sovereigns of England, Scotland and Ireland. [65]
James's overthrow, known as the Glorious Revolution , was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power. The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy and declared that the English people held certain rights, including freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent. The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants and provided that, after any children of William and Mary, Mary's sister Anne would inherit the Crown. Mary II died childless in 1694, leaving William III & II as the sole monarch. By 1700, a political crisis arose, as all of Anne's children had died, leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession. Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters, known as Jacobites , might attempt to reclaim the throne. Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William's nearest Protestant relations, the family of Sophia, Electress of Hanover , next in line to the throne after his sister-in-law Anne. [66] Soon after the passage of the Act, William III & II died, leaving the Crown to Anne.
After the 1707 Acts of Union
After Anne's accession, the problem of succession re-emerged. The Scottish Parliament, infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia's family as the next heirs, passed the Act of Security 1704 , threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland. The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705 , threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade. The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707 , under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain , with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement. [67]
The Electorate later Kingdom of Hanover was in personal union with the British monarchy from 1714 to 1837. (Orange; borders shown 1814–1866.)
In 1714, Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin, and Sophia's son, George I , Elector of Hanover , who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719. The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors, but retained control over his German kingdoms, with which Britain was now in personal union. [68] Power shifted towards George's ministers, especially to Sir Robert Walpole , who is often considered the first British prime minister , although the title was not then in use. [69]
The next monarch, George II , witnessed the end of the Jacobite threat in 1746 when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated. During the long reign of his grandson, George III , thirteen of Britain's American colonies were lost when they formed the United States of America after the American Revolutionary War , but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800 . [70]
The union of Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom occurred in 1801 under George III .
From 1811 to 1820, George III was rendered incapable of ruling by mental illness. His son, the future George IV , ruled in his stead as Prince Regent . During the Regency and his own reign, the power of the monarchy declined, and by the time of his successor, William IV , the monarch was no longer able to interfere effectively with parliamentary power. In 1834, William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne , and appointed a Tory, Sir Robert Peel . In the ensuing elections, however, Peel lost. The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne. During William IV's reign, the Reform Act 1832 , which reformed parliamentary representation, was passed. Together with others passed later in the century, the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament. [71]
The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV's successor, Victoria . As a woman, Victoria could not rule Hanover , which permitted succession only in the male line, so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end. The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change, technological progress, and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world's foremost powers. In recognition of British rule over India , Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876. However, her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement , due in part to Victoria's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861. [72]
Victoria's son, Edward VII , became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V , changed "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to " Windsor " in response to the anti-German sentiment aroused by the First World War . George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State , an independent nation, in 1922. [73]
Shared monarchy
The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921
During the twentieth century, the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire . Prior to 1926, the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively; the Dominions and Crown Colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self-government to the Dominions, effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion. The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931 , [74] which has been likened to "a treaty among the Commonwealth countries". [75]
The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution, although it is often still referred to as "British" for legal and historical reasons and for convenience. The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom, Canada , Australia , New Zealand , and so forth; one person reigning in multiple distinct sovereign states, in a relationship likened to a personal union . [76]
George V's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII , who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson , even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcees. Accordingly, Edward announced his intention to abdicate ; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request. Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession, and the Crown went to his brother, George VI . [77] George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II, making morale-boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and areas bombed by Nazi Germany . In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India, although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India . [78]
At first, every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950, it would no longer share in a common monarchy. Instead, the British monarch was acknowledged as " Head of the Commonwealth " in all Commonwealth member states, whether they were realms or republics. The position is purely ceremonial, and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government. [79] [80] Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are informally known as Commonwealth realms . [79]
Monarchy in Ireland
In 1155 the only English Pope, Adrian IV , authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship. The Pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome, despite this process already being underway in Ireland by 1155. [81] An all-island kingship of Ireland had been created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid . His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , who had become High King of Ireland in early 1166 and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada , the King of Leinster , a vassal kingdom. Diarmait asked Henry II for help, gaining a group of Anglo-Norman aristocrats and adventurers, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke , to help him regain his throne. Diarmait and his Anglo-Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again. De Clare married Diarmait's daughter, and when Diarmait died in 1171, de Clare became King of Leinster. [82] Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom, so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded, forcing de Clare and the other Anglo-Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord . [83]
In 1800, as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , the Act of Union merged the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922 when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State , a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth. The Irish Free State was renamed Ireland in 1937, and in 1949 declared itself a republic, left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy. Northern Ireland remained within the Union. In 1927, the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, while the monarch's style for the next twenty years became "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India".
Modern status and popularity
Religious role
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms. Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689 , the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707 . The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament ; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession. The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover (1630–1714), a granddaughter of James I and VI .
Upon demise of the Crown (the death of a sovereign), their heir immediately and automatically succeeds (hence the phrase " The king is dead, long live the king! "), and the accession of the new sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James's Palace . [92] Upon their accession, a new sovereign is required by law to make and subscribe several oaths: the Accession Declaration as first required by the Bill of Rights, and an oath that they will "maintain and preserve" the Church of Scotland settlement as required by the Act of Union. The monarch is usually crowned in Westminster Abbey , normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury. A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign; indeed, the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning. [93]
When an individual ascends the throne, it is expected they will reign until death. The only voluntary abdication, that of Edward VIII , had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James II and VII , who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution .
Restrictions by sex and religion
Though Catholics are prohibited from succeeding and are deemed "naturally dead" for succession purposes, the disqualification does not extend to the individual's legitimate Protestant descendants.
The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated. When a regency is necessary, the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent, unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated. Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953 , which stated that Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (her husband) could act as regent in these circumstances. [97]
During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom, the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to counsellors of state , chosen from the monarch's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession. [98] The present counsellors of state are: Queen Camilla ; William, Prince of Wales ; Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex ; Prince Andrew, Duke of York ; Princess Beatrice ; Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh ; and Anne, Princess Royal . [99] While still able to serve, the Duke of Sussex and Duke of York no longer carry out royal duties. With the accession of Charles III and planned overseas trips in 2023, it was decided to expand the list of those eligible to serve as counsellors of state. On 14 November 2022, the King sent a message to both Houses of Parliament, formally asking for a change in the law that would allow Princess Anne and Prince Edward to be added to the list of counsellors of state. [100] The next day, a bill to that end was introduced in Parliament and it received royal assent on 6 December, coming into force on 7 December. [101]
Until 1760, the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues, which included the profits of the Crown Estate (the royal property portfolio). King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List , and this arrangement persisted until 2012. An annual Property Services grant-in-aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences, and an annual Royal Travel Grant-in-Aid paid for travel. The Civil List covered most expenses, including those for staffing, state visits, public engagements, and official entertainment. Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10-year period. [102] From 2012, the Civil List and Grants-in-Aid were replaced with a single Sovereign Grant , which was initially set at 15% of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate and increased to 25% in March 2017. [103] [104] The programme of overseas visits by the monarch is determined by the Royal Visits Committee , a Cabinet Office committee.
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property portfolios in the United Kingdom, with holdings of £15.6 billion in 2022. [105] It is held in trust, and cannot be sold or owned by the sovereign in a private capacity. [106] In modern times, the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Sovereign Grant. [102] For example, the Crown Estate produced £312.7 million in the financial year 2021–22, [105] whereas the Sovereign Grant for the monarch was £86.3 million during the same period. [107]
Like the Crown Estate, the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster , a property portfolio valued at £383 million in 2011, [108] are held in trust. The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse , and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants. [109] The Paradise Papers , leaked in 2017, show that the Duchy of Lancaster held investments in the British tax havens of the Cayman Islands and Bermuda . [110] The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch's eldest son. The Royal Collection , which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels , is not owned by the sovereign personally and is held in trust , [111] as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle . [112]
The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value-added tax , and since 1993 the monarch has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income. Parliamentary grants to the sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure. [113] Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy, including security and potential income not claimed by the state, such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, is £334 million a year. [114]
Estimates of Queen Elizabeth II's wealth varied, depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation were included. Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US$450 million in 2010, [115] but no official figure was available. In 1993, the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £100 million were "grossly overstated". [116] Jock Colville , who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts , estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million [117] (the equivalent of about £36 million today [118] ). The Sunday Times Rich List 2020 estimated Elizabeth II's personal wealth at £350 million. [119]
Buckingham Palace , in London, England, is the monarch's principal residence.
Holyrood Palace , in Edinburgh, Scotland, is the monarch's official Scottish residence.
The sovereign's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace . It is the site of most state banquets, investitures, royal christenings and other ceremonies. [120] Another official residence is Windsor Castle , the largest occupied castle in the world, [121] which is used principally at weekends, Easter and during Royal Ascot , an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar . [121] The sovereign's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh. The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year, and when visiting Scotland on state occasions. [122]
Historically, the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English monarch until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall . Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698, leading to a shift to St James's Palace . Although replaced as the monarch's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837, St James's is still the senior palace [123] and remains the ceremonial royal residence. For example, foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James's , [120] [124] and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council . [92] It is also used by other members of the royal family. [123]
Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace . The palaces belong to the Crown; they are held in trust for future rulers and cannot be sold by the monarch. [125] Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the royal family. [112]
The present sovereign's full style and title is "Charles the Third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of His other Realms and Territories, King, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith". [126] The title " Head of the Commonwealth " is held by the king personally, and is not vested in the British Crown. [80] Pope Leo X first granted the title " Defender of the Faith " to King Henry VIII in 1521, rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation , particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments . [127] After Henry broke from the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Paul III revoked the grant, but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use. [128]
The sovereign is known as "His Majesty" or "Her Majesty". The form " Britannic Majesty " appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers. [129] The monarch chooses his or her regnal name , not necessarily his or her first name – George VI , Edward VII and Victoria did not use their first names. [130]
If only one monarch has used a particular name, no ordinal is used; for example, Queen Victoria is not known as "Victoria I", and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England. The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen's use of "Elizabeth II", on the grounds that there had never been an "Elizabeth I" in Scotland. In MacCormick v Lord Advocate , the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs, finding that the Queen's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative. The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals, which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal. [131] The prime minister confirmed this practice but noted that "neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors". [132]
The coat of arms of the United Kingdom is "Quarterly, I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [for England]; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules [for Scotland]; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [for Ireland]". The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn ; the motto is " Dieu et mon droit " (French: "God and my Right"). Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name; " Honi soit qui mal y pense ". ( Old French : "Shame be to him who thinks evil of it"). In Scotland, the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland, II England, and III Ireland. The mottoes are "In Defens" (an abbreviated form of the Scots " In my defens God me defend ") and the motto of the Order of the Thistle , "' Nemo me impune lacessit " ( Latin : "No-one provokes me with impunity"); the supporters are the unicorn and lion, who support both the escutcheon and lances , from which fly the flags of Scotland and England .
The coat of arms of Charles III in the United Kingdom. The design (left) features the arms of England in the first and fourth quarters, Scotland in the second, and Ireland in the third. In Scotland , a separate version is used (right), in which the Arms of Scotland take precedence.
The monarch's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard , which depicts the Royal Arms in banner form . It is flown only from buildings, vessels and vehicles in which the sovereign is present. [133] The Royal Standard is never flown at half-mast because there is always a sovereign: when one dies, his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly. [134]
Royal Standard of the United Kingdom
Royal Standard of the United Kingdom in Scotland
Union Flag of the United Kingdom
Royal Banner of Scotland
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2 Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965, but this was not recognised internationally. Declared itself a republic in 1970.
2. Recognised by at least one United Nations member.
3. Not recognised by any United Nations members.
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55 | where did the queen's crown come from | https://www.juraster.com/blogs/hiddengems/british-crown-jewels-coronation-regalia-the-complete-list | Currency
British Crown Jewels & Coronation Regalia: the complete list
If you want to learn all the sparkling details of The British Crown Jewels described in just one place, then you’ll LOVE this updated guide.
I’m sharing 101 facts about The British Crown Jewels and Coronation Regalia in this complete list for you. Previously, for many years I was a Director at Crown Jewellers, Garrard, where I led private guided talks of the Crown Jewels, and now I’m sharing all my expertise here in the only ultimate guide, just for you.
Click through the category links below to instantly search your favourite Crown Jewel and Coronation Regalia. No need to queue at the Tower of London, you can uncover all Britain’s glittering Crown Jewels right here!
CROWNS & CORONETS
How many crowns does The King or Queen have? The answer is they need at least two, one just for the sacred coronation ceremony, plus one to wear for State occasions such as the Opening of Parliament. The Queen Consort (the wife of a king, who is not a queen in her own right) also has a crown of her own. In total, there are nineteen crowns and frames in the British Crown Jewels. These 19 crowns date from 1660, when Charles II was restored to the monarch after Cromwell seized power and executed Charles I in 1649 to the present day. Each monarch and consort of the period ordered their own crown based on an original traditional design, but sometimes adding something of their individual tastes and styles of the time.
St Edward’s Crown - the sacred crown used to crown a monarch
1. St Edward’s Crown – this is the sacred crown used to actually ‘invest’ (crown) a monarch, and never worn outside of the coronation ceremony. Made in 1660 as a recreation of the ancient ceremonial English crown made for the saintly King Edward III, Edward the Confessor, which was melted down during Cromwell’s Commonwealth period. Made of solid gold, with removable gems including tourmalines, topaz, rubies, amethysts, sapphires, garnet, peridot, zircon, spinel and aquamarines, decorated with enamel. Its massive weight caused Edward VII to suffer migraines - it weighs 2.23kg. Height 302mm / 12 in.
The Imperial State Crown
2. The Imperial State Crown – every monarch need a splendid secular crown to wear at State occasions during the year, and this is the current version, now being remodelled for King Charles III. Inscribed & dated for its original creation for Queen Victoria 1838, part remade by Garrard 1902 & 1932, entirely remade with a hammock fitting for George VI 1937, and remodelled and partly remounted for Queen Elizabeth 1953. Set with 2,868 diamonds, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 269 pearls as well as most of the important gems of the Crown Jewels: Cullinan II, The Black Prince’s Ruby, the Stuart Sapphire and the ancient St Edward’s Sapphire, see Gems . Weight 1.006kg excluding ermine trimmed purple velvet cap and wire frame. Height 315mm / 12.4 in. Weight of all precious gems 2,500ct approx. calculated total carat weight.
The Queen Consort’s Crown
3. The Queen Consort’s Crown - an elegant design made for Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 1937 – set with the magnificent, legendary Koh-i-Noor diamond (see Gems ) amid 2,800 other diamonds, including a cushion 17.34ct (a gift to Queen Victoria from the Sultan of Turkey 1856) and a replica diamond pear shape in the cross pattee above the monde (this is a quartz replica of the pendant diamond that is currently set into Queen Victoria’s diamond collet necklace 1858, in the Royal jewellery collection). Garrard, 1937, platinum. 207mm high. Weight 0.51kg.
4. The Scottish Crown - the centre piece of The Honours of Scotland, as the Crown Jewels of Scotland are known. This crown was made for James V to wear at the coronation of his second Queen, Marie of Guise, in 1540 out of an older crown which was dismantled and melted. Its first use for a coronation was to crown the baby Mary Queen of Scots in 1543. It is of Scottish gold, set with 42 precious gems and freshwater Scottish river pearls.
Mary of Modena’s Diadem
5. Mary of Modena’s Diadem – created to wear at her coronation as consort of James II. Originally set with 177 diamonds, 1 ruby, 1 emerald, 1 sapphire – all hired for the occasion - and made of gold, now set with quartz, unmarked maker, dated 1685, 80mm / 3.1 in, 0.46kg. Much repaired over time, Garrard added 85 x 7mm cultured pearls in 1939 to replace the older discoloured imitation ones.
6. Mary of Modena’s Crown of State – the crown created for the consort of James II was originally set with diamonds on loan from bankers & jewellers, and replaced by quartz replicas. Pearls are set along the arches, and at the 3 tips of cross pattee. Makers mark of Richard de Beauvoir, 1685, gold, set with quartz & cultured pearls. 190mm / 7 ½ in, 0.715 kg.
7. Mary of Modena’s Coronation Crown – kept in the Museum of London, this crown was created for the coronation ceremony in 1685 of part gilded brass & part gold. It is smaller than Mary of Modena’s Crown of State with lower arches, which are detachable. It is set with pastes, to a velvet cap and no ermine.
Metal casting of George IV’s Imperial State Crown
8. George IV’s Imperial State Crown – a splendid crown made by Rundells using hired diamonds in 1820 for George IV who tried desperately to maintain it but was refused the money to buy it by Government. Now, only the original frame and this gilded casting of the crown before it was unset and dismantled in 1823 exists. The high arched heavy crown weighed a hefty 3kg. The old frame was reset again for William IV who endured its uncomfortable weight for economic reasons, before it was unset and left unused again.
George IV’s Diadem
9. George IV’s Diadem, called The Diamond Diadem – this famous circlet is seen on British stamps and bank notes in the official portrait of Queen Elizabeth for 70 years. Featuring the national emblems of the UK’s three kingdoms - England’s rose, Scotland’s thistle, Northern Ireland’s shamrock. The circlet is set with 1,333 diamonds and a 4ct yellow diamond in centre of cross pattee, 169 x 2 rows of 6mm natural pearls, which due to their type and colour could be Scottish river pearls. Rundells 1820, reworked by Garrard 1902 . 68mm high, 2.7in; wide 68mm / 7.9in, technically not a Crown Jewel, but part of the Royal Collection.
10. Replica of the permanent crown created for Queen Victoria by Rundell Bridge & Rundell in 1838, which was used by her son Edward VII, grandson George V and great grandson Edward VIII. It was excruciatingly heavy to wear, and reworkings to lighten it made it fragile and frequently require repairs; whilst displayed on George V’s coffin in procession from Kings Cross to Westminster 23 Jan 1936, the top cross fell off and bounced down the street. It was finally broken up in 1937, the frame is part of the Royal Collection & this replica made for George VI.
Queen Adelaide’s Crown - a replica set with pastes
11. Queen Adelaide’s replica crown – made to her own design in 1831, this beautiful little crown, with its red velvet cap with ermine removed, was made using gems from her family, which were later unset. This is a replica set with pastes, displayed along with the original frame in the Jewel House. Made by Rundell.
George I’s State Crown
12. George I’s State Crown – 1715, made in a rush by Samuel Smithin, only the frame minus the monde and cross pattee survives, with its red velvet cap, displayed in the Martin Tower 220mm high.
The tiny crown with arches removed
Queen Victoria's small crown
13. Queen Victoria’s Small Diamond Crown – iconic tiny crown which the aging and melancholy widowed Queen Victoria ordered from Garrard in 1870, is only 90mm / 3.4 in diameter, 94mm high/ 3.7in, 0.159kg. Made out of 1,187 diamonds recycled from a fringe necklace which she owned. The arches can be removed to form a dainty circlet. The design is loosely based on Queen Charlotte’s tiny Nuptial Crown of 1761.
14. The Crown of Frederick, Prince of Wales – made in 1728. Unlike a monarch’s crown with its two over arches, the crown for a Prince of Wales has a single arch above a circlet of crosses and fleur de lis, and the arch is adorned by a monde and cross. It has a purple velvet cap & ermine, unmarked,1728, 203mm / 8in. 0.93kg.
15. The Prince of Wales’s Crown - 1901-1902 of the prescribed single arch with monde and cross, the band with crosses & fleur de lis, red velvet cap with ermine, Garrard, 228mm / 9 in high, 0.35kg.
Crown of Charles, Prince of Wales 1969
16. The Prince of Wales’s Crown – given by The Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, is a modernist design of stylised fleur de lis & crosses with platinum details around the single arch, designed 1969 by Louis Osman, electrotyped in Welsh gold, with platinum details. Malcolm Appleby engraved the monde, it is currently on loan to the National Museum of Wales.
Queen Consort Crown of Queen Alexandra set with pastes
17. Queen Alexandra’s Crown – the Queen’s Consort crown with 4 over arches in the Continental style to denote a British Empress, is now set with pastes in the silver settings with gold backs, but originally was set with 3,668 diamonds from the queen’s own jewels, bolstered by others loaned by Carrington, and featuring the Koh-i-noor set at the front. On display at the Museum of London. Carrington & Co 1902. Weighs less than 650gm / 23 oz.
The Imperial Crown of India
18. The Imperial Crown of India – George V needed a royal crown he could legally take out of Britain to be recognised as Emperor King of India, so this was made for the Delhi Durbar of 1911. Featuring the 4 over arches of a British Emperor inspired by Continental crowns, silver settings with gold backs, set with 6,000 diamonds, 22 emeralds, 4 rubies, 4 sapphires, made by Garrard 1910. 275mm / 10.8 in high, weight 1.07kg.
Queen Mary’s Crown with diamonds & quartz replicas of Cullinan III & IV.
19. Queen Mary’s Crown – featuring the 4 over arches of a British Empress, which detach to make a circlet. Silver settings, gold backs approx. 2,200 diamonds band set with a quartz replica of Cullinan IV, plus a cushion diamond of 63.6ct, cross pattee set with quartz replica of Cullinan III. Garrard, 1911, 250mm / 11.25 in. 0.71kg.
FAMOUS GEMS
Cullinan II (left), with Cullinan I (right) the largest top quality gem diamond in the world, with a 1ct 6mm diamond for comparison
1. Cullinan I – The Great (or First) Star of Africa, the largest top colour and clarity diamond in the world. Examined by the Gemmological Association of Great Britain, stated that it is Type IIa. Colour grade appears to be D (uncertain D-E grade due to setting) VVS clarity. Measures 58.9 x 45.4 x 27.7mm, weighs 530.20ct. Cullinan rough 3,106 ct discovered in 1905 at the Premier Mine, offered as a state gift to King Edward VII from the newly independent Transvaal Government. When cut, the rough yielded 9 large stones, 96 smaller brilliants and some small fragments. Cullinan III drop shape & Cullinan IV cushion shape, aka ‘Granny’s Chips’ are both set into a large brooch; Cullinan V heart-shaped in a Belle Epoque style brooch, Cullinan VI was bought as gift for Queen Alexandra by King Edward.
2. Cullinan II – The Second Star of Africa, cushion cut diamond weighs 317.40ct. It is set at the front of the Imperial State Crown, in the middle of the band, directly below the Black Prince’s Ruby. Its setting can be removed, as can Cullinan I in the Sovereign’s Sceptre, so that they can together form an enormous brooch, with Cullinan II set above the drop shape Cullinan I. Queen Mary once wore the diamonds in this way to spectacular effect. Graded by the Gem-a (Gemmological Association of Great Britain) as D Internally Flawless. Measures 54.4 x 40.8 x 24.2mm
The legendary Indian-cut diamond Koh-i-Noor, as it was originally cut
3. The Koh-i-noor – means Mountain of Light. It’s one of the world’s great legendary gems , considered by Queen Victoria ‘badly cut’ and thus re-cut to European style in 1852, Examined by the Gem-a (Gemmological Association of Great Britain) stated to be a Type II diamond. Clarity SI2-P. Colour not recorded. It weighs 105.602ct, measures 36x 31.9 x 13.04mm. When presented to Queen Victoria after the Treaty of Lahore, it was set with two other Indian-cut diamonds, which were recut at the same time, all three originally in a gold Indian armlet on display at the Tower of London, now set with paste replicas with enamelled back, red silk ties made in 1839-43, 129mm / 5.1 in, 0.14kg. The Koh-i-Noor is supposed to be cursed and unlucky for men to wear, hence its place in the Queen Consort’s crown, learn more in my blog, The Koh-i-Noor: Curse or Blessing .
The Black Prince’s Ruby, unset
4. Black Prince’s Ruby – set into a cross pattee at the front of the Imperial State Crown, just above Cullinan II, is a huge, famous stone, but it’s not actually a ruby, but a red spinel, which were called ‘balas rubies’ in the Middle Ages, named for Badakhshan in Afghanistan. This very ancient gem, so-called after its alleged owner The Black Prince, has many romantic stories attached to it. Ovate cabochon, pierced, with a small natural ruby plugging the hole at one end. 43.3 x 33.8mm x 21.1mm, approx. weight 170ct.
5. St Edward’s Sapphire – set into the cross pattee above the monde on the Imperial State crown, this ancient octagonal sapphire dates to around 1100, and legend links it to a romantic story involving the miraculous St Edward. It measures 16.1 x 15.3 x 12.4mm, weighs approx. 30.5ct
6. The Stuart Sapphire – set at the back of the Imperial State Crown, opposite the Black Prince’s Ruby, a beautiful cornflower blue cushion shape sapphire, which was part of the property of the Stuart King James VI, measuring 49 x 28mm, weighs approx. 104ct.
ORBS
The Sovereign’s Orb
The orb is a key item in the Crown Jewels and is a central part of the coronation ceremony. It is a jewelled golden ball with a cross on top symbolising that only Christ rules over the world, above that of any human power, and this sacred dutiful power is literally placed into the ruler’s right hand just before the actual crowning during a coronation. First appearing in Roman depictions of Jupiter who as the King of the Gods held an orb (minus the later Christian cross!) representing dominion over the whole world, this symbol of absolute power tempered by Christ was adopted by ancient Byzantine emperors and early Medieval European kings.
1. The Sovereign’s Orb – one of the oldest items in the Crown Jewels, dating to Charles II’s coronation of1661, it is hollow and made of gold and decorated with enamel. The monde below the cross is a facetted amethyst, there are 365 diamonds, all rose cut, plus 9 emeralds, 9 sapphires, (one of each of which is set back to back in the cross pattee) 18 rubies, plus 266 cultured pearls supplied Garrard in 1930. Height 27.3mm 10.7in, weight 1.32kg.
2. Queen Mary II’s Orb – created for the co-ruler of Britain, along with William III, in1689, made of hollow gold with enamel, quartz, plus imitation & synthetic stones and 220 cultured pearls supplied by Garrard in 1939 to replace discoloured original imitation pearls, and some doublets, in 1966. Diameter 146mm / 5.7 in. 206mm high.
3. James II’s Monde – this ornament was presumably made for James II to sit at the top of Charles II’s State Crown. It’s a large blue-green coloured glass with a silver & gold enamel base the same colour, inset with quartz gems, unmarked c. 1661-1685, restored in 1820. Height 85mm / 3 3/8in.
SCEPTRES
Like the orb, this is another symbol of the sacred spiritual role of a sovereign, and is placed into the sovereign’s left hand just before the actual crowning during the coronation ceremony. Rods and batons of power have been held by rulers since ancient times, and are symbols of justice.
Sovereign’s Sceptre with Cross and Cullinan I
Cullinan I set into the top of the Sovereign’s Sceptre
1. Sovereign’s Sceptre with Cross – Cullinan I, aka the Great Star of Africa, see Gems . Made of gold and enamel in 1661 for Charles II, it was last adapted for Cullinan to be set into the head in 1910 by Garrard. A pair of 2 facetted amethysts form the monde with the cross pattee set with an emerald at the front and a diamond at the back, it is decorated with 333 diamonds, 15 emeralds & 31 rubies, 7 sapphires, 6 spinels. Length 9270mm / 36.5in. Weight 1.16kg
2. Sovereign’s Sceptre with Dove – the dove emblem of the Christian Holy Ghost, ‘the rod of Equity and Mercy’ gold and black & white enamel, set with 53 rubies, 215 diamonds, 10 emeralds, 4 sapphires, 3 spinels, made in 1661 with later additions. Length 1105mm / 43.5in, weight 1.15kg.
3. Queen Consort’s Sceptre with Cross – made in 1685 of gold and set with quartz, length 853mm / 33.6 in. Weight 0.72kg
Queen Consort’s Ivory Rod with Dove
4. Queen Consort’s Ivory Rod with Dove – an ivory rod, topped by a white enamel dove, the emblem of the Holy Ghost, perches on a cross patte, its wings folded, the monde decorated with fleur de lis and emblems of Britain’s kingdoms - thistle, rose, harp. Made in 1685, of gold with ivory rod in 3 sections, for Mary of Modena. Length 950mm / 37.4in. Weight 0.36kg
Queen Mary II’s Sceptre with Dove
5. Queen Mary II’s Sceptre with Dove – made for the coronation of Mary and William III, the co-rulers of Britain in 1689, note that this sceptre has a white enamel dove with wings outstretched to indicate a monarch not a consort, perched on a cross and monde. It is set with emerlds, garnets, citrines, quartz, sapphires, and pastes. Length 1004mm / 39.5 in. weight 1.05kg
6. Sceptre of Scotland - the oldest item in The Honours of Scotland, this was made in 1494 by order of the powerful Pope Alexander VI for James V, as a very real endorsement of his right to rule and a powerful seal of Catholic papal approval. The silver-gilt was lengthened in 1556 with some remodelling.
RINGS
We all adorn our fingers with rings as symbols of love, status or connection, but a monarch’s ring denotes more than this. A magnificent royal ring marks the hand of power, emphasising every gesture with splendour, and acts as a symbol of his sacred bond with both nation and God. The ring is placed onto the 4th finger of the right hand, the ring finger. Made for each monarch and consort as their personal property, coronation rings were not traditionally considered part of the Regalia until Queen Victoria, and hence the Crown Jewels has very few examples.
The Sovereign’s Ring
1. The Sovereign’s Ring – featuring one large sapphire measuring 15.2 x 12.2 x 7.4mm, with 5 rubies set in gold on top to represent the cross of St George, and 16 diamonds in the cluster surround and along the band, made in the national colours for the coronation of William IV in 1831 by Rundell Bridge & Rundell. Ring measures 28mm / 1.1in 16.9gm.
The Queen Consort’s Coronation Ring
2. The Queen Consort’s Coronation Ring - made for the coronation of William IV’s consort, Queen Adelaide in 1831 by Rundell Bridge & Rundell. Set with 1 large ruby measuring 12.5 x 9.0 x 5.9mm, 14 diamonds in the cluster surround, and 14 other rubies around the band. Measures 20mm diameter / 0.8in, weighs 9.95 gm.
Queen Victoria’s little Coronation Ring on left, with the Coronation Ring of her uncle King William IV on right
3. Queen Victoria’s Coronation Ring – this ring caused acute pain to Queen Victoria, as it was mistakenly made to fit the pinky or little finger, instead of the customary ring or fourth finger by Rundell Bridge & Rundell. At her 1838 coronation, she recorded in her journal that the Archbishop of Canterbury jammed it onto her fourth finger regardless - “I had the greatest difficulty to take it off again, which I at last did with great pain.” Made to a similar design as her uncle, King William IV, an octagonal sapphire measuring 14.6 x 13.2 x 8.5mm, with 20 diamonds in the surrounding cluster, and a further 31 on band (1 missing) and 5 rubies in the cross of St George on top of the sapphire. Measures, 20mm 0.8in, weight 8.55g.
4. Charles II’s Coronation Ring – part of the Stuart Jewels, in Edinburgh Castle, this ring features a large ruby engraved with a Christian cross in the centre, surrounded by a cluster of diamonds, in gold.
5. Queen Mary’s Coronation Ring – on display with the Crown Jewels, but actually the personal property of Queen Mary.
BRACELETS
The special bracelets that are used in the coronation ceremony are called armills. The word ‘armills’ is from the Latin for bracelet “armilla”, they were usually worn outside the cuff of the sleeve as part of early Medieval armour. The symbolism of armour in the coronation ceremony links the monarch with that of a military leader splendidly attired in armour like an imperial knight.
The Sovereign’s Armills
1. The Sovereign’s Armills – the pair made in 1661 for the coronation of Charles II, enamelled with the royal fleur de lis and emblems of thistle, harp and rose, the 3 kingdoms of Britain, and with soft crimson velvet lining.
2. The Armills of Queen Elizabeth II – only brand-new regalia created for Queen Elizabeth II, the gift of the Commonwealth nations. A pair of hinged 22ct gold cuffs, with a simple engraved border, and Tudor rose design clasp, crimson velvet lining. Made by Garrard & Co 1952-3.
SWORDS
Weapons are symbols of might and power, and a fine sword is an established emblem of leadership, used in the coronation of rulers since ancient times. When the sword is blessed by the church during the coronation ceremony, it becomes a symbol of justice and royalty. Even after the coronation, a royal sword can represent the monarch when they are not present. The set of three created in 1626 for King Charles I survived the destruction of the Crown Jewels and coronation regalia during the interregnum of Oliver Cromwell.
1. Sword of Offering – also known as the Jewelled State Sword, made in 1820 specially for coronation of George IV. The steel blade, with gold hilt, gold covered leather scabbard set with gems. Quillons (handles) with lion masks at ends. Blade is covered all over with blued & gilded decorations of the emblems of the Garter & Royal Arms, Britannia, Cross of St George over a Saltire, cypher for GR and sunrays, shamrocks, roses, thistles, acorns & oaks. Studded with 67 large gems – rubies, emeralds, sapphire, turquoise, 1 light yellow diamond and over 2,400 other diamonds, signed Rundell, Bridge & Rundell. Length 965mm / 38.5 in.
Sword of Offering
Sword of Mercy – called “Curtana”
2. Sword of Mercy – called “Curtana” – with the tip broken off, this is the broadest sword of the others in a set of 3 created for Charles I in 1626. It is made of steel, silver gilt and gilded iron, with an unidentified running wolf mark along the blade, with a hexagonal pommel & crimson velvet covered sheath embroidered in gold thread. Length 965mm / 38in.
3. Sword of Temporal Justice - part of the set of 3 created for Charles I in 1626, made of steel, silver gilt and gilded iron, with a crimson velvet covered sheath. Length 1143mm / 45in overall.
Sword of Spiritual Justice
4. Sword of Spiritual Justice - the final sword in the set of 3 created for Charles I in 1626, made of steel, silver gilt and gilded iron with the unidentified running wolf mark engraved along the blade. Length 1168mm / 46 in.
5. Sword of State – carried in front of the monarch at State occasions such as the Opening of Parliament, the quillons (handles) in are in the shape of a lion & a unicorn, engraved with emblems fleur de lis, a harpy, thistle, and Tudor rose, Royal Arms of William III, a mouth-locket in the shape of two portcullises with spikes forming a zig-zag. The scabbard is decorated with emblems of countries under Charles II’s rule – including Bombay and (briefly) Dunkirk. Made in1687 with later additions, steel struck with letter S & etched with decorations, with a silver gild hilt, wooden velvet covered scabbard decorated with silver-gilt mounts. Length 1193mm / 47 ¾ in.
6. Irish Sword of State – the blade engraved with harp, and the royal arms of England, Scotland & Ireland, plus France & the lion of Nassau emblem for William III, the Garter arms, and 3 leopards for English royal arms and the lion rampant for Scotland. Cruciform silver gilt hilt made by George Bowers in1660-61, the blade of steel, with velvet scabbard with silver gilt. Length 1270mm / 51 in.
7. Scottish Sword of State - broken in two when it was smuggled out and hidden from Cromwell’s soldiers, the join can still be seen. This is a magnificent Italian sword of silver gilt and steel ordered by Pope Julius II for James IV in 1507, made by Domenico da Sutri. The hilt is ornamented with acanthus leaves, with a circular pommel, arching quillions terminating in acorns, and a red velvet scabbard covered with silver filigree decorations, with a silk and gold thread belt.
HOLY & SACRAMENTAL ITEMS
The most sacred items of alter plate such as the Ampulla, the Coronation Spoon and the items used in holy communion – the solid gold chalice (cup), to drink consecrated wine, and paten (little plate), for the bread - are used in the actual coronation ceremony. They are laid out on the High Altar of Westminster Abbey or displayed close by. Many items date back to the coronation of Charles II and were remade either as they were imagined to be or exactly as they were before Cromwell’s big Commonwealth meltdown of the original coronation regalia, to recapture the splendour and mystery of medieval coronations down the ages. All the items described below, except solid gold items 2, 4, 5 & 6, are made of silver gilt: that is, solid silver plated with a layer of gold.
Ampulla
1. Ampulla – eagle shaped as a symbol of the King of Heaven, this beautiful vessel holds the holy oil to anoint the sovereign at the most sacred moment of the coronation ceremony. To fill it, the head is unscrewed at the neck. Oil can drip out from a little hole in the beak. Reimagined from the ancient one melted by Cromwell, it was cast especially for the coronation of Charles I, and has been used ever after. Unmarked, 1661. Height 206mm / 8 in.
Coronation Spoon
2. Coronation Spoon – the only item to escape Cromwell’s Commonwealth melting pot and is truly ancient, as it was made in the late 1100s. It is carved all over and studded with 4 natural real pearls. Holy oil from the ampulla is poured into the spoon by the Archbishop of Canterbury and he dips his fingertips into it to anoint the Monarch’s head, chest and hands with holy oil during the apex of the coronation ceremony, in a re-enactment of the anointing of King Solomon in the Bible.
3. Ampulla of Scotland - used at Charles II’s Scottish coronation in 1633 – on display in Edinburgh Castle
4. Chalice & Paten – made in 1661 of solid gold, especially to serve wine and bread to the monarch during holy communion in the coronation ceremony. Designed in Gothic style with petals on the knop of the stem of the chalice. Made by Thomas Vyne, chalice 270mm / 10 5/8 in high. Paten 187mm / 7 3/8 in diameter.
5. Chalice & Paten – Queen Elizabeth II drank the communion wine from this solid gold chalice in 1953, and took bread from the paten in Item 4. It is the same Gothic design as item 4, but with diamond-shape protrusions on the knop of the stem spelling ΙΗΣΟΥΣ - Jesus in Greek. Made around 1662-1688. Chalice unmarked, 270mm / 10 5/8 in. Paten marked by Thomas Vyner 178mm / 7 in. diameter.
6. Paten – an identical but smaller paten to item 5, made of solid gold, 6 inches diameter, 152mm diameter.
7. Chalice and Paten – the bowl of the chalice sits inside an outer case pierced like a flower calyx, on a hexagonal shape foot and with a paten on a foot, 1661, unmarked. The engraving shows the Stuart arms and a Royal Duke coronet and the initials DL. Chalice 204mm / 8 in; paten 136mm / 5 3/8 in. diameter
8. Chalice and Paten – similar to item 7, and engraved in the same way, but taller and without the pierced calyx casing on the chalice. Complete with a paten on foot. Chalice 251mm / 9 7/8 in. diameter.
9. Pair of standing Patens – the plates sit on feet and are engraved with IHS christogram inside a ring of sun rays. Robert Smythier 1664, 187mm/ 7 3/8 in. diameter.
10. Plain circular plate – engraved with the arms of William III, this gilded plate originates from a set of royal dinner plates. William Denny & John Bache, 1698, 245mm / 9 5/8 in. diameter.
11. Paten – engraved with the Garter Motto and coat of arms of Queen Anne, made in 1702 by Philip Rollos, 181mm / 7 1/8 in. diameter.
12. Standing paten – this plate on a foot is engraved with the arms of Queen Anne, and George I’s cypher GR added later, made in 1714 by Francis Garthorne. 232mm / 9 1/8 in. diameter.
13. Standing paten – made to match the paten item 12, and engraved with arms of George II, by Henry Hebert 1736, 232mm / 9 1/8 in. diameter.
Pair of Feathered Flagons
14. Pair of Feathered Flagons – a pair of large, communion wine jugs with distinctive shaped bellied bodies. The feather patterns chased all over may intend to match the decoration of the eagle ampulla. Also chased with a rose and crown and the initials C R, to symbolise the re-blooming of English monarchy for the coronation of Charles II. Attributed to James Beacham, 1660, 520mm / 20 ½ in. high.
15. Pair of Feathered Flagons - a pair of straight sided wine jugs, chased all over feathers, around a rose with a crown to symbolise the re-blooming of English monarchy at the coronation of Charles II. Arthur Manwaring, 1660, 375mm / 14 ¾ in. high.
16. Pair of Feathered Flagons – this pair, along with item 14, are the largest flagons to still exist in England. They have straight sided bodies covered with chased feathers, and are engraved with the Stuart arms, Garter Motto and Royal Duke’s coronet. Robert Smythier, 1664, 520mm / 20 ½ in. high.
17. Two Flagons – the bodies of these wine jugs are very elaborately, and similarly, covered in floral repousse work around a rose with a crown and the initials C R, to symbolise the re-blooming of English monarchy at the coronation of Charles II. Henry Greenway 1661, 406mm / 16 in. high.
18. Flagon – the William and Mary flagon – is chased with an unusual, entwined zig-zag decoration of W and M initials. St John Hoyte 1691, 425mm / 16 ¾ in. high.
19. Flagon – this has a plain body engraved with the arms of William III; a cypher A R, for Queen Anne was added later. Unclear maker’s mark, 1660, 330mm / 13 in. high.
20. Pair of Flagons – these are plain bodied, with protruding spouts and skirt feet, and engraved with the Stuart arms and Royal Duke’s coronet. William Norman, 1664, 355mm / 14 in. high.
21. Altar dish 1660 – this is full of surprising details. It was not originally a religious object, as it’s decorated with beasts - cow, stag, boar, horse - whose meat was served at banquets – and insects, which is quite rare in silver decoration for this period. The initials AR (Queen Anne) were converted out of the original CR for Charles Rex. Henry Greenway 1660 607mm / 24 in. diameter.
22. Altar dish – a wide plain dish, centrally engraved with a christogram of IHS within sunrays. The Stuart arms are engraved at the top of the rim, and DL the royal cypher of the Duke of York at the bottom. Unidentified maker, 1660. 464mm / 18 ¼ in. diameter.
23. Last Supper Altar dish – an enormous dish decorated with Christ and his disciples at the table of an elegant room. Judas on the left has his back to the viewer, his pouch of money shielded from his fellows by his hand. The border is decorated with 4 scenes from the Gospels. Henry Greenway, 1664. 946mm / 37 1/4 in. diameter.
24. Pair of Altar dishes 1661 – both have the crowned rose of Charlese II in the centre, bordered by allegories of four human blessings. Dish one - Love, Death, Strength and Industry with freshwater fish swimming in the bowl; dish two shows Fortitude, Justice, Faith and Hope with saltwater fish. Attributed to John Cockus c. 1661 603mm / 23 ¼ in. diameter.
25. Maundy Money Dish – this famous, plain, gilded dish comes out on Maundy Thursday, the day before Good Friday, every year when the Monarch follows Christ’s commands to give alms (hence Maundy = Latin mandatum for command). As many pouches of money as there are years of a Monarch’s age are filled and given to selected elderly Christians, chosen for their contribution to their communities. Each gets two pouches, a red one of normal coins, a white one with special silver Maundy Money coins valued at 1p totalling the same as the Monarch age. Engraved with Garter & Motto, and over engraved with arms of William and Mary omitting Scotland, as they were proclaimed joint sovereigns later than the date of engraving. Maker unidentified, 1660. 654mm / 25 ¾ in. diameter.
Altar dish with the Supper at Emmaus and the William and Mary flagon
26. Altar dish 1691 – decorated with the scene of Christ blessing the bread for the disciples at the Supper at Emmaus above the cypher of William & Mary. The wide outer border is chased with cherub heads, fruit, foliage and floral decorations. Francis Garthorne 1691, 698mm / 27 ½ in. diameter.
27. Altar Candle sticks – massive pair of baluster candle sticks almost a metre high, on three feet and covered with flowers and foliage. These stood at the High Alter of Westminster Abbey for the state funeral of The Queen 19 Sep 2022. Maker IN unidentified, 1661 959mm / 37 ¾ in. high.
28. Baptismal Font & Basin 1660 – a font is a bowl on a tall stem foot to hold consecrated, or holy, water. This enormous font and the Lily Font are the only two in English silver that exist. It has a cover and is paired with a deep circular dish or ‘basin’. Both decorated with cherubs and foliage, the font is chased with emblems of martyrdom and the lid’s finial shows St Philip baptising the Ethiopian eunuch. Maker RF unidentified 1660, font 952mm / 37 ½ in high; basin 587mm / 23 in. diameter.
The beautiful Lily Font
29. The Lily Font – highly romantic with a garland of water lilies around the rim, on a foot decorated with harp playing cupids and the coats-of-arms of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and their first-born baby, The Princess Royal. Along with the Baptismal font & basin of 1660 this is one of only two that exist in English silver. Edward, Edward Jnr, John & William Barnard 1840. 432mm / 17in. high.
30. Christening Basin & Ewer – both the oval basin and ewer are decorated with sprays of laurel and palm fronds with crowns, and engraved with arms of George III, the presentation inscription on the back of the basin shows it was used at the christening of George III in 1738, and Prince Alfred in 1780. The ewer’s handle has a torso finial of Hercules slaying the Hydra. Unmarked, 1735 ewer 457mm / 18 in high; basin 457mm / 18in long.
CLOTHING & ATTIRE
A monarch needs to dress the part. Special coronation robes, designed for the event, ensure that the sovereign is attired to the most splendid standard possible. The styles have not changed since before the time of Charles II. They’re similar to the design of church vestments, but much more magnificent as suits a monarch who must wear the cloth of gold of grand emperors. During the ceremony, the sovereign undergoes a transformation from proclaimed ruler to one who is anointed by God and has a holy right to rule, so the clothing follows an order of robing: first, the base layer of a simple white tunic just like a humble, pure priest; then the supertunica, the stole, finally the mantle.
The supertunica
1. Supertunica – 1911 made for George V by Wilkinson & Son, lined with red silk, worn by George VI & QE, with a belt ‘girdle’ Full length, long sleeves, simple neckline.
2. Stole – worn by every ruler, made new for each monarch, this was made for Queen Elizabeth in 1953. It goes around the neck and hangs down at the front each side, embroidered with emblems of crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick; the Dove of Holy Spirit, a crowned eagle, St Peter’s keys, the symbols of the four evangelists (Matthew - winged angel, Mark the regal lion of Christ, Luke the calf of Christ’s sacrifice, and John the regal eagle of Christ) rose, thistle, leek, shamrock, national plant emblems of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India & Sri Lanka. Made of silk gold lame, fringed with gold thread, all embroidered in gold thread and coloured silks. 2159 x 7.6mm / 85 x 3 in. length x width. Red silk lining to back.
The magnificent mantle
3. Mantle – also called a Pallium or Dalmatic Robe, a type of long heavy cape with wide train. This was made in 1821 for George IV from cloth of gold with an intricate damask pattern of roses, thistles, shamrocks, crowns, fleurs de lis and eagles, woven in pink red blue and green. A buckle fastens across the chest with a gold eagle clasp, a heavy gold thread fringe is all around the edges, and with a red silk lining. Length from front to back 2971mm, 117in.
Cap of Maintenance
4. Cap of Maintenance – represents Monarch’s authority, crimson red with wide ermine trim and large gold thread pommel. This cap is propped up on a rod and carried in the procession before the State Opening of Parliament.
BANQUETING
Tableware fit for Kings and Queens forms a large part of the Crown Jewels for the traditional coronation banquet. The sight of it glowing in candlelight would have enhanced the splendour and prestige of the Monarch. Everything is made of silver gilt (silver that has been plated, or gilded, with gold). There are some notable items which to us today seem very strange - the ornate salt cellars. Salt was worth almost as much as gold, small cakes of it formed money in parts of Africa, and it was highly taxed in Europe. It was reserved only for special guests and people of high status: maybe you’ve heard the saying someone ‘is worth their salt’. The word “salt” comes from the Latin ‘sal’. Roman soldiers were sometimes paid in salt, their monthly payment was a "salarium" from where we get the word salary.
‘The Grand Punch Bowl’ – possibly the largest and heaviest piece of silver dining ware in the world
1. Wine Cistern – ‘The Grand Punch Bowl’ – possibly the largest and heaviest piece of silver dining ware in the world, it weighs almost 250 kg (8000 oz) and is over 1 m wide (40 in). Originally used to cool wine, subsequently used as a punch bowl with the matching ladle for the evening reception for the christening of the Prince of Wales 1842 at Windsor Castle. The oval bowl is smothered in Bacchanalian figures & creatures rising from a fantastical clamshell, ending with a lion and a unicorn, designed by Thomas Stohard RA, made by John Bridge 1829, 762mm / 30 in high
2. Ladle for ‘The Grand Punch Bowl’ – over a meter long to match the bowl, a large, encrusted golden shell on an ivory and silver gilt handle, this ladle is engraved with the arms of the Prince of Wales, Garter Motto and Royal Crown, with a inscription commemorating the Prince of Wales’ christening 1842. Edward Edward Jr Hohn & William Barnard 1841, 1054mm / 41 ½ in
The Exeter Salt
3. The Salt of State – “Exeter Salt” – a fantastical castle with four turrets, concealing salt wells and drawers for herbs & spices, bejewelled with 73 gems: emeralds, amethysts, rubies, garnets & turquoise. Made of silver gilt in 1630 by Johann Hass of Hamburg, Germany. Supposed to be a gift from the city of Exeter in rivalry with Plymouth to appease Charles II (Exeter fought with Cromwell against the Monarchy). 457mm/18in high, 302mm/12 in wide.
Plymouth Fountain
4. Plymouth Fountain – Presented by the city of Plymouth as a loyal gift, an enormous silver gilt baroque fountain decorated with Poseidon, dolphins, water nymphs and mermaids, of 4 large & smaller basins, & 4 shell shaped bowls, topped by a finial of a Fury wresting with serpents. It has concealed copper piping originally for water flow, to enable diners to dip their fingertips at the table. Possibly made by Peter Oehr I of Hamburg, mid C17th, German. 775mm/ 30 ½ inch high, 28 ½ in / 724mm wide.
5. Queen Elizabeth’s Salt - the lavishly decorated cylindrical body with 3 panels depicting the 3 Virtues: Faith, Hope and Fortitude, the dish covered by a dome, decorated in 3 panels with Cleopatra, Ceres, Lucrecia, topped by a finial of a warrior (missing his shield or coat of arms). Attributed to Affabel Partridge, Elizabeth I’s London goldsmith, dated 1572. 292mm/11 ½ inches,
6. St George’s Salts – these salts are possibly from a set made for the Garter Knights’ banquet in 1661. There are 11 in total, 2 sets of 4 matched and 3 each different. Seven salts have canopies with tiny, mounted knight finials. All are made in silver gilt with acanthus or floral decorations. Dated to 1660. Around 245 – 387mm /9 ½ – 15 ¼ in high.
7. Twelve Salt Spoons – ordered for the coronation of George IV in 1821, decorated with grape vines, the Royal Crest, the Crown and Garter motto. Made by Crown Jeweller of the time, Philip Rundell, London 1820. 105mm / 4 1/8 in
8. Pair of Tankards – both lavishly decorated, one with Venus, Cupid, Adonis, and the other with baby Bacchus and scenes of the four seasons, both middle of 17th century, made in Germany. 266mm / 10 ½ in; 280mm / 11in high
Caddinet
9. Caddinets – two similar engraved tray-like items for napkins and bread, each with a small box for salt & larger box for knife, fork & spoon. These have no ceremonial purpose, just for the King & Queen’s personal banquet dining, and copied from the French court. Gilded silver, English. Maker Anthony Nelme 1688, 394mm/15 ½ in x 311mm/ 12 ¼ in; maker’s mark WE 1683 368mm/ 14 ½ in x 298mm/11 ¾ in.
10. Cruets – two similar items for pouring dressings at the dining table, with pear shape bodies, cap covers with a letter V (for vinegar) all that is now left from the domestic set, and with no ceremonial purpose. Maker Robert Smythier 1682, 120mm / 4 ¾ in 1682; George Garthorne, 1693 120mm / 4 ¾ in.
11. Covered Ewer – the exact purpose of this covered jug is unknown but it was possibly for pouring wine. A plain body with cut-card leaf decoration at the base, with a wide harp shape handle and short spout. Silver gilt, maker George Garthorne 1692, 254mm / 10in.
WEIRD & WONDERFUL OBJECTS
1. Stone of Scone – “the Stone of Destiny” – now housed in Edinburgh Castle, this revered block of sandstone quarried near Perth, Scottish Highlands, originally formed in the lower ‘Old Red Sandstone’, Silurian/Early Devonian geological period approx. 430-400 million years ago. This stone was central to the coronation ceremonies of generations of Scottish monarchs’ at the ancient capital near Perth since 5th century, when the first Scots kings ruled over the Picts to forge the nation of Scotland. The stone was seized in 1296 by Edward I, the Hammerhead of Scotland, who installed it under the Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey. In 1950 it was dragged out of the Abbey by 4 Scottish nationalists and hidden. It was eventually recovered, but due to intense feeling, it was offered back to Scotland for safe keeping in 1996. A rough cross is carved on one side, and two iron rings for carrying either end.
The golden spurs
2. The Spurs – symbolic of the saintly knighthood of St George, the patron saint of England, gold spurs have been buckled onto, or touched against, the feet of every British King and Queen since the coronation of King Henry III in 1220. These old fashioned, Crusader-style prick-spurs replaced those melted by Cromwell. Spurs made 1660-1, buckles & crimson velvet guards embroidered in gold 1821. 150mm / 6 in. long.
3. St Edward’s Staff – this is a highly ornate ‘pike’, a type of sharp pointed Medieval weapon, but made in solid gold with a dangerous looking pointy steel spike at the bottom, and a monde and cross pattee (a flared cross) above. Unmarked, 1661. 1420mm, 56in. long.
A silver gilt mace of the reign of Charles II
4. Maces – originally fearsome Medieval battle weapons used to defend a King, these were reversed around 1500 with royal insignia at the topmost end, carried by the Monarch’s body-guards, ‘Beefeaters’ or Serjeants at Arms in Royal processions. Now, thirteen silver gilt maces exist in Britain (with some others in Commonwealth countries eg Canada), 10 secured in the Jewel House in the Tower of London, 2 lie in the House of Lords & 1 in the Commons to symbolise the Monarch’s authority, all constructed from earlier or Reformation era parts & variously decorated. Dated from 1660 to 1695. Lengths from 1385 mm / 54 in to 1676 mm / 66 in.
5. Scottish Wand – a mysterious item with an unknown purpose, a long silver-gilt embellished wooden rod with a crystal monde & silver gilt cross at the top, and a spherical pommel at the bottom. Unidentified maker FG, undated, 1000mm / 36 in. long.
6. The Lorne Jewels – displayed in Edinburgh Castle, this magnificent necklace of diamonds & pearls with two pendants, one a large pearl & diamond cluster, the lower one a pear shape drop with motto of the Duke of Argyll, and the Galley of Lorne, the emblem of the Lords of Lorne (ancestors of the Argylls). Made in London and given as a gift to Princess Louise, Queen Victoria’s daughter, upon her marriage to the Duke of Argyll by the Clan Campbell in 1871, and bequeathed in 1939 to the nation of Scotland in her will.
7. The St Andrew Jewel of the Order of the Thistle – held in Edinburgh Castle, this is a locket, the front set with an oval chalcedony carved with St Andrew, engraved with the Order's motto on the reverse, hung by a ribbon. Inside the locket is a portrait of Princess Louise, the wife of ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’, Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender.
8. Great George & Collar of the Order of St George – kept in Edinburgh Castle, this was made for Charles II in 1661. The gold figure of St George slaying the dragon is enamelled and set with diamonds. The gold collar was made in 1685 and is an ornate chain of knots and enamelled Tudor roses.
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55 | where did the queen's crown come from | https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/documentaries/the-coronation-the-spellbinding-history-of-queen-elizabeth-iis-crown/ | The Coronation: the spellbinding history of Queen Elizabeth II’s crown
The Coronation: the spellbinding history of Queen Elizabeth II’s crown
In this remarkable documentary, the Queen is reunited with the weighty symbol of monarchy she’s only ever worn once
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The 1953 coronation was an unforgettable occasion for everyone involved. In bleak post-war Britain the inauguration of the young Queen in an ancient ceremony provided the ideal opportunity to celebrate British history and to anticipate a brighter future. As Winston Churchill put it, “Let it not be thought that the age of chivalry belongs to the past”, and a ceremony, both medieval and modern, was staged to rival any of any age. The high point was the moment of coronation in Westminster Abbey, when the Archbishop of Canterbury placed St Edward’s Crown on the sovereign’s head.
This crown, with which the Queen is reunited in the programme, is a remarkable object. The oldest in the Royal Collection, it was made for the coronation of King Charles II in 1661. The solid gold frame weighs almost 5lb, so it sits, like the responsibilities of state, heavy on the head of any monarch. Twelve inches high and surmounted by an orb and cross, it is set with a collection of precious and semi-precious stones, including tourmalines, topazes, rubies, sapphires and garnets. Two royal crowns, a state and a coronation crown, had been melted down at the end of the Civil War, so when replacements were ordered by Charles II two new crowns were again commissioned.
Today the Crown Jewels are famous for containing some of the largest and most spectacular gems in the world – among them the Koh-i-Noor diamond, the Black Prince’s Ruby and the Cullinan diamonds. The Imperial State Crown, which the Queen wears to open Parliament every year, is encrusted with such stones. But the coronation crown, only ever used once in a reign, has a less glittery appearance.
For the first century of its existence, in fact, St Edward’s Crown wasn’t permanently set with stones at all: gems were hired for the coronation and then removed. Charles II paid the royal goldsmith Robert Viner a hefty £350 (almost £30,000 in today’s money) for “ye Loane of ye Jewells” for his coronation. After the diamonds and rubies were returned the crown was given imitation stones to please the visitors to the Jewel House at the Tower of London.
St Edward’s Crown fell out of use during the Georgian and Victorian periods, when its design was regarded as old-fashioned. On the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 there was a new interest in reviving old traditions, and it was proposed that the crown should be used once more. In preparation, it was refurbished and set permanently with precious and semiprecious stones. In the event Edward VII was too weak from appendicitis to manage the famously heavy crown. But his son George V, George VI and Queen Elizabeth II have all been crowned sovereign with it.
Because of the great length of the Queen’s reign it’s now almost 65 years since St Edward’s Crown was last used. This fascinating documentary is – like the crown itself – spellbinding.
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55 | where did the queen's crown come from | https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a43778188/british-royal-crown-jewels-controversy-explained/ | The priceless regalia is likely to attract some debate when it is paraded into Westminster Abbey and presented to the King and Queen.
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Royal Collection Trust
Britain’s Crown Jewels have a history that goes back almost 1,000 years to the reign of Edward the Confessor, who was said to have owned the original St Edward’s Crown that King Charles will be crowned with on May 6 . However, the set of priceless jewels have undergone many transformations since then—not least the fact that almost all of the originals were melted down when Britain became a republic and the entire set was then remade for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 after the monarchy was restored.
But today, the jewels often spark as much controversy as they do fascination, largely because of some of the diamonds that sit within them. Here are all the controversies surrounding the Crown Jewels.
Tim Graham//Getty Images
The Queen Mother’s coronation crown, featuring the controversial 105.6-carat Koh-i-Noor diamond.
The Koh-i-Noor Diamond
The most controversial diamond in the Crown Jewels is the Koh-i-Noor which will not be seen on coronation day. It sits within the crown that was made for Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother for her coronation in 1937, which was also placed on her coffin when she died in 2002. It was presented to Queen Victoria by the East India company in 1849 after child Maharaja Duleep Singh was forced to sign a document surrendering it to the British. Claims to it have since been made from India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Because it is such a direct symbol of empire and conquest, it is seen as highly inflammatory by many, and Queen Camilla avoided significant backlash by announcing that she will not wear it on May 6.
Royal Collection Trust
The famed 530.2-carat Cullinan I diamond is set into the Sovereign’s Sceptre with Cross.
Cullinan Diamond
A diamond that will be very visible on May 6, however, is the Cullianan Diamond . This was the largest diamond ever found when it was discovered in a mine in Pretoria in 1905, following the Boer war and when the area was colonized by Britain. It was bought by the colonial government and presented to King Edward VII and eventually cut into nine stones. The largest stone, known as the Great Star of Africa, was set in the Sovereign’s Sceptre with Cross by King George V, one of the sceptres which King Charles will carry at the coronation . The same sceptre was on Queen Elizabeth’s coffin following her death and during her funeral, with its visibility prompting fresh calls for the gem to be returned to South Africa .
The second-largest stone from this diamond is in the Imperial State Crown which Charles will wear when he leaves Westminster Abbey. Three smaller pieces, Cullinan III, IV and V, which used to be in brooches worn by Queen Elizabeth, will be set in Camilla’s crown.
Royal Collection Trust
The Queen Consort’s Rod with Dove was made in 1685 with ivory, and is topped with an enameled dove.
Ivory
The rod that Camilla will be given to hold during coronation ( known as the Queen Consort's Rod with Dove ) is made of ivory, which has attracted some debate. “The sceptre is formed from an ivory rod in three sections, tapering towards the top, and is surmounted by a gold monde enamelled with the national emblems (rose, thistle, harp and fleur-de-lis) with a cross above on which perches an enamelled dove with wings folded,” the Royal Collection Trust explains about the item. It was made in 1685 for the coronation of Mary of Modena, Queen Consort of James II, and has been used to crown every queen consort since.
However quite a lot has changed since the 17th century and today members of the royal family have been at the forefront of campaigning for the banning of the ivory trade. In 2014 the Independent on Sunday first reported that Prince William had called for items in the Royal Collection to be stripped from the Palace. Clearly that did not happen. Reports suggest that the Palace’s view on this item is that it reflects the time it was produced in. However, one royal expert on Twitter predicted that William will be “furious” at the inclusion of the ivory object in the modern-day coronation.
Town & Country Contributing Editor Victoria Murphy has reported on the British Royal Family since 2010. She has interviewed Prince Harry and has travelled the world covering several royal tours. She is a frequent contributor to Good Morning America. Victoria authored Town & Country book The Queen: A Life in Pictures , released in 2021.
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56 | when did revelations become part of the bible | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelation | Book of Revelation
Last book of the New Testament
Papyrus 46, one of the oldest New Testament papyri , showing 2 Cor 11:33–12:9
John in the Bible
The Book of Revelation or Book of the Apocalypse is the final book of the New Testament (and therefore the final book of the Christian Bible ). Written in Koine Greek , its title is derived from the first word of the text: apokalypsis, meaning 'unveiling' or 'revelation'. The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic book in the New Testament canon . [a] It occupies a central place in Christian eschatology .
The author names himself as simply "John" in the text, but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second-century Christian writers such as Papias of Hierapolis , Justin Martyr , Irenaeus , Melito of Sardis , Clement of Alexandria , and the author of the Muratorian fragment identify John the Apostle as the John of Revelation. [1] [2] Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, [3] with many considering that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet. [4] Modern theological scholars characterize the Book of Revelation's author as " John of Patmos ". The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), which evidence tends to confirm. [5] [b]
The book spans three literary genres: the epistolary , the apocalyptic , and the prophetic . [7] It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea , addressing letters to the " Seven Churches of Asia ". He then describes a series of prophetic visions , including figures such as the Seven-Headed Dragon, the Serpent , and the Beast , which culminate in the Second Coming of Jesus .
The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations. Historicist interpretations see Revelation as containing a broad view of history while preterist interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the Apostolic Age (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Futurists , meanwhile, believe that Revelation describes future events with the seven churches growing into the body of believers throughout the age, and a reemergence or continuous rule of a Greco-Roman system with modern capabilities described by John in ways familiar to him; and idealist or symbolic interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.
Composition and setting
St. John receives his Revelation, Saint-Sever Beatus , 11th century
The book's most common English name is "[Book of] Revelation". It is also called "[Book of] the Apocalypse" (for example in the Catholic Church [8] ), "Revelation to John", [9] or "Apocalypse of St. John". [10] Abbreviations of these are "Rev." (traditional), "Rv" (shorter), or "Apoc." [11] [12]
The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John.
"Revelation" and "Apocalypse" are respectively a translation and an anglicisation of the original Koine Greek word ἀποκάλυψις, which can also mean "unveiling". In the original Greek, the word is singular, so the name "Revelations" sometimes found in English is often considered erroneous. [13]
The author states in Rev 1:9 that he is on Patmos , and so he is conventionally called John of Patmos . He was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter. [5] [14] The New Testament canon has four other " Johannine works " ascribed to authors named John, and a tradition dating from Irenaeus ( c. 130 – c. 202 AD) identifies John the Apostle as the author of all five. The modern consensus is that a Johannine community produced the Gospel of John and the three Johannine epistles , while John of Patmos wrote the Book of Revelation separately. [c] [15] [16]
The book is commonly dated to about AD 95, as suggested by clues in the visions pointing to the reign of the emperor Domitian . [17] The beast with seven heads and the number 666 seem to allude directly to the emperor Nero (reigned AD 54–68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that Nero would return . [18] [5]
Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia, in what is now western Turkey. The seven cities where churches were located are close together, and the Island of Patmos is near the western coast of Turkey. [4] The term apocalypse means the revealing of divine mysteries; [19] John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches. [4] The entire book constitutes the prophecy—the letters to the seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven. [4] While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms 21 times, more than any other New Testament book. [20]
The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament , although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves. [21] Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes ideas of older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from Daniel , Ezekiel , Psalms , and Isaiah , with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was often influenced by the Greek. [22]
Modern understanding has been that the Book of Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of an emperor. This is not the only interpretation, however; Domitian may not have been a despot imposing an imperial cult, and there may not have been any systematic empire-wide persecution of Christians in his time. [23] Revelation may instead have been composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Author Mark B. Stephens posed that the Revelation chastised those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire. [24] This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering due to withdrawal from and defiance of the wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope. In the words of professor Adela Collins , "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality." [25] There is also theological interpretation that the book mainly prophesies the end of Old Covenant order, the Jewish temple and religious economy. [26]
Canonical history
Revelation was among the last books accepted into the Christian biblical canon , and to the present day some churches that derive from the Church of the East reject it. [27] [28] Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style [29] were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by Montanists and other groups considered to be heretical. [30] This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in the East through the 15th century. [31]
Dionysius (AD 248), bishop of Alexandria and disciple of Origen , wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle (Eusebius, Church History VII.25). [32]
Eusebius , in his Church History ( c. AD 330), mentioned that the Apocalypse of John was accepted as a canonical book and rejected at the same time:
1. [...] it is proper to sum up the writings of the New Testament which have been already mentioned... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings [Homologoumena].
4. Among the rejected [Kirsopp. Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. [33]
The Apocalypse of John is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen. [34] Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings. [35]
Cyril of Jerusalem (AD 348) does not name it among the canonical books (Catechesis IV.33–36). [36]
Athanasius (AD 367) in his Letter 39, [37] Augustine of Hippo ( c. AD 397) in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II, Chapter 8), [38] Tyrannius Rufinus ( c. AD 400) in his Commentary on the Apostles' Creed, [39] Pope Innocent I (AD 405) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse [40] and John of Damascus (about AD 730) in his work An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Book IV:7) [41] listed "the Revelation of John the Evangelist " as a canonical book.
The Council of Laodicea (AD 363) omits it as a canonical book. [42]
The Decretum Gelasianum , which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the Council of Rome (AD 382). This list mentions it as a part of the New Testament canon. [43]
Protestant Reformation
Texts and manuscripts
Structure and content
Outline of the book of Revelation:
Illustration from the Bamberg Apocalypse of the Son of Man among the seven lampstands.
The Revelation of Jesus Christ
The Revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated to John through prophetic visions. (1:1–9)
John is instructed by the "one like a son of man" to write all that he hears and sees, from the prophetic visions, to Seven Churches of Asia . (1:10–13)
The appearance of the "one like a son of man" is given, and he reveals what the seven stars and seven lampstands represent. (1:14–20)
Messages for seven churches of Asia
Ephesus : From this church, he "who overcomes is granted to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God." (2:1–7)
Praised for not bearing those who are evil, testing those who say they are apostles and are not, and finding them to be liars; hating the deeds of the Nicolaitans ; having persevered and possessing patience.
Admonished to "do the first works" and to repent for having left their "first love."
Smyrna : From this church, those who are faithful until death, will be given "the crown of life." He who overcomes shall not be hurt by the second death . (2:8–11)
Praised for being "rich" while impoverished and in tribulation.
Admonished not to fear the " synagogue of Satan ", nor fear a ten-day tribulation of being thrown into prison.
To the Church in Pergamum and Thyatira.
Pergamum : From this church, he who overcomes will be given the hidden manna to eat and a white stone with a secret name on it." (2:12–17)
Praised for holding "fast to My name", not denying "My faith" even in the days of Antipas , "My faithful martyr."
Admonished to repent for having held the doctrine of Balaam , who taught Balak to put a stumbling block before the children of Israel ; eating things sacrificed to idols, committing sexual immorality, and holding the "doctrine of the Nicolaitans."
Thyatira : From this church, he who overcomes until the end, will be given power over the nations in order to dash them to pieces with a rod of iron; he will also be given the "morning star." (2:18–29)
Praised for their works, love, service, faith, and patience.
Admonished to repent for allowing a "prophetess" to promote sexual immorality and to eat things sacrificed to idols.
Sardis : From this church, he who overcomes will be clothed in white garments, and his name will not be blotted out from the Book of Life ; his name will also be confessed before the Father and his angels. (3:1–6)
Admonished to be watchful and to strengthen since their works have not been perfect before God.
Philadelphia : From this church, he who overcomes will be made a pillar in the temple of God having the name of God, the name of the city of God, " New Jerusalem ", and the Son of God 's new name. (3:7–13)
Praised for having some strength, keeping "My word", and having not denied "My name."
Reminded to hold fast what they have, that no one may take their crown.
Laodicea : From this church, he who overcomes will be granted the opportunity to sit with the Son of God on his throne. (3:14–22)
Admonished to be zealous and repent from being "lukewarm"; they are instructed to buy the "gold refined in the fire", that they may be rich; to buy "white garments", that they may be clothed, so that the shame of their nakedness would not be revealed; to anoint their eyes with eye salve, that they may see.
The Lamb with the Book with Seven Seals.
Before the Throne of God
The Throne of God appears, surrounded by twenty four thrones with twenty-four elders seated in them. (4:1–5)
The four living creatures are introduced. (4:6–11)
A scroll, with seven seals, is presented and it is declared that the Lion of the tribe of Judah , from the "Root of David ", is the only one worthy to open this scroll. (5:1–5)
When the "Lamb having seven horns and seven eyes" took the scroll, the creatures of heaven fell down before the Lamb to give him praise, joined by myriads of angels and the creatures of the earth. (5:6–14)
"And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer." White Rider from Tolkovy Apocalyps, Moscow, 17th century
First Seal: A white horse appears, whose crowned rider has a bow with which to conquer. (6:1–2)
Second Seal: A red horse appears, whose rider is granted a "great sword" to take peace from the earth. (6:3–4)
Third Seal: A black horse appears, whose rider has "a pair of balances in his hand", where a voice then says, "A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and [see] thou hurt not the oil and the wine." (6:5–6)
Fourth Seal: A pale horse appears, whose rider is Death , and Hades follows him. Death is granted a fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, with hunger, with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (6:7–8)
Fifth Seal: "Under the altar", appeared the souls of martyrs for the "word of God", who cry out for vengeance. They are given white robes and told to rest until the martyrdom of their brothers is completed. (6:9–11)
Sixth Seal: (6:12–17)
There occurs a great earthquake where "the sun becomes black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon like blood" (6:12).
The stars of heaven fall to the earth and the sky recedes like a scroll being rolled up (6:13–14).
Every mountain and island is moved out of place (6:14).
The people of earth retreat to caves in the mountains (6:15).
The survivors call upon the mountains and the rocks to fall on them, so as to hide them from the "wrath of the Lamb" (6:16).
Interlude: The 144,000 Hebrews are sealed.
144,000 from the Twelve Tribes of Israel are sealed as servants of God on their foreheads (7:1–8)
A great multitude stand before the Throne of God, who come out of the Great Tribulation , clothed with robes made "white in the blood of the Lamb" and having palm branches in their hands. (7:9–17)
Seventh Seal: Introduces the seven trumpets (8:1–5)
"Silence in heaven for about half an hour" (8:1).
Seven angels are each given trumpets (8:2).
An eighth angel takes a "golden censer ", filled with fire from the heavenly altar, and throws it to the earth (8:3–5). What follows are "peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning, and an earthquake" (8:5).
After the eighth angel has devastated the earth, the seven angels introduced in verse 2 prepare to sound their trumpets (8:6).
The Seven Trumpets and the angel with a censer.
Seven trumpets are sounded (Seen in Chapters 8, 9, and 11).
First Trumpet: Hail and fire, mingled with blood, are thrown to the earth burning up a third of the trees and green grass. (8:6–7)
Second Trumpet: Something that resembles a great mountain, burning with fire, falls from the sky and lands in the ocean. It kills a third of the sea creatures and destroys a third of the ships at sea. (8:8–9)
Third Trumpet: A great star, named Wormwood , falls from heaven and poisons a third of the rivers and springs of water. (8:10–11)
Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sun, the moon, and the stars are darkened creating complete darkness for a third of the day and the night. (8:12–13)
Fifth Trumpet: The First Woe (9:1–12)
A "star" falls from the sky (9:1).
This "star" is given "the key to the bottomless pit" (9:1).
The "star" then opens the bottomless pit. When this happens, "smoke [rises] from [the Abyss] like smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky [are] darkened by the smoke from the Abyss" (9:2).
The Fourth Angel sounds his trumpet, Apocalypse 8, Beatus Escorial , c. 950
From out of the smoke, locusts who are "given power like that of scorpions of the earth" (9:3), who are commanded not to harm anyone or anything except for people who were not given the "seal of God" on their foreheads (from chapter 7) (9:4).
The "locusts" are described as having a human appearance (faces and hair) but with lion's teeth, and wearing "breastplates of iron"; the sound of their wings resembles "the thundering of many horses and chariots rushing into battle" (9:7–9).
Sixth Trumpet: The Second Woe (9:13–21)
The four angels bound to the great river Euphrates are released to prepare two hundred million horsemen.
These armies kill a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone.
Interlude: The little scroll. (10:1–11)
An angel appears, with one foot on the sea and one foot on the land, having an opened little book in his hand.
Upon the cry of the angel, seven thunders utter mysteries and secrets that are not to be written down by John.
John is instructed to eat the little scroll that happens to be sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach, and to prophesy.
John is given a measuring rod to measure the temple of God, the altar, and those who worship there.
Outside the temple, at the court of the holy city, it is trod by the nations for forty-two months (
3+1⁄2 years).
Two witnesses prophesy for 1,260 days, clothed in sackcloth. (11:1–14)
Seventh Trumpet: The Third Woe that leads into the seven bowls (11:15–19)
The temple of God opens in heaven, where the ark of his covenant can be seen. There are lightnings, noises, thunderings, an earthquake, and great hail.
The Seven Spiritual Figures. (Events leading into the Third Woe)
The Woman and the Dragon.
A Woman "clothed with a white robe, with the sun at her back, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" is in pregnancy with a male child. (12:1–2)
A great Dragon (with seven heads, ten horns, and seven crowns on his heads) drags a third of the stars of Heaven with his tail, and throws them to the Earth. (12:3–4). The Dragon waits for the birth of the child so he can devour it. However, sometime after the child is born, he is caught up to God's throne while the Woman flees into the wilderness into her place prepared of God that they should feed her there for 1,260 days (3+1⁄2 years). (12:5–6). War breaks out in heaven between Michael and the Dragon, identified as that old Serpent, the Devil , or Satan (12:9). After a great fight, the Dragon and his angels are cast out of Heaven for good, followed by praises of victory for God's kingdom. (12:7–12). The Dragon engages to persecute the Woman, but she is given aid to evade him. Her evasiveness enrages the Dragon, prompting him to wage war against the rest of her offspring, who keep the commandments of God and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. (12:13–17)
A seven-headed leopard-like beast.
A Beast (with seven heads, ten horns, and ten crowns on his horns and on his heads names of blasphemy) emerges from the Sea, having one mortally wounded head that is then healed. The people of the world wonder and follow the Beast. The Dragon grants him power and authority for forty-two months. (13:1–5)
The Beast of the Sea blasphemes God's name (along with God's tabernacle and his kingdom and all who dwell in Heaven), wages war against the Saints, and overcomes them. (13:6–10)
Then, a Beast emerges from the Earth having two horns like a lamb, speaking like a dragon. He directs people to make an image of the Beast of the Sea who was wounded yet lives, breathing life into it, and forcing all people to bear " the mark of the Beast ". The number of the beast the Bible says is "666". Events leading into the Third Woe:
The Lamb stands on Mount Zion with the 144,000 "first fruits" who are redeemed from Earth and victorious over the Beast and his mark and image. (14:1–5)
The proclamations of three angels. (14:6–13)
One like the Son of Man reaps the earth. (14:14–16)
A second angel reaps "the vine of the Earth" and throws it into "the great winepress of the wrath of God... and blood came out of the winepress... up to one thousand six hundred stadia ." (14:17–20)
The temple of the tabernacle, in Heaven, is opened (15:1–5), beginning the "Seven Bowls" revelation.
Seven angels are given a golden bowl, from the Four Living Creatures, that contains the seven last plagues bearing the wrath of God. (15:6–8)
Angels with the seven plagues.
First Bowl: A "foul and malignant sore" afflicts the followers of the Beast. (16:1–2)
Second Bowl: The Sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4–7)
Fourth Bowl: The Sun scorches the Earth with intense heat and even burns some people with fire. (16:8–9)
Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in the Beast's kingdom. (16:10–11)
Sixth Bowl: The Great River Euphrates is dried up and preparations are made for the kings of the East and the final battle at Armageddon between the forces of good and evil. (16:12–16)
Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake and heavy hailstorm: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17–21)
Aftermath: Vision of John given by "an angel who had the seven bowls"
The great Harlot who sits on a scarlet Beast (with seven heads and ten horns and names of blasphemy all over its body) and by many waters: Babylon the Great. The angel showing John the vision of the Harlot and the scarlet Beast reveals their identities and fates (17:1–18)
New Babylon is destroyed. (18:1–8)
The people of the Earth (the kings, merchants, sailors, etc.) mourn New Babylon's destruction. (18:9–19)
The permanence of New Babylon's destruction. (18:20–24)
The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
A great multitude praises God. (19:1–6)
The marriage Supper of the Lamb. (19:7–10)
The Judgment of the two Beasts, the Dragon, and the Dead (19:11–20:15)
The Beast and the False Prophet are cast into the Lake of Fire. (19:11–21)
The Dragon is imprisoned in the Bottomless Pit for a thousand years. (20:1–3)
The resurrected martyrs live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4–6)
After the Thousand Years
The Dragon is released and goes out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the Earth— Gog and Magog —and gathers them for battle at the holy city. The Dragon makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7–9)
The Dragon is cast into the Lake of Fire with the Beast and the False Prophet. (20:10)
The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with Death and Hades, are cast into the Lake of Fire, which is the second death. (20:11–15)
The angel showing John the New Jerusalem, with the Lamb of God at its center.
The New Heaven and Earth, and New Jerusalem
A "new heaven" and "new earth" replace the old heaven and old earth. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1–8)
God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2–8)
Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9–27)
The River of Life and the Tree of Life appear for the healing of the nations and peoples. The curse of sin is ended. (22:1–5)
Conclusion
Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6–21)
Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple historical interpretation, to a prophetic view on what will happen in the future by way of God's will and the Woman's (traditionally believed to be the Virgin Mary ) victory over Satan (" symbolic interpretation"), to different end time scenarios ("futurist interpretation"), [60] [61] to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all, [62] ascribing it to a human-inherited archetype .
This interpretation draws out that John is seeing the liturgy of heaven: Lutheran historian Paul Westermeyer comments "It is a “revelation” about God’s goodness, mercy, and power over evil in a cosmic view, not a secret code for our calendars. Revelation sings a new song of proclamation, praise, and rejoicing by voices of multitudes gathered around a great supper of the Lamb, punctuated by other sounds." [63]
Revelation mentions various objects of John's vision of the angelic liturgy: an altar, robes, candles, incense, manna, chalices, the sign of the cross, references to the Lamb and to Mary, etc. [64]
Revelation sets an exemplar of the angelic liturgy which earthly liturgies should emulate, join and anticipate, in a view associated with Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite ' Celestial Hierarchy . For Catholic theologian Joseph Ratzinger :
With its vision of the cosmic liturgy, in the midst of which stands the Lamb who was sacrificed, the Apocalypse has presented the essential contents of the eucharistic sacrament in an impressive form that sets a standard for every local liturgy. From the point of view of the Apocalypse, the essential matter of all eucharistic liturgy is its participation in the heavenly liturgy; it is from thence that it necessarily derives its unity, its catholicity, and its universality.
Joseph Ratzinger, Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith [65]
Paschal/eucharistic liturgy
This interpretation, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. For Marilyn Parry, "there is a large loose structure which focuses on the eucharistic liturgies of the early church." [66]
This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd , an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn 's The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), [64] in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (AD 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean. [64]
They believe the Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980).
According to Pope Benedict XVI some of the images of Revelation should be understood in the context of the dramatic suffering and persecution of the churches of Asia in the 1st century. [67] Accordingly, they argue, the Book of Revelation should not be read as an enigmatic warning, but as an encouraging vision of Christ's definitive victory over evil. [68]
This view builds from scholarly insights that identify various hymns or liturgical sequences in Revelation that are likely derived from, as well as informing, early church liturgy: Holy Holy Holy /Sanctus/trisagion (Rev 4:8,11), "Amen. Come, Lord Jesus!” followed by “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen" (Rev 20:20), "Worthy is the Lamb" (Rev 5:9-13), and many others. [63] : 432 Some of the hymns may have had an anti-imperial theology. [69]
Oriental Orthodox
"Christ in Glory (Pankrator)", c. 6th–8th century CE, wall painting from the Monastery of Bawit. The Coptic iconography represents many elements from the Book of Revelation.
In the Coptic Orthodox Church , Armenian Apostolic Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night after Good Friday . [70] Biblically Ugo Vanni and other biblical scholars have argued that the Book of Revelation was written with the intention to be read entirely in one liturgical setting with dialogue-elements between the reader (singular) and the hearers (plural) based on Rev 1:3 and Rev 1:10. [71] Beniamin Zakhary has recently shown that the structure of the reading the Book of Revelation within the Coptic rite of Apocalypse Night (this is the only biblical reading in the Coptic church with a dialogue in it, where the reader stops many times and the people respond; additionally the entire book is read in a liturgical setting that culminates with the Eucharist) shows great support for this biblical hypothesis, albeit with some notable difference. [72]
Additionally, the Book of Revelation permeates many liturgical prayers and iconography within the Coptic Church. [72] [73]
Most Christian interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories:
Historicism , which sees in Revelation a broad view of history;
Preterism , in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the apostolic era (1st century) or the fall of Jerusalem [74] or the Roman Empire ;
Futurism , which believes that Revelation describes future events (modern believers in this interpretation are often called " millennialists "); and
Idealism/Allegoricalism , which holds that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil .
Additionally, there are significant differences in interpretation of the thousand years (the "millennium") mentioned in Revelation 20:2.
Premillennialism , which holds a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers literal interpretations of the content of the book;
Amillennialism , which rejects a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers allegorical interpretations of the content of the book; and
Postmillennialism , which includes both literal and allegorical interpretations of the "millennium" but views the Second Coming as following the conversion to Christianity of a gradually improving world. [75]
Roman Catholic
According to the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops the Book of Revelation contains an account of visions in symbolic and allegorical language borrowed extensively from the Old Testament. Symbolic descriptions are not to be taken as literal descriptions, nor is the symbolism meant to be pictured realistically. [76]
Pope Benedict XVI taught that Revelation "should be understood against the backdrop of" the early church's persecutions and inner problems, that "the Lamb who is slain yet standing" symbolizes Jesus' paschal mystery and Jesus being the meaning of life , that the vision of the woman and child symbolizes both Mary and the Church, that the New Jerusalem symbolizes the Church in its glory on Judgment Day , and that the prayers in Revelation reflect 1st century Jewish-Christian liturgy and Jewish-Christian understanding of the heavenly liturgy. [77] [78] [79] [80]
According to Catholic Answers , the author of Revelation identifies the beast as the Roman Empire, the dragon as Satan, and Babylon as Rome. The meaning is that Rome "cannot win. It will be completely overthrown, and the Church is sure to triumph. This prophecy is as it were the hub of the Apocalypse. Around it John gradually unfolds the plan God has for the future of his Church." [81]
Eastern Orthodox
An Orthodox icon of the Apocalypse of St. John, 16th century
Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadowing. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals. [82]
Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Byzantine Rite Churches, although it is read in the Western Rite Orthodox Parishes , which are under the same bishops as the Byzantine Rite.
Similar to the early Protestants, Adventists maintain a historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse. [83]
Seventh-day Adventists believe the Book of Revelation is especially relevant to believers in the days preceding the second coming of Jesus Christ. "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." [84] "Here is the patience of the saints; here are those who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." [85] As participatory agents in the work of salvation for all humankind, "This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent." [86] The three angels of Revelation 14 represent the people who accept the light of God's messages and go forth as his agents to sound the warning throughout the length and breadth of the earth. [87]
Bahá'í Faith
By reasoning analogous with Millerite historicism, Bahá'u'lláh 's doctrine of progressive revelation , a modified historicist method of interpreting prophecy, is identified in the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith . [88]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá , the son and chosen successor of Bahá'u'lláh, has given some interpretations about the 11th and 12th chapters of Revelation in Some Answered Questions . [89] [90] The 1,260 days spoken of in the forms: one thousand two hundred and sixty days, [91] forty-two months, [92] refers to the 1,260 years in the Islamic Calendar (AH 1260 or AD 1844). The " two witnesses " spoken of are Muhammad and Ali . [93] The red Dragon spoken of in Revelation 12:3 – "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" [94] – are interpreted as symbolic of the seven provinces dominated by the Umayyads : Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxania. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III and the like, which were not counted for this interpretation. [95]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Book of Mormon states that John the Apostle is the author of Revelation and that he was foreordained by God to write it. [96]
Doctrine and Covenants , section 77, postulates answers to specific questions regarding the symbolism contained in the Book of Revelation. Topics include: the sea of glass, the four beasts and their appearance, the 24 elders, the book with seven seals, certain angels, the sealing of the 144,000, the little book eaten by John, and the two witnesses in Chapter 11. [97]
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the warning contained in Revelation 22:18–19 does not refer to the biblical canon as a whole. Rather, an open and ongoing dialogue between God and the modern-day Prophet and Apostles of the LDS faith constitute an open canon of scripture. [98]
Christian Gnostics are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the keynote of their doctrine and their practice." [99]
James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra . He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy." [100] Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. However, Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view." [101]
Radical discipleship
The radical discipleship interpretation asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i.e. how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this interpretation the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that seek to oppose the ways of God and God's Kingdom.[ citation needed ] The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and today,[ opinion ] is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values – imperialism , nationalism , and civil religion being the most dangerous and insidious.[ citation needed ]
Aesthetic and literary
This artwork from Augsburger Wunderzeichenbuch illustrates Revelation 11:5–8: "And if anyone would harm them, fire pours from their mouth and consumes their foes. If anyone would harm them, this is how he is doomed to be killed ... And when they have finished their testimony, the beast that rises from the bottomless pit will make war on them and conquer them and kill them, and their dead bodies will lie in the street of the great city." ( c. 1550)
Literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of theories about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish Midrash . Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama . In recent years, theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and which are less interested in what the original author intended. [105]
Charles Cutler Torrey taught Semitic languages at Yale University . His lasting contribution has been to show how prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are much more meaningful when treated as poets first and foremost. He thought this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose. [106] Christopher R. North says of Torrey's earlier Isaiah theory, "Few scholars of any standing have accepted his theory." [107] This is the general view of Torrey's theories.[ citation needed ] However, Christopher North goes on to cite Torrey on 20 major occasions and many more minor ones in the course of his book. So, Torrey must have had some influence and poetry is the key.[ citation needed ] Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic . [108]
According to Torrey, "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until AD 80, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues, [109] the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing". [110] Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19:6–8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda. [111] Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6:16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way. [112] The surviving Greek translation was a literal translation that aimed to comply with the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be "corrupted" in any way.
Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God. [113] Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience. [d] Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows. [115] Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions [e] belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... – who can bear it?" [116] She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy." [117] Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved". [118]
Recently,[ timeframe? ] aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a Just World from the viewpoint of rhetoric. [119] Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic. [120]
Professor Schüssler Fiorenza believes that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says humanity is to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. In contrast, Tina Pippin states that John writes " horror literature " and "the misogyny which underlies the narrative is extreme." [120]
D. H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse. [121] He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect" [122] which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity" [123] and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation." [124] Lawrence did not consider how these two types of Christianity (good and bad in his view) might be related other than as opposites. He noted the difference meant that the John who wrote a gospel could not be the same John who wrote Revelation.
His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous". He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal in "great Chaldean sky-spaces", which he quite liked. After that, Lawrence thought, the book became preoccupied with the birth of the baby messiah and "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world". Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering in hell. [125]
New Testament narrative criticism also places Revelation in its first century historical context but approaches the book from a literary perspective. [127] [128] For example, narrative critics examine characters and characterization, literary devices, settings, plot, themes, point of view, implied reader, implied author, and other constitutive features of narratives in their analysis of the book.
Although the acceptance of Revelation into the canon has, from the beginning, been controversial, it has been essentially similar to the career of other texts. [129] The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox , and what was even heretical. [129] Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John's central message. [126] Thus, the letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature (its purpose is offering hope to the downtrodden), [130] and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary, and social context. [130] Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st century to make sense of what the author may have intended. [130]
Scholar Barbara Whitlock pointed out a similarity between the consistent destruction of thirds depicted in the Book of Revelation (a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone, a third of the trees and green grass, a third of the sea creatures and a third of the ships at sea, etc.) and the Iranian mythology evil character Zahhak or Dahāg, depicted in the Avesta , the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism . Dahāg is mentioned as wreaking much evil in the world until at last chained up and imprisoned on the mythical Mt. Damāvand. The Middle Persian sources prophesy that at the end of the world, Dahāg will at last burst his bonds and ravage the world, consuming one in three humans and livestock, until the ancient hero Kirsāsp returns to life to kill Dahāg. Whitlock wrote: "Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Roman Empire's main rival, was part of the intellectual environment in which Christianity came into being, just as were Judaism, the Greek-Roman religion, and the worship of Isis and Mithras. A Zoroastrian influence is completely plausible". [131] [ full citation needed ]
Old Testament origins
Much of Revelation employs ancient sources, primarily but not exclusively from the Old Testament. For example, Howard-Brook and Gwyther [132] regard the Book of Enoch as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures."
Academics showed little interest in this topic until recently. [f] An anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871 [134] prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 ("Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord") within Revelation 11 and writes Revelation 12:7 side by side with the role of "the Satan" in the Book of Job . The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time. [135]
Steve Moyise uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation." [136] Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, Psalms, and Ezekiel, while neglecting, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch that are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers.[ citation needed ]
Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental. The author seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, the author borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40–48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs a temple because it is God's dwelling. Ian Boxall [137] writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying to identify this "something new", Boxall argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence and linking most of them to the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.[ citation needed ]
Some commentators argue that it is these purposes – and not the structure – that really matter. G. K. Beale believes that, however much John makes use of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfillment of Daniel 7 . [138] Richard Bauckham has argued that John presents an early view of the Trinity through his descriptions of the visions and his identifying Jesus and the Holy Spirit with YHWH. [139] Brandon Smith has expanded on both of their proposals while proposing a "trinitarian reading" of Revelation, arguing that John uses Old Testament language and allusions from various sources to describe a multiplicity of persons in YHWH without sacrificing monotheism, which would later be codified in the trinitarian doctrine of Nicene Christianity . [140]
Olivet discourse
Figures in Revelation
The author (see John the Apostle or John of Patmos )
One like the Son of Man who gives the revelation
Antipas, the faithful martyr
The Lamb, with seven horns and seven eyes ( Lion of Judah )
Saints under the altar
Four angels holding the four winds of the Earth
The seal-bearer angel ( 144,000 of Israel sealed)
A great multitude from every nation
Seven angelic trumpeters
The angel of the bottomless pit (Hebrew: Abaddon , Greek: Apollyon)
Four angels bound to the great river Euphrates
Two hundred million man cavalry
The mighty angel with little book open and when he cried of seven thunders uttered their voices
The Dragon, fiery red with seven heads and ten horns ( Satan )
Voice from heaven
Angel of the waters
Those of the first resurrection
Those of the second resurrection
See also
^ Other apocalypses popular in the early Christian era did not achieve canonical status. 2 Esdras (also known as the Apocalypse of Ezra) is recognized as canonical in Ethiopian Orthodox churches, but as part of the Old Testament .
^ However, among recent writers, John Behr [6] argues that Irenaeus and the earliest traditions of the church placed the writing in the reign of Nero.
^ Thus, for example, whereas the 1592 Sixto-Clementine Vulgate calls the book Apocalypsis Beati Joannis Apostoli "Apocalypse of Saint John the Apostle" the 1979 Nova Vulgata calls it Apocalypsis Joannis "Apocalypse of John".
^ Rossetti remarks that patience is a word which does not occur in the Bible until the New Testament, as if the usage first came from Christ's own lips. [114]
^ 'Vision' lends the wrong emphasis as Rossetti sought to minimise the distinction between John's experience and that of others. She quoted 1 John 3:24, "He abideth in us, by the Spirit which he hath given us" to show that when John says, "I was in the Spirit" it is not exceptional.
^ Steve Moyise reports no work whatsoever done between 1912 and 1984. [133]
Carson, Don (2005). An Introduction to the New Testament (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. pp. 465ff. ISBN
Holmes, Michael (2007). The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. Baker Academic. p. 749ff. ISBN
van den Biesen, Christian (1913). "Apocalypse" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company.
ESV Pew Bible . Wheaton, IL: Crossway. 2018. p. 1028. ISBN
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"Bible Book Abbreviations" . Logos Bible Software. Archived from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
Martin, Dale B. (6 April 2012). "The Last Trumpet" . The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
Fekkes, Jan (1994). Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and their Development (The Library of New Testament Studies). Bloomsbury T&T Clark. pp. 61–63. ISBN
Chilton, David (2011). The Days of Vengeance. Tyler, Texas: Dominion Press. p. 55. ISBN
Taylor, David G. K. (11 September 2002). "Christian regional diversity" . In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Routledge Worlds. Routledge (published 2002). p. 338. ISBN
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[...] the minor Catholic epistles and Revelation continued to be omitted, and are still not included in the canon of the church of the East which was geographically (and from the late-fifth century doctrinally) isolated in the Persian empire.
of Jerusalem, Cyril. Catechetical Lecture 4 Chapter 35 . Translated by Edwin Hamilton Gifford. newadvent. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
of Laodicea, Synod. Synod of Laodicea Canon 60 . Translated by Percival, Henry. newadvent. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
Glasson, T.F. (1965). "How was the Book received by the Church?". In Glasson, T.F. (ed.). The Revelation of John . Cambridge Bible Commentaries on the New Testament. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 6. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer, said, '[The Book of Revelation] is not a book of the Bible'.
Boring, M. Eugene (1989). Revelation . Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press (published 2011). p. 3. ISBN
To this day, Catholic and Protestant lectionaries have only minimal readings from Revelation, and the Greek Orthodox lectionary omits it altogether.
Karris, Robert J., ed. (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary. Liturgical Press. p. 1296.
Bowers, Ken (2000). Hiding in plain sight. Cedar Fort. p. 175.
^ Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiography Memories Dream Reflections said "I will not discuss the transparent prophecies of the Book of Revelation because no one believes in them and the whole subject is felt to be an embarrassing one."
Ratzinger, Joseph (2005). Pilgrim Fellowship of Faith: The Church As Communion (1st ed.). San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN
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Parry, Marilyn (2000). The Significance of the Book of Revelation to the Development of the Liturgy (PhD thesis). University of Manchester.
Pope Benedict XVI . "John, the Seer of Patmos" . Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
Thavis, John (23 August 2006). "Pope Benedict: Read Book of Revelation as Christ's victory over evil" . Catholic Online. Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Jeffcoat Schedtler, Justin P. (10 September 2020). "The Hymns in Revelation". The Oxford Handbook of the Book of Revelation: 114–130. doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190655433.013.7 .
Russell, James (1887). The Parousia. United Kingdom: Bierton Strict and Particular Baptists. pp. 258–259. ISBN
Johnson, Dennis E. (2008). "Introduction to Revelation". ESV Study Bible. Wheaton, Illinois: Crossway. ISBN
Holbrook, Frank (July 1983). "What prophecy means to this church" . Ministry, International Journal for Pastors. 56 (7): 21. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
"Seventh-day Adventist 28 Fundamental Beliefs" (PDF). The Official Site of the Seventh-day Adventist World Church. General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
"Revelation 14:12" . Biblia.com. Logos Research Systems. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
"The Remnant and its Mission" . The Official Site of the Seventh-day Adventist World Church. General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
"Councils to the Church" . Ellen G. White Writings. White Estate. p. 58. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
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"1 Nephi 14" . Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Swiney, R. Frances (1909). The Esoteric Teaching of the Gnostics. London: Yellon, Williams & Co. pp. 3, 4.
Pryse, James M. (1910). Apocalypse Unsealed. London: Watkins.
The theory behind the book is given in
Avalon, Arthur (1913). The Serpent Power. Madras (Chennai): Ganesh & Co.
One version of how these beliefs might have travelled from India to the Middle East, Greece and Rome is given in the opening chapters of
Otto, Rudolf (1938). The Kingdom of God and the Son of Man. London: Lutterworth.
Rowland, Christopher (1993). Revelation. London: Epworth. p. 5.
Howard-Brook, Wes; Gwyther, Anthony (1999). Unveiling Empire: Reading Revelation Then and Now. Orbis Books . ISBN
Rieger, Joerg (2007). Christ & Empire: From Paul to Postcolonial Times. Fortress Press . ISBN
Revelation
^ "Flowers preach to us if we will hear", begins her poem "Consider the lilies of the field".
Goblin Market, Prince's Progress and Other Poems. London: Oxford University Press. 1913. p. 87.
^ Rossetti 1892 , p. 26: "Christians should resemble fire-flies, not glow-worms; their brightness drawing eyes upward, not downward."
Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth (1993). Revelation: Vision of a Just World. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.
The book seems to have started life as Invitation to the Book of Revelation (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1981).
Barr, David L. (1998). Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation. Santa Rosa: Polebridge Press.
Barr, David L. (2016). "Narrative Technique in the Book of Revelation". In Fewell, Danna Nolan (ed.). Oxford Handbook of Biblical Narrative. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 376–388.
Ehrman, Bart D. (9 June 2016). "Bart Ehrman Discusses the Apocalypticist" . Archived from the original on 28 October 2021 – via YouTube.
Whitlock, Barbara. Barnes, George D. (ed.). Tracing out the convoluted sources of Christianity. Collected New Essays in Comparative Religion.
^ Wes Howard-Brook & Anthony Gwyther Unveiling Empire New York: Orbis (1999) p. 76
^ Anon An exposition of the Apocalypse on a new principle of literal interpretation Aberdeen: Brown (1871)
Chapman, Charles T. (1995). The Message of the Book of Revelation . Liturgical Press. ISBN
^ Ian Boxall The Revelation of St John London: Continuum & Peabody MA: Hendrickson (2006) p. 254
^ G. K. Beale John's use of the Old Testament in Revelation Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press (1998) p. 109
^ Brandon D. Smith, "The Trinity in the Book of Revelation: Seeing Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in John's Apocalypse" (IVP Academic, 2022)
Ammannati, Renato (2010). Rivelazione e Storia. Ermeneutica dell'Apocalisse. Transeuropa.
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Rossetti, Christina (1892). The Face of the Deep. London: SPCK.
Senior, Donald; Getty, Mary Ann (1990). The Catholic Study Bible. Oxford University Press.
Shepherd, Massey H. (2004). The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse, James Clarke, ISBN 0-227-17005-9
.
Stonehouse, Ned B. (n.d.) [c. 1929]. The Apocalypse in the Ancient Church. A Study in the History of the New Testament Canon. Goes: Oosterbaan & Le Cointre.
[Major discussion of the controversy surrounding the acceptance/rejection of Revelation into the New Testament canon.]
Stuckenbruck, Loren T. (2003). "Revelation" . In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. p. 1535. ISBN
.
.
Sweet, J. P. M. (1990) [1979]. Revelation. London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. ISBN
.
Torrey, Charles C. (1958). The Apocalypse of John. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Vitali, Francesco (2008). Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse. Todi: TAU Editrice.
Wall, Robert W. (2011). Revelation . Baker Books. ISBN
Witherington, Ben III (2003). Revelation, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00068-0 .
Zahn, Theodor , Die Offenbarung des Johannes, t. 1–2, Leipzig 1924–1926.
External links
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| 488 |
56 | when did revelations become part of the bible | https://www.gotquestions.org/Council-of-Carthage.html | Answer
There were several meetings regarding Christian doctrine held in the city of Carthage in northern Africa. Prior to the Council of Nicea, the councils mostly discussed issues such as how to handle apostates, whether or not to accept unorthodox baptisms, and so forth. None of the seven major councils, or âgeneral councils,â was held in Carthage, and there is often dispute over how authoritative the decrees from Carthage are, as a result.
In AD 397 the most important of the Carthage meetings was held. This is the one most commonly referred to as the âCouncil of Carthage.â What we know of this council is limited, as the only surviving records are indirect accounts and depictions in other sources. The foremost result of this convention was a list of the biblical canon , or the âacceptedâ books of the Bible. The Council of Carthage listed the 27 books of the New Testament, as well as the 39 books of the Old Testament, but it also included several books not part of the typical canon, such as Maccabees and Esdras . These books are part of what is known as the Apocrypha and are not considered inspired texts.
It should be noted that, both before and after the Council of Carthage, most Christian and Jewish scholars held the Apocrypha to be non-canonical. This is seen in the Apocryphaâs omission from the works of Philo and its explicit exclusion by church leaders such as Origen , Melito of Sardis, Cyril of Jerusalem , Jerome, and Athanasius . The Council of Laodicea, which was held less than forty years prior to Carthage, also excluded the apocryphal books.
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This page last updated: January 4, 2022
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56 | when did revelations become part of the bible | https://www.biblestudytools.com/revelation/ | Chapters for Revelation
Summary of the Book of Revelation
This summary of the book of Revelation provides information about the title, author(s), date of writing, chronology, theme, theology, outline, a brief overview, and the chapters of the Book of Revelation.
Author
Four times the author identifies himself as John ( 1:1,4,9 ; 22:8 ). From as early
as Justin Martyr in the second century a.d. it has been held that this John
was the apostle, the son of Zebedee (see Mt 10:2 ). The book itself reveals
that the author was a Jew, well versed in Scripture, a church leader who was
well known to the seven churches of Asia Minor, and a deeply religious person
fully convinced that the Christian faith would soon triumph over the demonic
forces at work in the world.
In the third century, however, an African bishop named Dionysius compared
the language, style and thought of the Apocalypse (Revelation) with that of
the other writings of John and decided that the book could not have been written
by the apostle John. He suggested that the author was a certain John the Presbyter,
whose name appears elsewhere in ancient writings. Although many today follow
Dionysius in his view of authorship, the external evidence seems overwhelmingly
supportive of the traditional view.
Date
Revelation was written when Christians were entering a time of persecution.
The two periods most often mentioned are the latter part of Nero's reign (a.d.
54-68) and the latter part of Domitian's reign (81-96). Most interpreters date
the book c. 95. (A few suggest a date during the reign of Vespasian: 69-79.)
Occasion
Since Roman authorities at this time were beginning to enforce emperor worship,
Christians -- who held that Christ, not Caesar, was Lord -- were facing increasing
hostility. The believers at Smyrna are warned against coming opposition ( 2:10 ),
and the church at Philadelphia is told of an hour of trial coming on the world
( 3:10 ). Antipas has already given his life ( 2:13 ) along with others ( 6:9 ). John has been exiled to the island of Patmos (probably the site of a Roman penal colony) for his activities as a Christian missionary ( 1:9 ). Some within
the church are advocating a policy of compromise ( 2:14-15,20 ), which has to
be corrected before its subtle influence can undermine the determination of
believers to stand fast in the perilous days that lie ahead.
Purpose
John writes to encourage the faithful to resist staunchly the demands of
emperor worship. He informs his readers that the final showdown between God
and Satan is imminent. Satan will increase his persecution of believers, but
they must stand fast, even to death. They are sealed against any spiritual
harm and will soon be vindicated when Christ returns, when the wicked are forever
destroyed, and when God's people enter an eternity of glory and blessedness.
Literary Form
For an adequate understanding of Revelation, the reader must recognize that
it is a distinct kind of literature. Revelation is apocalyptic, a kind of writing
that is highly symbolic. Although its visions often seem bizarre to the Western
reader, fortunately the book provides a number of clues for its own interpretation
(e.g., stars are angels, lampstands are churches, 1:20 ; "the great prostitute," 17:1 , is "Babylon" [Rome?], 17:5,18 ; and the heavenly Jerusalem is the wife of the Lamb, 21:9-10 ).
Distinctive Feature
A distinctive feature is the frequent use of the number seven (52 times).
There are seven beatitudes (see note on 1:3 ), seven churches ( 1:4,11 ), seven spirits ( 1:4 ), seven golden lampstands ( 1:12 ), seven stars ( 1:16 ), seven seals
( 5:1 ), seven horns and seven eyes ( 5:6 ), seven trumpets ( 8:2 ), seven thunders ( 10:3 ), seven signs ( 12:1,3 ; 13:13-14 ; 15:1 ; 16:14 ; 19:20 ), seven crowns ( 12:3 ),
seven plagues ( 15:6 ), seven golden bowls ( 15:7 ), seven hills ( 17:9 ) and seven kings ( 17:10 ), as well as other sevens. Symbolically, the number seven stands for completeness.
Interpretation
Preterists understand the book exclusively in terms of its first-century
setting, claiming that most of its events have already taken place.
Historicists take it as describing the long chain of events
from Patmos to the end of history.
Futurists place the book primarily in the end times.
Idealists view it as symbolic pictures of such timeless truths
as the victory of good over evil.
Fortunately, the fundamental truths of Revelation do not depend on adopting
a particular point of view. They are available to anyone who will read the
book for its overall message and resist the temptation to become overly enamored
with the details.
Outline
The Letters to the Seven Churches (chs. 2 - 3 )
The Seven-Sealed Scroll ( 5:1-5 )
The Lamb Slain ( 5:6-14 )
First Seal: The White Horse ( 6:1-2 )
Second Seal: The Red Horse ( 6:3-4 )
Third Seal: The Black Horse ( 6:5-6 )
Fourth Seal: The Pale Horse ( 6:7-8 )
Fifth Seal: The Souls under the Altar ( 6:9-11 )
Sixth Seal: The Great Earthquake ( 6:12-17 )
The Sealing of the 144,000 ( 7:1-8 )
The Great Multitude ( 7:9-17 )
Third Trumpet: The Star Wormwood ( 8:10-11 )
Fourth Trumpet: A Third of the Sun, Moon
and Stars Struck ( 8:12-13 )
Fifth Trumpet: The Plague of Locusts ( 9:1-12 )
Sixth Trumpet: Release of the Four Angels
( 9:13-21 )
The Angel and the Little Scroll ( ch. 10 )
The Two Witnesses ( 11:1-14 )
Various Personages and Events (chs. 12 - 14 )
The Woman and the Dragon ( ch. 12 )
The Lamb and the 144,000 ( 14:1-5 )
The Harvest of the Earth ( 14:6-20 )
The Seven Bowls (chs. 15 - 16 )
Introduction: The Song of Moses and the Seven
Angels with the Seven Plagues ( ch. 15 )
First Bowl: Ugly and Painful Sores ( 16:1-2 )
Second Bowl: Sea Turns to Blood ( 16:3 )
Third Bowl: Rivers and Springs of Water
Become Blood ( 16:4-7 )
Fourth Bowl: Sun Scorches People with Fire
( 16:8-9 )
Fifth Bowl: Darkness ( 16:10-11 )
Seventh Bowl: Tremendous Earthquake ( 16:17-21 )
Praise for Babylon's Fall ( 19:1-5 )
Praise for the Wedding of the Lamb ( 19:6-10 )
The Return of Christ ( 19:11-21 )
The Thousand Years ( 20:1-6 )
New Heaven, New Earth, New Jerusalem ( 21:1 ; 22:5 )
Conclusion and Benediction ( 22:6-21 )
From the NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, Revelation Copyright 2002 © Zondervan. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Revelation Videos
Copyright © 2025, Bible Study Tools. All rights reserved. Article Images Copyright © 2025 Getty Images unless otherwise indicated.
| 490 |
56 | when did revelations become part of the bible | https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2009/12/revelations-on-revelation/ | Explore the Gazette
Elaine Pagels parses the New Testament’s last, apocalyptic book
Still as strange, controversial, and influential as it was nearly 2,000 years ago, the biblical Book of Revelation is a fountainhead of “visions and dreams and nightmares,” said Elaine Pagels .
The Princeton University professor of religion, famous for infusing old religious debates with new urgency, was at Harvard Dec. 3 to share what she called “a quick mad dash” of her latest thinking on Revelation, its cultural impact, and its historical underpinnings.
The occasion was the first session of this year’s Dean’s Lecture Series at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study .
Revelation, the final book in the New Testament, was “squeezed into the canon in the fourth century,” said Pagels, and barely made it into the 27-book lineup. Over the centuries, it continued to draw the ire of critics, from theologian Martin Luther to author D.H. Lawrence. To this day, Eastern Orthodox Christian sects decline to use Revelation in public worship.
At the center of the long controversy is Revelation’s language, which is both concretely powerful and powerfully indirect. Christ appears as a terrifying warrior clad in white. Satan is a great red dragon waiting to devour a newborn child. The Whore of Babylon, “drunken with the blood of saints,” is astride a scarlet beast with seven heads and 10 horns. A great lake of fire and brimstone opens up, ready to consume a long catalog of unbelievers.
Pagels is exploring a range of questions. Who wrote this book, and why? Among the 30 or so similar books that appeared in the first through third centuries, why did this one survive? How is it still influential?
During her lecture at Radcliffe Gymnasium to an unusually large crowd of 250, she made a direct appeal for help from the audience.
But first Pagels gave a guided tour of Revelation, complete with artistic treatments through the ages, from Hieronymus Bosch, Albrecht Dürer, and William Blake to Roger Brown, James Hampton, and Robert Roberg. She said its author was John of Patmos. Exiled on a small island off the coast of present-day Turkey around the year 90 CE, she said, John wrote Revelation while “in the spirit.”
That would explain the tumbling rush of images so famous now in apocalyptic literature: Revelation’s slaughter, plague, famine, and catastrophe on the backs of dragons, and armies of good and evil warriors so vast they were in number like “the sands of the sea.”
History appears to have been a powerful influence on John, including the then-recent Jewish uprising against Rome (66-70 CE), which led to the destruction of Jerusalem by victorious Roman armies. “We can’t understand this book,” said Pagels of Revelation, “unless we know it is war literature.”
Traditional prophets, Isaiah among them, had centuries before predicted Babylon would destroy Jerusalem. John of Patmos simply modernized the old prophecies, said Pagels, using Isaiah’s corrupt Babylon as an allegory for what was then present-day Rome.
“Jews would typically write in a kind of code,” she said, unleashing hellfire on a present-day enemy, but obliquely. Revelation, in a touch of irony, was written to be not too revealing.
Along the way, Pagels used a handout to illustrate a “tiny, miscellaneous, hors d’oeuvres sample” of the other Revelation-like books that were written in the three centuries following the death of Christ.
These texts — all now obscure and little studied — promoted ideas that threatened an evolving Christian orthodoxy. They included the idea that divine power had a feminine aspect. The handout included a snippet from “The Gospel of Mary” and one from “Trimorphic Protennoia,” a reflection on “she in whom the All takes its stand.”
Other texts suggested another unorthodox idea for the time: that in each person is a divine light. “The Thunder” includes a line, “I am the hearing that can be grasped by everyone.”
Another idea in these little-known texts is that authority can be questioned. In “The Revelation of Ezra,” the prophet Ezra is despondent over the ascendency of Babylon. An angel visits, giving Ezra three tasks intended to show how little he knows of the world: weigh fire, measure the wind, and bring back the day that is past.
But instead of falling silent, as the Biblical Job did, Ezra is “the anti-Job,” said Pagels. “He keeps asking questions.” Ezra also goes on to express a perspective that has modern resonance. “I did not wish to inquire about the ways above, but about those things which we daily experience and why we die like insects. …”
So why was the Revelation we know elevated to the New Testament canon? Why was it so appealing, and how, 2,000 years later, does it remain so influential?
One reason was John’s writing technique, said Pagels, which shifted perspective from heaven to Earth and back again. By providing God’s perspective of events on Earth, she said, John suggested that evil would not prevail and would be avenged.
Then there is the “wildly imaginary garden” of Revelation, peopled by “real beasts,” said Pagels, devils and whores and dragons that represent “the emperors and soldiers who killed and humiliated” so many Jews. If the images had been “tied to one person or event,” that is, identified clearly, she said, John’s vivid allegory of evil and revenge “would simply be an antiquarian book.”
Pagels offered a third theory for the survival and prominence of Revelation: that it suggests there is moral meaning in human conflict.
Evoking fear and then hope invites people “to make sense out of conflict and struggle,” she said, offering as proof a quick survey of how Revelation’s message of good and evil has been employed over two millennia.
Revelation’s Four Horsemen rode back to medieval Europe, when the Black Death killed a third of the population.
The Antichrist reappeared as Martin Luther to his critics. To Lutherans, the Whore of Babylon was recast as the Pope of Rome.
Revelation’s good-and-evil imagery came back to represent the religious wars of Europe, the rise of Napoleon, and even the American Civil War, in which each side appropriated the serpent of Satan to represent the other.
Social philosopher Thomas Hobbes used the biblical Leviathan as an image of contemporary society, and London’s detractors saw it as a new Babylon. During World War II, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was portrayed as Satan’s voracious serpent, being repelled by a host of angel-like Allies, of course.
To bring Revelation’s power nearly to the present, Pagels showed an aerial image of Baghdad in April 2003 being battered by the shock and awe of U.S. bombs — right at the spot over the Euphrates River where a New Testament angel pours the cup of God’s wrath.
In her previous books, Pagels has challenged orthodox interpretations of Adam and Eve, Satan, and Judas. Perhaps most famously, she has argued that Christ saw himself not as the deity, but as a teacher eager to have people feel the light of God in themselves.
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56 | when did revelations become part of the bible | https://www.bible-researcher.com/carthage.html | Third Council of Carthage
.
Our primary source of information about the third council of Carthage, held in A.D. 397, is an ancient document known as the Codex Canonum Ecclesiæ Africanæ, which presents a compilation of ordinances enacted by various church councils in Carthage during the fourth and fifth centuries. Karl Joseph von Hefele, in his History of the Councils of the Church, 1 states that this compilation was done in the year 419 by Dionysius Exiguus, who called it the Statuta Concilii Africani. Others have called it the "African Code." In one section of this code there is a record of the ordinances enacted at the third council of Carthage, in which the following paragraph concerning the canon of Scripture appears. 2
Item placuit ut praeter Scripturas canonicas nihil in ecclesia legatur sub nomine divinarum Scripturarum. Sunt autem Canonicae Scripturae hae: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numeri, Deuteronomium, Jesus Naue, Judicum, Ruth, Regnorum libri quator, Paralipomenon libri duo, Job, Psalterium Davidicum, Salomonis libri quinque, libri duodecim prophetarum, Jesaias, Jeremias, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobias, Judith, Esther, Esdrae libri duo, Machabaeorum libri duo. Novi autem Testamenti, evangeliorum libri quator, Actuum Apostolorum liber unus, Epistolae Pauli Apostoli xiii., ejusdem ad Hebraeos una, Petri apostoli duae, Johannes tres, Jacobi i., Judae i., Apocalipsis Johannis liber unus. Hoc etiam fratri et consacerdoti nostro Bonifatio, vel aliis earum partium Episcopis, pro confirmando isto canone innotescat, quia a patribus ista accepimus in ecclesia legenda. Liceat autem legi passiones martyrum cum anniversarii eorum dies celebrantur.
It was also determined that besides the Canonical Scriptures nothing be read in the Church under the title of divine Scriptures. The Canonical Scriptures are these: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kings, 3 two books of Paraleipomena, 4 Job, the Psalter, five books of Solomon, 5 the books of the twelve prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel, Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Esther, two books of Esdras, 6 two books of the Maccabees. Of the New Testament: four books of the Gospels, one book of the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen Epistles of the Apostle Paul, one epistle of the same [writer] to the Hebrews, two Epistles of the Apostle Peter, three of John, one of James, one of Jude, one book of the Apocalypse of John. Let this be made known also to our brother and fellow-priest Boniface, or to other bishops of those parts, for the purpose of confirming that Canon. because we have received from our fathers that those books must be read in the Church. Let it also be allowed that the Passions of Martyrs be read when their festivals are kept.
Hefele maintains that this canon derives from an earlier council, convened in 393 at Hippo Regius, 7 and that the third council of Carthage simply incorporated it, along with many other statutes of the earlier council.
However, the sentence "Let this be made known also to our brother and fellow-priest Boniface, or to other bishops of those parts, for the purpose of confirming that Canon" cannot belong to either of these councils. Westcott writes:
The third Council of Carthage was held in the year 397
A.D.
in the pontificate of Siricus; and Boniface did not succeed to the Roman chair till the year 418
A.D.
; so that the allusion to him is at first sight perplexing. Yet this anachronism admits of a reasonable solution. In the year 419
A.D.
, after the confirmation of Boniface in the Roman epsicopate, the Canons of the African Church were collected and formed into one code. In the process of such a revision it was perfectly natural that some reference should be made to foreign churches on such a subject as the contents of Scripture, which were fixed by usage rather than by law. The marginal note which directed the inquiry was suffered to remain, probably because the plan was never carried out; and that which stood in the text of the general code was afterwards transferred to the text of the original Synod." 8
In connection with this, it has been observed that at least one manuscript indicates that the original wording of the sentence was “De confirmando isto canone transmarina ecclesia consulatur” (“For the confirmation of this canon the church across the sea shall be consulted”). This is the reading adopted by Hefele for his reconstruction of the council of Hippo, and Westcott mentions it in a note. 9 More recent authors tend to present the canon of the third council of Carthage with this emendation. 10
We also observe the peculiar manner in which the Epistle to the Hebrews is listed: “Epistolae Pauli Apostoli xiii., ejusdem ad Hebraeos una.” Here ejusdem looks like a later addition. In any case, the anachronism in the penultimate sentence shows that we do not have the canon in its original form here. The original canon has been edited by someone who has adapted it to churchly developments after 418 A.D.
Books of the Apocrypha are named in this list: Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees; and the expression "five books of Solomon" implies the inclusion of the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus (Augustine, in his City of God and On Christian Doctrine, says that in addition to Proverbs, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes, the books of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus are often ascribed to Solomon). Some have attributed the inclusion of these books to the influence of Augustine in Hippo and Carthage, because in his writings he sometimes treats them as canonical. But the canon itself purports to give a list of books which were traditionally read in the African churches: “quia a patribus ista accepimus in ecclesia legenda.”
1. Cf. the English edition, A History of the Councils of the Church: From the Original Documents by Charles Joseph Hefele, translated from the German and edited by William R. Clark, etc., vol. 2 (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1876), p. 468.
2. The Latin text and English translation are from B.F. Westcott, A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament (5th ed. Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 440, 541-2.
3. "four books of Kings" = First and Second Samuel and First and Second Kings.
5. "five books of Solomon." According to Augustine, five books were sometimes ascribed to Solomon: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom of Solomon, and Ecclesiasticus.
6. "two books of Esdras" = Ezra and Nehemiah.
7. Hefele, op. cit., p. 394.
8. Westcott, op. cit., p. 440.
9. Hefele, op. cit., p. 400; Westcott, op. cit., p. 542, note 4. Westcott cites a note in Mansi's Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio, which attributes it to "quidam vetustus codex" (a certain ancient codex).
10. Bruce Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament (Oxford, 1987), p. 315.
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57 | what did australia provide for the british empire | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1788–1850) | 6 languages
Era of Australian history
"Settlement of Australia" redirects here. For the ancient occurrence of Indigenous peoples in the region, see History of Indigenous Australians . For Australian economic policy history, see Australian settlement .
This article is part of a series on the
The history of Australia from 1788 to 1850 covers the early British colonial period of Australia 's history. This started with the arrival in 1788 of the First Fleet of British ships at Port Jackson on the lands of the Eora , and the establishment of the penal colony of New South Wales as part of the British Empire . It further covers the European scientific exploration of the continent and the establishment of the other Australian colonies that make up the modern states of Australia.
After several years of privation, the penal colony gradually expanded and developed an economy based on farming, fishing, whaling, trade with incoming ships, and construction using convict labour. By 1820, however, British settlement was largely confined to a 100-kilometre (62 mi) radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land . From 1816, penal transportation to Australia increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony in 1825, and free settlements were established at the Swan River Colony in Western Australia (1829), the Province of South Australia (1836), and in the Port Philip District (1836). The grazing of cattle and sheep expanded inland, leading to increasing conflict with Aboriginal people on their traditional lands.
The growing population of free settlers, former convicts and Australian-born currency lads and lasses led to public demands for representative government . Penal transportation to New South Wales ended in 1840 and a semi-elected Legislative Council was established in 1842. In 1850, Britain granted Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly created colony of Victoria semi-representative Legislative Councils.
British settlement led to a decline in the Aboriginal population and the disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict and dispossession of their traditional lands. Aboriginal resistance to British encroachment on their land often led to reprisals from settlers including massacres of Aboriginal people . Many Aboriginal people, however, sought an accommodation with the settlers and established viable communities, often on small areas of their traditional lands, where many aspects of their cultures were maintained.
Decision to colonise New South Wales
The decision to establish a colony in Australia was made by Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney . [1] This was taken for two reasons: the ending of transportation of criminals to North America following the American Revolution , as well as the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion . [1] Approximately 50,000 convicts are estimated to have been transported to the colonies over 150 years. [1] The First Fleet , which established the first colony, was an unprecedented project for the Royal Navy , as well as the first forced migration of settlers to a newly established colony. [1]
The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive. [2] [3]
Captain James Cook proclaiming sovereignty over Australia from the shore of Possession Island in 1770
Sir Joseph Banks , the eminent scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay , then known to the local Gweagal people as Kamay, as a suitable site. [4] [5] Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American Loyalist James Matra in July 1783. Matra had visited Botany Bay with Banks in 1770 as a junior officer on the Endeavour commanded by James Cook. Under Banks's guidance, he rapidly produced "A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American Loyalists, Chinese and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts). [6]
The continent of Australia (then known as New Holland ) in a 1796 map, which was incorporated within Asia or the " Eastern world "
Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in March 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers. [7] Matra's plan can be seen to have “provided the original blueprint for settlement in New South Wales”. [8] A cabinet memorandum December 1784 shows the Government had Matra's plan in mind when considering the creation of a settlement in New South Wales. [8] [9]
The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a self-governing community, a "colony of thieves", at no expense to the government. [10]
In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, in August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. [11] The Government incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young. [12]
There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals — such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region — were paramount. [13] Leading historians in the debate have included Sir Ernest Scott , [14] Geoffrey Blainey , [15] and Alan Frost . [16]
The decision to settle was taken when it seemed the outbreak of civil war in the Netherlands might precipitate a war in which Britain would be again confronted with the alliance of the three naval Powers, France, Holland and Spain, which had brought her to defeat in 1783. Under these circumstances a naval base in New South Wales which could facilitate attacks on Dutch and Spanish interests in the region would be attractive. [17] [18] Specific plans for using the colony as a strategic base against Spanish interests were occasionally made after 1788, but never implemented. [19]
Macintyre argues that the evidence for a military-strategic motive in establishing the colony is largely circumstantial and hard to reconcile with the strict ban on establishing a shipyard in the colony. Karskens points out that the instructions provided to the first five governors of New South Wales show that the initial plans for the colony were limited. [20] The settlement was to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade, shipping and ship building were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated and so as not to interfere with the trade monopoly of the British East India Company . There was no plan for economic development apart from investigating the possibility of producing raw materials for Britain. [21] Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied. [22]
Establishment of colony
On 13 May 1787, the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 1,530 people (736 convicts, 17 convicts' children, 211 marines, 27 marines' wives, 14 marines' children and about 300 officers and others) under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail for Botany Bay. [23] A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove , known by the Indigenous name Warrane, on 26 January 1788. [24] This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day . The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Philip famously described as: [25]
being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security.
First raising of the Union Flag following the arrival of the First Fleet , and the proclamation of the Colony of New South Wales by Captain Arthur Phillip at Sydney Cove on 7 February 1788, by Algernon Talmage
Phillip named the settlement after the Home Secretary , Lord Sydney. The only people at the flag raising ceremony and the formal taking of possession of the land in the name of King George III were Phillip and a few dozen marines and officers from the Supply, the rest of the ship's company and the convicts witnessing it from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet were unable to leave Botany Bay until later on 26 January because of a tremendous gale. [26] The new colony was formally proclaimed as the Colony of New South Wales on 7 February. [27]
The colony included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia and reflected the line of division between the claims of Spain and Portugal established in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. [28] Watkin Tench subsequently commented in A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, "By this partition, it may be fairly presumed, that every source of future litigation between the Dutch and us, will be for ever cut off, as the discoveries of English navigators only are comprized in this territory". [29]
The claim also included "all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific" between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). [30] King argues that an unofficial British map published in 1786 (A General Chart of New Holland) showed the possible extent of this claim. In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. [28] However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand. [31]
Arrival of the First Fleet in Port Jackson in 1788
On 24 January 1788 a French expedition of two ships led by Admiral Jean-François de La Pérouse had arrived off Botany Bay, on the latest leg of a three-year voyage. Though amicably received, the French expedition was a troublesome matter for the British, as it showed the interest of France in the new land. [32]
Nevertheless, on 2 February Lieutenant King, at Phillip's request, paid a courtesy call on the French and offered them any assistance they may need. The French made the same offer to the British, as they were much better provisioned than the British and had enough supplies to last three years. Neither of these offers was accepted. On 10 March the French expedition, having taken on water and wood, left Botany Bay, never to be seen again. [26]
Founding of the settlement of Port Jackson at Botany Bay in 1788
Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His intention was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the condition of healthy convicts also deteriorated due to the hard labour and poor food. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its passengers through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies. [33]
In 1788, Phillip established a subsidiary settlement on Norfolk Island in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. [34] The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825. [35]
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie , but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. [33]
A number of foreign commentators pointed to the strategic importance of the new colony. Spanish naval commander Alessandro Malaspina , who visited Sydney in March–April 1793 reported to his government that imperialism and trade were the real objects of the colony. [36] Frenchman François Péron , of the Baudin expedition visited Sydney in 1802 and reported to the French Government his surprise that the Spanish had not protested at a colony strategically place to challenge Spanish interests in the region. [37]
King points out that supporters of the penal colony frequently compared the venture to the foundation of Rome, and that the first Great Seal of New South Wales alluded to this. Phillip, however, wrote, "I would not wish Convicts to lay the foundations of an Empire...[.]" [38]
Consolidation of colony
Sydney in 1792
The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh (1806 – 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the Rum Rebellion of 1808. The Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur , staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. [40] [41]
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales , from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales, which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital, and commissioned extensive public works. [42] [43]
Central to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists , whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed J. T. Bigge to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published. [44] [45]
Expansion (1821—1850)
Australian colonies in 1846
In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's Land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. [46] From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South Wales. [47]
From the 1820s, grazing of sheep and cattle expanded rapidly, and the colony spread beyond the official bounds of settlement. [48] In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory. [49] [31]
The Proclamation of Governor Bourke, (10 October 1835) reinforced the doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius when settled by the British in 1788, and that the Crown had obtained beneficial ownership of all the land of New South Wales from that date. The proclamation stated that British subjects could not obtain title over vacant Crown land directly from Aboriginal Australians, effectively quashing the treaty between John Batman and the Aboriginal people of the Port Phillip area. [50] [51]
By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70–75 thousand living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851. [52]
Establishment of further colonies
After hosting Nicholas Baudin's French naval expedition in Sydney in 1802, Governor Phillip Gidley King decided to establish a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania ) in 1803, partly to forestall a possible French settlement. The British settlement of the island soon centred on Launceston in the north and Hobart in the south. For the first two decades the settlement relied heavily on convict labour, small-scale farming and sheep grazing, sealing, whaling and the "dog and kangaroo" economy where emancipists and escaped convicts hunted native game with guns and dogs. [53] [54]
From the 1820s free settlers were encouraged by the offer of land grants in proportion to the capital the settlers would bring. Almost 2 million acres of land was granted to free settlers in the decade, and the number of sheep in the island increased from 170,000 to a million. The land grants created a social division between large landowners and a majority of landless convicts and emancipists. [55] [41]
Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony from New South Wales in December 1825 and continued to expand through the 1830s, supported by farming, sheep grazing and whaling. Following the suspension of convict transportation to New South Wales in 1840, Van Diemen's land became the main destination for convicts. Transportation to Van Diemen's Land ended in 1853 and in 1856 the colony officially changed its name to Tasmania. [56]
Pastoralists from Van Diemen's land began squatting in the Port Phillip hinterland on the mainland in 1834, attracted by its rich grasslands. In 1835, John Batman and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke stating that all unalienated land in the colony was vacant Crown Land, irrespective of whether it was occupied by traditional landowners . Its publication meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. [57]
In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers, and by 1850 the district had a population of 75,000 Europeans, 2,000 Indigenous inhabitants and 5 million sheep. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria. [58] [59]
Western Australia
In 1826, the governor of New South Wales, Ralph Darling , sent a military garrison to King George Sound (the basis of the later town of Albany ), to deter the French from establishing a settlement in Western Australia. In 1827, the head of the expedition, Major Edmund Lockyer , formally annexed the western third of the continent as a British colony. [60]
In 1829, the Swan River colony was established at the sites of modern Fremantle and Perth , becoming the first convict-free and privatised colony in Australia. However, much of the arable land was allocated to absentee owners and the development of the colony was hampered by poor soil, the dry climate, and a lack of capital and labour. By 1850 there were a little more than 5,000 settlers, half of them children. The colony accepted convicts from that year because of the acute shortage of labour. [61] [62]
South Australia
The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of "systematic colonisation" developed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield . The intention was to found a free colony based on private investment at little cost to the British government. Power was divided between the Crown and a Board of Commissioners of Colonisation, responsible to about 300 shareholders. Settlement was to be controlled to promote a balance between land, capital and labour. Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to "respectable" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of Adelaide was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. [63] [64] [65] Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of the rights of "any Aboriginal Natives" and their descendants to lands they "now actually occupied or enjoyed". [66]
The colony was badly hit by the depression of 1841–44, and overproduction of wheat and overinvestment in infrastructure almost bankrupted it. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered from 1845, supported by wheat farming, sheep grazing and a boom in copper mining. By 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000 and the following year the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council. [63] [67] [64]
Brisbane (Moreton Bay Settlement), 1835; watercolour by H. Bowerman
In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present-day Brisbane as a place of secondary punishment. In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the Darling Downs west of the town. However, several attempts to establish settlements north of the Tropic of Capricorn had failed, and the settler population in the north remained small. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the Tweed River . A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. The settler population of the new colony was 25,000 and the vast majority of its territory was still occupied by its traditional owners . [64] [68] [69]
Convict society
Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts (of whom 25,000 were women) were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. [70] Historian Lloyd Robson has estimated that perhaps two-thirds were thieves from working class towns, particularly from the Midlands and north of England. The majority were repeat offenders. [71] The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming, sailing, fishing and hunting. [72] The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers. [73]
The first governors saw New South Wales as a place of punishment and reform of convicts. Convicts worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792 the majority were assigned to work for private employers including emancipists (as transported convicts who had completed their sentence or had been pardoned called themselves). Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. [74] Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses because the officers did not want to be directly associated with trade. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a "ticket of leave" (a form of parole). [74] Female convicts were usually assigned as domestic servants to the free settlers, many being forced into prostitution. [75]
Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. Due to the shortage of labour, wage rates before 1815 were high for male workers although much lower for females engaged in domestic work. [76] In 1814, Governor Macquarie ordered that convicts had to work until 3pm, after which private employers had to pay them wages for any additional work. [77]
By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. [78] They also worked in trades and small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters. [79]
After 1815 wages and employment opportunities for convicts and emancipists deteriorated as a sharp increase in the number of convicts transported led to an oversupply of labour. A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 also sought to change the nature of the colony and make transportation "an object of real terror". The food ration for convicts was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. [80] More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic, isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. [81] As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families. [82]
Growth of free settlement
Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. [84] Healthy young workers without dependants were favoured for assisted migration, especially those with experience as agricultural labourers or domestic workers. Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the English Poor Laws . Various special-purpose and charitable schemes, such as those of Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang , also provided migration assistance. [85]
Colonial Australia was characterised by an imbalance of the sexes as women comprised only about 15 per cent of convicts transported. The first female convicts brought a range of skills including experience as domestic workers, dairy women and farm workers. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur Mary Reibey and the agriculturalist Elizabeth Macarthur . [86] One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women. [87]
One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. The philanthropist Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the settlement of single and married women in rural areas where she hoped they would have a civilising influence on rough colonial manners and act as "God's police". [88] [89]
Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent. [90]
European exploration
Matthew Flinders led the first successful circumnavigation of Australia in 1801–2.
By the middle of the 17th century, the discoveries of Dutch explorers allowed the almost complete mapping of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. [91] In 1770, James Cook had charted most of the east coast of the continent. [92]
In 1798–99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania , thus proving it to be an island. [93] In 1801–02 Flinders, in HMS Investigator , led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree , who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate it. [93]
In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland , William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the mountains by a different route and a road was soon built to the Central Tablelands . [94]
In 1824 the Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane , commissioned Hamilton Hume and former Royal Navy Captain William Hovell to lead an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find an answer to the mystery of where New South Wales's western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, Hume and Hovell journeyed to the bay Naarm on the land of the Kulin nation , later named Port Phillip, and back. They found many important sites including the Murray River (which they named the Hume), many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands between Gunning, New South Wales and Corio Bay, Victoria . [95]
Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and found the Darling River . A theory had developed that the inland rivers of New South Wales were draining into an inland sea. Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into a 'broad and noble river', the Murray River, which he named after Sir George Murray, secretary of state for the colonies. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River , facing two threatening encounters with local Aboriginal people along the way. Sturt continued downriver on to Lake Alexandrina , where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. Suffering greatly, the party had to then row back upstream hundreds of kilometres for the return journey. [96]
Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to "fill in the gaps" left by these previous expeditions. He was meticulous in seeking to record the original Aboriginal place names around the colony, for which reason the majority of place names to this day retain their Aboriginal titles. [97]
The Polish scientist and explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kosciuszko . [98]
European explorers penetrated deeper into the interior in the 1840s in a quest to discover new lands for agriculture or answer scientific enquiries. The German scientist Ludwig Leichhardt led three expeditions in northern Australia in this decade, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides, identifying the grazing potential of the region and making important discoveries in the fields of botany and geology. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west. [99] Edmund Kennedy led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848. [100]
Aboriginal resistance and accommodation
Impact of introduced diseases
The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region while only one death was recorded among the settlers. The source of the outbreak is controversial ; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north and spread along Aboriginal trade routes while others argue that it is more likely to have been inadvertently or deliberately spread by settlers. [101] [102] [103]
There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior. [104]
Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500 in 1830. Between 1835 (the settlement of Port Phillip) and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence. [105]
Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected. [106]
Frontier violence
Aboriginal reactions to the arrival of British settlers were varied, but often hostile when the presence of the colonists led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of Aboriginal lands. By contrast with New Zealand, no valid treaty was signed with any of Aboriginal peoples in Australia. Flood, however, points out that unlike New Zealand, Australia's Indigenous population was divided into hundreds of tribes and language groups, which did not have "chiefs" with whom treaties could be negotiated. Moreover, Aboriginal Australians had no concept of alienating their traditional land in return for political or economic benefits. [107]
The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their entitlement to land which they had "improved" through building and cultivation. [108]
Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. [109] Sustained Aboriginal attacks on settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources. [110]
Mounted police engaging Aboriginal men during the Slaughterhouse Creek Massacre of 1838
As the colony spread to the more fertile lands around the Hawkesbury river, north-west of Sydney, conflict between the settlers and the Darug people intensified, reaching a peak from 1794 to 1810. Bands of Darug people, led by Pemulwuy and later by his son Tedbury , burned crops, killed livestock and raided settler huts and stores in a pattern of resistance that was to be repeated as the colonial frontier expanded. A military garrison was established on the Hawkesbury in 1795. The death toll from 1794 to 1800 was 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug. [111] [112]
Conflict again erupted from 1814 to 1816 with the expansion of the colony into Dharawal country in the Nepean region south-west of Sydney. Following the deaths of several settlers, Governor Macquarie despatched three military detachments into Dharawal lands, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were killed. [113] [114]
In the 1820s the colony spread to the lightly wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range , opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in Wiradjuri country. [42] From 1822 to 1824 Windradyne led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids on livestock and stockmen's huts resulting in the death of 15-20 colonists. Martial law was declared in August 1824 and ended five months later when Windradyne and 260 of his followers ended their armed resistance. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100. [115] [116]
After two decades of sporadic violence between settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians in Van Diemen's land, the Black War broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. When Eumarrah , leader of the North Midlands people, was captured in 1828 he said his patriotic duty was to kill as many white people as possible because they had driven his people off their kangaroo hunting grounds. Martial law was declared in the settled districts of Van Diemen's Land in November 1828 and was extended to the entire island in October 1830. A "Black Line" of around 2,200 troops and settlers then swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from the settled districts. From 1830 to 1834 George Augustus Robinson and Aboriginal ambassadors including Truganini led a series of "Friendly Missions" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the Black War. [117] Flood states that around 200 settler and 330 Aboriginal Tasmanian deaths in frontier violence were recorded during the period 1803 to 1834, but adds that it will never be known how many Aboriginal deaths went unreported. [118] Clements estimates that colonists killed 600 Aboriginal people in eastern Van Diemen's Land during the Black War. [119] Around 220 Aboriginal Tasmanians were eventually relocated to Flinders Island. [120]
As settlers and pastoralists spread into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s, competition for land and natural resources again sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Aboriginal resistance was so intense that it was not unusual for sheep runs to be abandoned after repeated attacks. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000–1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853. [121]
The growth of the Swan River Colony (centred on Fremantle and Perth) in the 1830s led to conflict with a number of clans of the Noongar people. Governor Sterling established a mounted police force in 1834 and in October that year he led a mixed force of soldiers, mounted police and civilians in a punitive expedition against the Pindjarup. The expedition culminated in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. [122] [123] According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852. [124]
Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police, Native Police units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Civilian colonists often launched punitive raids against Aboriginal groups without the knowledge of colonial authorities. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s. [125]
The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from inter-tribal violence. [126]
Accommodation and protection
In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney, after initial curiosity, mostly avoided the newcomers. Governor Phillip had a number of Aboriginal people kidnapped in an attempt to learn their language and customs. In November 1790, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population, Bennelong led the survivors of several clans into Sydney. [127] Later, he and a companion became the first Aboriginal people to sail for Europe, when, in 1792 they accompanied Governor Phillip to England and were presented to King George III . [128] Bungaree , a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered. [129]
Governor Macquarie hoped to "effect the civilization of the Aborigines" and reclaim them "from their barbarous practices". [130] In 1815, he established a Native Institution to provide elementary education to Aboriginal children, settled 15 Aboriginal families on farms in Sydney and made the first freehold land grant to Aboriginal people at Black Town, west of Sydney. In 1816, he initiated an annual Native Feast at Parramatta which attracted Aboriginal people from as far as the Bathurst plains. [131] However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment. [130] [132]
Escalating frontier conflict in the 1820s and 1830s saw colonial governments develop a number of policies aimed at protecting Aboriginal people. Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. While the aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, more often the result was an increase in their criminalisation. Protectors were also responsible for the distribution of rations, delivering elementary education to Aboriginal children, instruction in Christianity and training in occupations useful to the colonists. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals. [133] [134]
Colonial governments established a small number of reserves and encouraged Christian missions which afforded some protection from frontier violence. In 1825, the NSW governor granted 10,000 acres for an Aboriginal mission at Lake Macquarie. [135] In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838. [136]
In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture. [137]
Politics and government
From 1788 until the 1850s, the governance of the colonies, including most policy decision-making, was largely in the hands of the governors, who were directly responsible to the government in London ( Home Office until 1794; War Office until 1801; and War and Colonial Office until 1854). [1] The first governor of New South Wales , Arthur Phillip , was given executive and legislative powers to establish courts, military forces, fight enemies, give out land grants, and regulate the economy. [1] [138]
The early colonists adopted the British political culture of the time, which allowed the use of public office for furthering private interests, which led to officers of the New South Wales Corps , which had replaced the original marines in 1791, trying to use their position in order to create monopolies on trade. [1] Such private enterprise was encouraged by the second governor Francis Grose , who had replaced Phillip in 1792, and he started giving out land and convict labourers to the officers. [1] The Corps established a monopoly on the rum trade, and became very powerful within the small colony. [1] After Governor William Bligh tried to break the military monopoly and questioned some of their leases, officers led by George Johnston launched a coup d'état in the Rum Rebellion . [1] [138] After a year, he agreed to leave his position, and returned to Britain alongside Johnston, who was found guilty by a court-martial . [1] [138] In response to the events, the British government dispanded the Corps, and replaced them with the 73rd Regiment, which led to "deprivatising" of the officials of the colony. [139] Many of the officers retired, and were later known as the "faction of 1808" and as an influential and conservative element in the politics of the colony. [1]
The New South Wales Act 1823 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom established the first legislative body in Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council , as an appointed body of five to seven members to advise the Governor of New South Wales . [140] However, the new body had limited powers of oversight. [140] The act also established the Supreme Court of New South Wales , which had power over the executive . [141] Before a Governor could propose a law before the council, the Chief Justice had to certify that it was not against English law , creating a form of judicial review . [142] However, there was no separation of powers , with Chief Justice Francis Forbes also serving in the Legislative Council as well as the Governor's Executive Council. [143] The Executive Council had been founded in 1825, and was composed of leading officials in the colony. [144]
The Australian began publishing in 1824, as did The Monitor in 1826, and The Sydney Morning Herald in 1831. Ralph Darling tried to control the press first by proposing to license newspapers and impose a stamp duty on them, and after this was refused by Forbes, by prosecuting their owners for seditious libel . [145]
Van Diemen's Land was established in 1825, but remained under the jurisdiction of the New South Wales Governor, being represented there by a lieutenant-governor. [146] Western Australia was declared to the British Empire by James Stirling , and the Swan River Colony was established there in 1829, with Stirling made governor in 1831. [1] The South Australian Company was established in 1834 as a private venture to establish a new colony in the south coast, being motivated by the social reformist ideas of Jeremy Bentham . [147]
Political divisions
Representative government
The Legislative Council and Supreme Court provided additional limits to the power of governors, but a number of prominent colonial figures, including William Wentworth [1] campaigned for a greater degree of self-government. However, there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other major issues in the public debate about colonial self-government were traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether colonies with a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The Australian Patriotic Association was formed in 1835 by Wentworth and William Bland to promote representative government for New South Wales. [154] [155] [156]
The opening of Australia's first elected Parliament in Sydney ( c. 1843)
In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were established. Men who possessed 1,000 pounds' worth of property were able to stand for election and wealthy landowners were permitted up to four votes each in elections. [157]
The British government abolished transportation to New South Wales in 1840, and in 1842 granted limited representative government to the colony by establishing a reformed Legislative Council with one-third of its members appointed by the governor and two-thirds elected by male voters who met a property qualification. The property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of males were eligible to vote in the first Legislative Council elections in 1843 . [158]
The increasing immigration of free settlers, the declining number of convicts, and the growing middle class and working class population led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. Public meetings in Adelaide in 1844 called for more representative government for South Australia. [159] The Constitutional Association, formed in Sydney in 1848, called for manhood suffrage. The Anti-Transportation League , founded in Van Diemen's Land in 1849, also demanded more representative government. [160] In the Port Phillip District, agitation for representative government was closely linked to demands for independence from New South Wales. [161]
In 1850, the imperial parliament passed the Australian Colonies Government Act , granting Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model. The Act also reduced the property requirement for voting. Government officials were to be responsible to the governor rather than the Legislative Council, so the imperial legislation provided for limited representative government rather than responsible government . [162]
Economy and trade
The Mellish entering Sydney Harbour . It was one of the ships that imported resources from India , playing a vital role in establishing Sydney.
The instructions provided to the first five governors of New South Wales show that the initial plans for the colony were limited. [163] The settlement was to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on subsistence agriculture. Trade, shipping and ship building were banned in order to keep the convicts isolated and so as not to interfere with the trade monopoly of the British East India Company . There was no plan for economic development apart from investigating the possibility of producing raw materials for Britain. [21]
After the departure of Phillip, the colony's military officers began acquiring land and importing consumer goods obtained from visiting ships. Former convicts also farmed land granted to them and engaged in trade. Farms spread to the more fertile lands surrounding Paramatta , Windsor and Camden , and by 1803 the colony was self-sufficient in grain. Boat building developed in order to make travel easier and exploit the marine resources of the coastal settlements. Sealing and whaling became important industries. [39]
Because of its nature as a forced settlement, the early colony's economy was heavily dependent on the state. [1] For example, some of the earliest agricultural production was directly run by the government . The Commissariat also played a major role in the economy. [164] In 1800, 72% of the population relied on government rations , but this was reduced to 32% by 1806. [1] While some convicts were assigned to settlers as labourers, they were usually free to find part-time work for supplemental income, and were allowed to own property (in contravention to British law at the time). [1] Some convicts had their skills taken to use by the colonial government, as with for example the architect Francis Greenway , who designed many early public buildings. Approximately 10–15% of the convicts worked on public projects building infrastructure, while most of the rest were assigned to private employers. [165] Land grants were abandoned in 1831 in favour of selling crown lands, which covered all land deemed "unsettled". [166] [167]
The colonies relied heavily on imports from England for survival. The official currency of the colonies was the British pound, but the unofficial currency and most readily accepted trade good was rum . The early economy relied on barter for exchange, an issue which Macquarie (Governor from 1810 to 1821) tried to fix first by introducing Spanish dollars , and then by establishing the Bank of New South Wales with the authority to issue financial instruments. [168] Barter continued, however, until shipments of sterling in the late 1820s enabled a move to a monetary economy. [169]
Macquarie also played a leading role in the economic development of New South Wales by employing a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioning the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the Blue Mountains was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly-wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range. [42] [43]
The colonists spent a large part of the early nineteenth century building infrastructure such as railways, bridges and schools, which facilitated economic development. [170] During this period Australian businesspeople began to prosper. For example, the partnership of Berry and Wollstonecraft made enormous profits by means of land grants, convict labour, and exporting native cedar back to England. John Macarthur , after retiring from the New South Wales Corps, went on to start the wool industry in Australia. [1]
From the 1820s squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the pastoral industry, but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists. [48]
Religion, education, and culture
According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation . The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. [171] [172]
The early chaplains of the colony were also civil magistrates with the power to discipline convicts and grant tickets of leave. The Church of England was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson , (chief chaplain 1788–1802) was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip , with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. [173] Samuel Marsden (various ministries 1795–1838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts. [174]
About a quarter of convicts were Catholics and they frequently requested a Catholic priest to perform their rites. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804. Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820. [175]
The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced as a source of stability and moral authority in the colony. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist. [175]
The Church Acts did not alleviate sectarianism as many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister John Dunmore Lang also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. [176] [177] State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic Sisters of Charity , founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century. [178] [179]
The first school in the colony was opened in 1789. By 1792, the government had established two public schools for the children of convicts and emancipists. The teachers themselves were female convicts or emancipists. The military also established a school for soldiers and their children. [180]
By the early 1800s, public schools were established in the main settlements and some teachers were opening private academies with tuition fees. Public schools were run by the Church of England and taught reading, writing, arithmetic and scripture. They were funded by the government, the British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , and community donations. Clergy and professional teachers were sometimes recruited from Britain but most teachers were from the colony. [181] The London Missionary Society also established several chapel-schools outside the main settlements. [182] Nevertheless, school was not compulsory and many parents preferred to have their children work or help in the home rather than send them to the nearest public school. [183] Affluent colonists sent their children to Britain or local private academies for schooling, or engaged a tutor or governess. [184]
An orphan school for girls opened in Sydney in 1801, and one for boys in 1819. [185] Governor Macquarie (1810-1821) established charity schools and, in 1815, a Native Institution for Aboriginal children which provided basic education and training in work skills. [186] In 1826, the Church of England attempted to establish a system of schools through a Church and Schools Corporation but with limited success. [187]
In the 1830s, most colonial governments offered support for schools in the recognised Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and Methodist denominations. In South Australia, Lutherans established schools without government support. In Western Australia, the Catholic church established the first schools. Church-run schools spread to most major towns in the colonies and were the largest provider of school education. [188]
Education intended for the working classes was also provided by mechanics' institutes and schools of arts. These institutions were opened in Hobart (1827), Sydney (1833), Melbourne (1839), Geelong (1846), Brisbane (1849) and Perth (1851). They were intended to provide adult education in literacy, numeracy, the liberal arts and technical subjects. [189] [190]
Private schools based on British models of grammar schools and public schools also appeared from the 1830s. These included Sydney College (1830), [191] the Australian College (Sydney, 1831) [192] and The King's School (Sydney and Parramatta,1831). [192]
Science and technology
The new colony was of particular scientific and technological interest in Britain. Up to 1820, Joseph Banks was the chief promoter of the colony's importance to botany and agricultural technology and he corresponded frequently with the early governors on these subjects. William Hooker also promoted the study of Australia's plant life, Roderick Murchison its geology, and Richard Owen its zoology and palaeontology. [193]
Banks organised Matthew Flinders' 1801-03 circumnavigation of the continent, and ensured the crew included an astronomer, a mineralogist and a botanist. The early explorations of surveyor John Oxley involved the mapping of rivers and his parties also included botanists and a mineralogist. The explorations of Sturt and Mitchell were intended to facilitate the economic and scientific development of the colony. [194] In agricultural technology, there were Australian advances in sheep breeding, particularly the development of merino wool. In 1843, John Miller invented the horse-drawn wheat stripper. [193]
An astronomical observatory was set up in Sydney in 1788, and governor Brisbane established a permanent one at Parramatta in 1824. In 1835 the observatory published the Catalogue of 7385 Stars. The Parramatta observatory was closed in 1847 before the Sydney Observatory was opened in 1855. The Admiralty established a Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Hobart in 1840. [195]
The Royal Botanic Garden was established in Sydney in 1816, and Charles Frazer was appointed Colonial Botanist in 1821. The Australian Museum was founded in Sydney in 1827. The Tasmanian Society, founded in 1837, was Australia's leading scientific society at the time. The Royal Society of Van Diemen's Land for Botany, Horticulture and the Advancement of Science was established in 1844. The University of Sydney, founded in 1850, included chairs in mathematics, chemistry and physics. [196]
Colonial medical science was based on existing European knowledge and practice. [197] Over a hundred men who practised medicine were transported to Australia as convicts between 1788 and 1868. Medical qualifications were not standardised at the time, and many would have been unqualified. D'Arcy Wentworth was a free settler and assistant surgeon on a convict ship. In 1809 he was appointed Principal Surgeon of the colony. He was instrumental in the opening of the new Sydney hospital in 1816. [198] William Redfern was a convict and surgeon who passed an examination before three colonial doctors, becoming Australia's first locally qualified doctor. [198] William Bland was a convict and qualified surgeon. He was pardoned in 1815 and set up a private medical practice. He later worked with the Benevolent Society and the Sydney Dispensary before embarking on a political career. He was a skilled surgeon who made important contributions to surgical techniques. [198] [199]
Aboriginal groups continued the artistic traditions they had practised for thousands of years. They made art works on bark, stone and their bodies, and in the sand and earth of their land. They told stories of ancestral beings and the Dreaming. They performed their culture and its stories in song, music and dance. [200] Songmen and women were skilled in correctly singing the songlines of the ancestral beings who created the landscape, and in passing on new songs sent to them in dreams. Aboriginal history, law and creation stories were transmitted orally through generations. [201]
The colonists also transmitted their cultures orally and through song, music, art and performance, but also through writing. Governor Macquarie commissioned emancipist Michael Massey Robinson to write verse to celebrate the birthdays of George III and Queen Charlotte . Alongside such official verse, satirical verse written by convicts such as Frank the Poet flourished. [202]
The house and garden, in Mills Plains, Van Diemen's Land, of prominent early Australian artist John Glover
Barron Field , the supreme court judge, published First Fruits of Australian Poetry (1819 and 1823). His poem "The Kangaroo" is notable. [203] Early poems with patriotic Australian themes include William Wentworth's "Australasia" (1823) and Charles Thompson's Wild Notes From the Lyre of a Native Minstrel (1826). [204] [205] In 1845, the radical republican Charles Harpur published Thoughts: a Series of Sonnets and went on to become an influential Australian poet. [206]
Before the 1850s, there was no Australian book publishing industry and few professional authors. Stories and poetry were published in newspapers and magazines, and books were mostly published in Britain or self-published in Australia. [207] In prose, colonial officers Watkin Tench and David Collins published popular early accounts of the colony. [208] Most published prose consisted of works of non-fiction, tales or sketches of colonial life, travel stories and popular fiction. Biographies and novels of convicts were popular. Henry Savery 's novel of convict life Quintus Servinton (1830–31) and James Tucker 's Ralph Rashleigh (1844–45) were typical. Novels of emigration to Australia, such as Thomas McCombie 's Adventures of a Colonist (1845), became popular in the 1840s. Mary Theresa Vidal 's Tales for the Bush (1845) was popular in England and Australia and went through many editions. [209]
In art, the Port Jackson Painters recorded the growth of the settlement, the local Aboriginal people and the flora and fauna of the colony. Convict artists such as Thomas Watling , Joseph Lycett and Thomas Bock painted landscapes, portraits of affluent settlers, scenes of colonial life and official commissions. Augustus Earle , John Glover and Conrad Martens were English artists who visited or migrated to Australia in the 1820s and 1830s and painted influential Australian landscapes. [210]
Australia's first colonial music was the popular ballads, sea shanties and folk songs brought by convicts and settlers. [211] Military music was also commonly performed in the early years of the colony. Military musicians often performed at church services, balls and other official and private functions. The first known local composition was a set of quadrilles written by the bandmaster Reichenberg in 1825. English musician John Phillip Deane (who arrived in Australia in 1822), Irish composer William Vincent Wallace (who arrived in 1835) and English composer Isaac Nathan (who arrived in 1841) all helped develop a musical culture in the Australian colonies. [212]
The first play performed in Australia was a 1789 convict production of Farquar's The Recruiting Officer . Theatrical performances after this were sporadic, as religious authorities considered the theatre promoted immorality. But by the 1830s, popular demand for comedies, melodramas and pantomime led to regular commercial theatrical and musical performances in Sydney and Hobart. Edward Geoghegan's The Currency Lass (1844) was a popular example of colonial musical comedy. [213]
Representations in literature and film
Eleanor Dark 's 1947 Timeless Land trilogy, which spans the colonisation from 1788 to 1811. The 1980s television drama, The Timeless Land , was based on this trilogy.
Kate Grenville 's 2005 novel The Secret River , about a convict transported to Australia for theft and his family, and their confrontations with Aboriginal people.
See also
Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 70–74.
^ David Hill. (2008) 1788; The Brutal Truth of the First Fleet. pp. 9,11. William Heinemann, Australia ISBN 978-1-74166-797-4
Carter, Harold B. (1988). "Banks, Cook and the Century Natural History Tradition". In Delamothe, Tony; Bridge, Carl (eds.). Interpreting Australia: British Perceptions of Australia since 1788 . London: Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies. pp. 4–23. Archived from the original on 29 May 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
^ Matra to Fox, 2 April 1784. British Library, Add. Ms 47568.
^ Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 75–77
^ Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 77–78
^ Robert J. King, "Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770–1814", The Great Circle, Vol. 25, No. 2, 2003, pp. 20–41.
^ Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 70, 83–89
^ Sir Ernest Scott, Australia, J. Holland Rose et al., The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 7, Part 1, Cambridge University Press, 1933, (reissued 2010), p.58. This view is re-affirmed in Alison Bashford and Stewart Macintyre, The Cambridge History of Australia, Cambridge University Press, 2013, Volume 1, p.83.
^ Geoffrey Blainey (1966) The Tyranny of Distance; How Distance shaped Australia's History. Sun Books, Melbourne. Reprinted 1982. ISBN 0-333-33836-7
^ Alan Frost, Botany Bay: The Real Story, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2011, ISBN 978-1-86395-512-6 ; Alan Frost, The First Fleet: The Real Story, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2011, ISBN 978-1-86395-529-4 .
^ Alan Frost, Convicts & Empire: A Naval Question, 1776–1811, Melbourne, Oxford U.P., 1980, pp.115–116, 129; Robert J. King, "'Ports of Shelter and refreshment...' Botany Bay and Norfolk Island in British Naval Strategy, 1786–1808", [Australian] Historical Studies, Vol.72, No. 87, 1986, pp. 199–213.
^ James Matra, 23 August 1783, National Archives, Kew, Colonial Office, Original Correspondence, CO 201/1, ff. 57, 61; reproduced in Jonathan King, "In the Beginning..." The Story of the Creation of Australia, From the Original Writings, Melbourne, Macmillan, 1985, p. 18. After the intention to found a colony in New South Wales was announced, almost all the English newspapers published this passage from Matra's proposal, and from these it was widely copied in the press of other European countries and in the United States; see The Whitehall Evening Post and The General Advertiser of 12 October 1786; The London Chronicle, The Daily Universal Register, The Morning Chronicle and The Morning Post, of 13 October 1786; The Independent Gazetteer (PA), 2 January 1787; The Massachusetts Spy, 18 January 1787; The New Hampshire Spy, 16 January 1787; The Charleston Morning Post, 22 January 1787.
^ These plans are discussed in Robert J. King, "Spanish America in 18th Century British Naval Strategy and the visit of Malaspina to New South Wales in 1793", in Actas del II Simposio de Historia Marítima y Naval Iberoamericano, noviembre 1993, Viña del Mar, Universidad Marítima de Chile, 1996, pp. 1–13; Robert J. King, "An Australian Perspective on the English Invasions of the Rio de la Plata in 1806 and 1807", International Journal of Naval History, Vol. 8, No. 1, April 2009 [1] Archived 11 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine ; and in Alan Frost, "Shaking off the Spanish Yoke: British Schemes to Revolutionise Spanish America, 1739–1807", Margarette Lincoln, Science and Exploration in the Pacific: European Voyages to the Southern Oceans in the Eighteenth Century, Woodbridge, Boydell & Brewer, 2001, pp. 19–37.
^ Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 89
Phillip, Arthur. " digitised letter ". 19: Letter from Arthur Phillip to the Marquis of Lansdowne, 3 July 1788, ID: SAFE/MLMSS 7241 (Safe 1/234). State Library of NSW.
^ a b Robert J. King, "Terra Australis, New Holland and New South Wales: the Treaty of Tordesillas and Australia", The Globe, No. 47, 1998, pp. 35–55.
^ Watkin Tench, A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay, London, Debrett, April 1789, p. 67.
^ Robert J. King, "Terra Australis, New Holland and New South Wales: the Treaty of Tordesillas and Australia", The Globe, No. 47, 1998, pp. 35–55, 48–49.
Kingston, Beverley (2006). A History of New South Wales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2.
King, Robert J. (1 December 1999). "What brought Laperouse to Botany Bay?" . Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society. 85 (2): 140. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
^ King, Robert J. "Norfolk Island: Phantasy and Reality, 1770–1814." The Great Circle, Vol. 25, No. 2, 2003, pp. 20–41.
^ Alexandro Malaspina, "Examen Politico de las Colonias Ynglesas en el Mar Pacifico", Museo Naval (Madrid), MS 329, ff. 57–88v; MS 318 ff. 11–37v; translated in Robert J. King, The Secret History of the Convict Colony: Alexandro Malaspina's report on the British settlement of New South Wales, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia, 1990, pp. 95–96.
^ François Péron, "Mémoire sur les Établissements Anglais à la Nouvelle Hollande, à la Terre de Diémen et sur les Archipels du Grand Océan Pacifique" [1803], published by Roger Martin in Revue de l'Institut Napoléon, No.176, 1998. See also Robert J. King, "Spain and the Botany Bay colony: a response to an imperial challenge", Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, vol.106, pt.2, December 2020, pp.125–145.
^ Robert J. King, "'Etruria': the Great Seal of New South Wales", Journal of the Numismatic Association of Australia, vol.5, October 1990, pp.3–8. [2] Archived 29 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine ; photo of example
McCalman, Janet; Kippen, Rebecca (2013). "Population and health". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 297.
Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). "Expansion, 1820–1850". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 128–135.
^ Historical Records of Australia , Series III, Vol. V, 1922, pp. 743–47, 770.
^ Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). p.138
Russell, Penny (2013). "Gender and colonial society". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 464–65.
Shaw, A. G. L. (1983). The Story of Australia (Fifth ed.). London: Faber and Faber. pp. 118–19. ISBN
^ Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). p.73
^ a b Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). pp. 139–40
"Parliament.sa.gov.au" . Parliament.sa.gov.au. 21 August 2006. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 163–64.
^ Shaw, A. G. L. (1983). pp. 137–38
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 258
^ See Lloyd Robson (1976) The Convict Settlers of Australia. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne ISBN 0-522-83994-0
Anne Summers (1975). Damned Whores and God's Police. Ringwood , Victoria. pp. 270–274. ISBN
^ McCalman, Janet; Kippen, Rebecca (2013). "Population and health". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 296–97
^ Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). pp. 122, 126–7, 131, 135–36
^ Haines, Robin, and Ralph Shlomowitz. "Nineteenth century government-assisted and total immigration from the United Kingdom to Australia: quinquennial estimates by colony." Journal of the Australian Population Association, vol. 8, no. 1, 1991, pp. 50–61. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41110599. Accessed 20 July 2021.
Richards, Eric (July 1993). "How Did Poor People Emigrate from the British Isles to Australia in the Nineteenth Century?". Journal of British Studies. 32 (3): 250–279. doi : 10.1086/386032 . JSTOR 176082 . S2CID 162223882 .
Frost, Lionel (2013). "The economy". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 323.
Iltis, Judith. "Chisholm, Caroline (1808–1877)" . Biography – Caroline Chisholm – Australian Dictionary of Biography. Adbonline.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
^ National Library of Australia, Maura O'Connor, Terry Birtles, Martin Woods and John Clark, Australia in Maps: Great Maps in Australia's History from the National Library's Collection, Canberra, National Library of Australia, 2007, p. 32; this map is reproduced in Gunter Schilder, Australia Unveiled, Amsterdam, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976, p. 402; and in William Eisler and Bernard Smith, Terra Australis: The Furthest Shore, Sydney, International Cultural Corporation of Australis, 1988, pp. 67–84. Image at: home
^ Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 350
^ a b Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 344–45
^ Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. p. 355-58, 358–60
Butlin, Noel George. (2010). Forming a Colonial Economy : Australia, 1810–1850. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN
^ a b Kemp (2018) The New South Wales Act 1823 had broadened participation in the government of the colony when it established an appointed Legislative Council of five to seven members to put the rules and regulations of the colony on a secure legal basis, and provided for a professional administration. Only the Governor, however, could initiate legislation. The authority of the appointed legislature fell well short of the colonists’ aspirations. It had no power over colonial lands, and none over the transportation system nor the treatment of convicts. The magistrates’ powers were defined. The Act was to operate until 1 July 1827 when the arrangements in it would be reviewed. The system, in fact, remained in operation until 1832.
^ Kemp (2018) In addition to the nominated Legislative Council, a highly significant innovation in the Act for the government of New South Wales was the establishment of a Supreme Court with the powers of the King's Bench court in London, which included the power to issue writs to control inferior courts and officials. This gave the court the capacity to control the executive
^ Kemp (2018) One of his most important powers, however, was the requirement that, before the Governor put a proposed law before the Council, the Chief Justice should issue a certificate that it was not repugnant to the laws of England, a power that was to prove a significant restraint on, and source of frustration for, Brisbane's successor, Sir Ralph Darling.
^ Kemp (2018) Despite the reforms the colonial ‘constitution’ lacked one of the main principles that was said to underpin the British constitution: the separation of powers. Forbes was not only Chief Justice. He was also a member of the Legislative Council and of the Governor's Executive Council.
^ Kemp (2018) In 1825 its membership was expanded, as permitted under the Act, to seven, including non-official members. John Macarthur became a member, and in the same year the Governor's instructions were amended to create an executive council consisting of the leading officials of the colony.
^ Kemp (2018) When he proposed bills to the Legislative Council to control the press by licensing newspapers and imposing a stamp duty, Chief Justice Forbes refused to certify them as ‘not repugnant to the laws of England’. Darling then adopted an alternative course of action to bring Wentworth and Wardell to heel, prosecuting them in 1828 for seditious libel.
^ Kemp (2018) One outcome of Bigge's reports was the declaration of Van Diemen's Land as a separate colony. This was formally undertaken by Sir Ralph Darling when he arrived in Australia as Governor to succeed Brisbane in 1825. Darling was to remain Governor of both settlements, being represented in Van Diemen's Land by a lieutenant-governor.
^ Kemp (2018) The South Australian Association, formed by a number of the parliamentary philosophical radicals, secured a South Australian Act in 1834, which divided authority between the Colonial Office and a Board of Colonization Commissioners. The new colony was to be the purest experiment in the world in giving full expression to the ideas of the Benthamites.
^ Kemp (2018) The directions of reform and the case for defending conservative interests were influenced by the dominant ideas associated with the Whig, Tory and liberal positions in England.
^ Kemp (2018) The politics of New South Wales under Bourke cannot be understood simply as a battle for power between ‘emancipists’ and ‘exclusives’. This was only one of the colony's lines of political cleavage. Many supporting the claims of emancipists were free emigrants, and the formulation by the emigrants of their claims expressed liberal ideas that had much wider currency than in New South Wales alone.
^ Kemp (2018) There was, however, another fear that lay behind the concerns of the conservatives that had more realism to it, and that also boded ill for the convict system: the freed convicts who might acquire the franchise mightexercise their rights, at best, to seek to regulate and control their former masters or, at worst, to wreak revenge upon them.
^ Kemp (2018) Macarthur's remarks expressed his profound political and social conservatism. He was a cultured and civilised leader of the colony's wealthy conservative elite
^ Kemp (2018) Macarthur's group also saw — accurately — that many of these now ‘free’ citizens had little education, and could make little contribution to government. Not understanding how prosperity was achieved, if politically empowered they might even act in ways that were counter to their own real interests. If they gained political power, the whole economic progress of the colony would be imperilled by foolish and ill-considered schemes. Economic development must come before democracy, in the interests of all. In pursuit of this delaying strategy, the political rhetoric of the conservatives exaggerated the risks and dangers, and highlighted the need for strong action against crime and lawbreakers.
Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 152–55.
^ Shaw, A. G. L. (1983). pp. 89–93
Gibbs, R. M. (1999). A History of South Australia (Third, revised ed.). Mitcham: Southern Heritage. pp. 111–13. ISBN
^ Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 155–56.
Blainey, Geoffrey (2013). A History of Victoria. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN
^ Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 157–58.
^ Kemp (2018) The Government Commissariat (established to support the convict system and the military establishment) continued to be a significant participant in the market, affecting prices and the pattern of production.
^ Kemp (2018) Between 10 and 15 per cent of the convicts were engaged in the building of public infrastructure such as roads, bridges, buildings and so on. Most of the remainder were allocated under the assignment system to private employers.
^ Kemp (2018) Bourke found the colony's development had reached a stage where land grants could be abandoned and Crown land alienated only by sale. Land grants were abandoned in 1831.
^ Kemp (2018) A feature of imperial land settlement policy was the declaration by the Crown that it retained title to all unsettled lands.
^ Kemp (2018) Macquarie could see that the absence of a proper money supply and a recognised currency was a significant inhibitor of enterprise. He made an attempt to equip the colony with a money economy to facilitate economic exchange, using Spanish dollars, and while this was an improvement, it was still an unsatisfactory solution that raised continual questions about the value of the currency. It also suffered from a tendency for the currency to leak abroad. 24 In 1817 Macquarie chartered (illegally) a bank – the Bank of New South Wales (now Westpac) – with purported limited liability and the authority to issue financial instruments.
^ Kemp (2018) Australia began to acquire a satisfactory means of exchange to replace barter when, in the later 1820s, substantial shipments of sterling were at last made to the colony. Despite some interference from the Commissariat, which sought to encourage Spanish dollars, by the 1830s the Australian colonies were established on sterling currency
Melleuish, Greg (Autumn 2007). "The History of Liberty in Australia" (PDF). Policy. 23 (1). The Centre for Independent Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Ingold, Tim (2000). "Totemism, animism, and the depiction of animals". The perception of the environment: essays on livelihood, dwelling, and skill. London: Routledge . pp. 112–113.
^ Cleverley (1971) , pp. 32–40, 44–52.
^ Cleverley (1971) , pp. 91, 105–15, 138.
^ Kemp (2018) Francis Forbes had laid the foundation stone for Sydney College (later Sydney Grammar) in 1830, and on its completion chaired its council.
Cobley, John (1966). "Bland, William (1789–1868)" . Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart, eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Horne, Julia; Sherington, Geoffrey. "Chapter 15: Education". In Bashford & Macintyre (2013) , pp. 367-390.
Broome, Richard (2019). Aboriginal Australians: A history since 1788 (5th ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN
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Cleverley, John F. (1971). The First Generation: School and Society in Early Australia. Sydney University Press. ISBN
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Covell, Roger (2016). Australia's Music: Themes of a New Society (2nd ed.). Lyrebird Press. ISBN
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Dalziell, Tanya (2009). "No place for a book? Fiction in Australia to 1890". In Pierce, Peter (ed.). The Cambridge History of Australian Literature. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Dixon, Robert; Hoorn, Jeanette (2013). "Art and literature: a cosmopolitan culture". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: the Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Allen & Unwin. ISBN
Gascoigne, John; Maroske, Sara (2013). "Science and technology". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Hirst, John (2014). Australian History in 7 Questions. Melbourne: Black Inc. ISBN
Karskens, Grace (2013). "The early colonial presence, 1788–1822". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
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Macintyre, Stuart (2020). A Concise History of Australia (5th ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
O'Brien, Anne (2013). "Religion". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Reynolds, Henry (1999). Why Weren't We Told?. Penguin Books. ISBN
Smith, Vivian (2009). "Australian colonial poetry, 1788-1888: Claiming the future, restoring the past". In Pierce, Peter (ed.). The Cambridge History of Australian Literature. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Webby, Elizabeth (2009). "The beginnings of literature in colonial Australia". In Pierce, Peter (ed.). The Cambridge History of Australian Literature. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
Clark, C. M. H. (1955), Select Documents in Australian History 1788–1850 ( Angus and Robertson ). Available at the Internet Archive . [3]
Duyker, Edward & Maryse. 2001. Voyage to Australia and the Pacific 1791–1793. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0-522-84932-6 .
Duyker, Edward & Maryse. 2003. Citizen Labillardière – A Naturalist's Life in Revolution and Exploration. The Miegunyah Press. ISBN 0-522-85010-3 .
Horner, Frank. 1995. Looking for La Pérouse. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0-522-84451-0 .
Lepailleur, François-Maurice. 1980. Land of a Thousand Sorrows. The Australian Prison Journal 1840–1842, of the Exiled Canadien Patriote, François-Maurice Lepailleur. Trans. and edited by F. Murray Greenwood. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver. ISBN 0-7748-0123-9 .
Europe
Africa
Southern Rhodesia 14 1923–1965 and 1979–1980
14 Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia ) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement . After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
Palestine 19 1923–1948
26Legitimacy of territorial establishment disputed
North America
5Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
Antarctica and the South Atlantic
Saint Helena 23 since 1658
Ascension Island 23 since 1815
23Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
24Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the Antarctic Treaty .
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The history of Australia is the history of the land and peoples which comprise the Commonwealth of Australia . The modern nation came into existence on 1 January 1901 as a federation of former British colonies . The human history of Australia, however, commences with the arrival of the first ancestors of Aboriginal Australians by sea from Maritime Southeast Asia between 50,000 and 65,000 years ago, and continues to the present day multicultural democracy.
Aboriginal Australians settled throughout continental Australia and many nearby islands. The artistic , musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving in human history. [1] The ancestors of today's ethnically and culturally distinct Torres Strait Islanders arrived from what is now Papua New Guinea around 2,500 years ago, and settled the islands on the northern tip of the Australian landmass.
Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century and named the continent New Holland . Macassan trepangers visited Australia's northern coasts from around 1720, and possibly earlier. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the east coast of Australia and claimed it for Great Britain . He returned to London with accounts favouring colonisation at Botany Bay (now in Sydney ). The First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788 to establish a penal colony . In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. This period saw a decline in the Aboriginal population and the disruption of their cultures due to introduced diseases, violent conflict and dispossession of their traditional lands. From 1871, the Torres Strait Islanders welcomed Christian Missionaries , and the islands were later annexed by Queensland, choosing to remain a part of Australia when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia a century later.
Gold rushes and agricultural industries brought prosperity. Transportation of British convicts to Australia was phased out from 1840 to 1868. Autonomous parliamentary democracies began to be established throughout the six British colonies from the mid-19th century. The colonies voted by referendum to unite in a federation in 1901, and modern Australia came into being. Australia fought as part of British Empire and later Commonwealth in the two world wars and was to become a long-standing ally of the United States through the Cold War to the present. Trade with Asia increased and a post-war immigration program received more than 7 million migrants from every continent. Supported by immigration of people from almost every country in the world since the end of World War II, the population increased to more than 25.5 million by 2021 , with 30 per cent of the population born overseas.
Indigenous prehistory
Rock painting at Ubirr in Kakadu National Park . Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back some 30,000 years.
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians moved into what is now the Australian continent about 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, [2] [3] [4] [5] during the last glacial period , arriving by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. [6]
The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land , in the north of the continent, is perhaps the oldest site of human occupation in Australia. [2] [7] From the north, the population spread into a range of very different environments. Devil's Lair in the extreme south-west of the continent was occupied around 47,000 years ago and Tasmania by 39,000 years ago. [8] The oldest human remains found are at Lake Mungo in New South Wales, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago. The site suggests one of the world's oldest known cremations, indicating early evidence for religious ritual among humans. [9]
The spread of the population also altered the environment. From 46,000 years ago, fire-stick farming was used in many parts of Australia to clear vegetation, make travel easier, and create open grasslands rich in animal and vegetable food sources. [10]
Kolaia man wearing a headdress worn in a fire ceremony, Forrest River, Western Australia. Aboriginal Australian religious practices associated with the Dreaming have been practised for tens of thousands of years.
The Aboriginal population faced significant changes in the climate and environment. About 30,000 years ago, sea levels began to fall, temperatures in the south-east of the continent dropped by as much as 9 degrees Celsius, and the interior of Australia became more arid. About 20,000 years ago, New Guinea and Tasmania were connected to the Australian continent, which was more than a quarter larger than today. [11]
About 19,000 years ago temperatures and sea levels began to rise. Tasmania became separated from the mainland some 14,000 years ago, and between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago thousands of islands in the Torres Strait and around the coast of Australia were formed. [11]
The warmer climate was associated with new technologies. Small back-bladed stone tools appeared 15–19 thousand years ago. Wooden javelins and boomerangs have been found dating from 10,000 years ago. Stone points for spears have been found dating from 5–7 thousand years ago. Spear throwers were probably developed more recently than 6,500 years ago. [12]
Aboriginal Tasmanians were isolated from the mainland from about 14,000 years ago. As a result, they only possessed one quarter of the tools and equipment of the adjacent mainland. Coastal Tasmanians switched from fish to abalone and crayfish and more Tasmanians moved to the interior. [13]
Around 4,000 years ago the first phase of occupation of the Torres Strait Islands began. By 2,500 years ago more of the islands were occupied and a distinctive Torres Strait Islander maritime culture emerged. Agriculture also developed on some islands and by 700 years ago villages appeared. [14]
Aboriginal society consisted of family groups organised into bands and clans averaging about 25 people, each with a defined territory for foraging. Clans were attached to tribes or nations, associated with particular languages and country. At the time of European contact there were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 distinct languages with various dialects. [15] [16] Estimates of the Aboriginal population at this time range from 300,000 to one million. [17] [18] [19]
A Luritja man demonstrating his method of attack with a large curved boomerang under cover of a thin shield (1920)
Aboriginal society was egalitarian with no formal government or chiefs. Authority rested with elders and group decisions were generally made through the consensus of elders. The traditional economy was cooperative, with males generally hunting large game while females gathered local staples such as small animals, shellfish, vegetables, fruits, seeds and nuts. Food was shared within groups and exchanged across groups. [20] Some Aboriginal groups engaged in fire-stick farming , [21] fish farming , [22] and built semi-permanent shelters . [23] [24] The extent to which some groups engaged in agriculture is controversial. [25] [26] [27] Some Anthropologists describe traditional Aboriginal Australia as a "complex hunter-gatherer" society. [24] [28]
Aboriginal groups were semi-nomadic, generally ranging over a specific territory defined by natural features. Members of a group would enter the territory of another group through rights established by marriage and kinship or by invitation for specific purposes such as ceremonies and sharing abundant seasonal foods. As all natural features of the land were created by ancestral beings, a group's particular country provided physical and spiritual nourishment. [29] [16]
Aboriginal Australians developed a unique artistic and spiritual culture. The earliest Aboriginal rock art consists of hand-prints, hand-stencils, and engravings of circles, tracks, lines and cupules, and has been dated to 35,000 years ago. Around 20,000 year ago Aboriginal artists were depicting humans and animals. [30] According to Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation . The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land. [31]
Early European exploration
In 1616, Dirk Hartog , sailing off course, en route from the Cape of Good Hope to Batavia , landed on an island off Shark Bay , Western Australia. [34] In 1622–23 the ship Leeuwin made the first recorded rounding of the southwest corner of the continent. [35]
In 1627, the south coast of Australia was discovered by François Thijssen and named after Pieter Nuyts . [36] In 1628, a squadron of Dutch ships explored the northern coast particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria . [35]
Abel Tasman 's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach Van Diemen's Land (later Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight Fiji . On his second voyage of 1644, he also contributed significantly to the mapping of the Australian mainland (which he called New Holland ), making observations on the land and people of the north coast below New Guinea. [37]
Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. [38]
British and French exploration
Lieutenant James Cook , the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
William Dampier , an English buccaneer and explorer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699, and published influential descriptions of the Aboriginal people. [39]
In 1769, Lieutenant James Cook in command of HMS Endeavour , travelled to Tahiti to observe and record the transit of Venus . Cook also carried secret Admiralty instructions to locate the supposed Southern Continent . [40] Unable to find this continent, Cook decided to survey the east coast of New Holland, the only major part of that continent that had not been charted by Dutch navigators. [41]
On 19 April 1770, the Endeavour reached the east coast of New Holland and ten days later anchored at Botany Bay . Cook charted the coast to its northern extent and formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 21/22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula . [42]
He noted in his journal that he could "land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour of which belongs to the Dutch Navigators and as such they may lay Claim to it as their property [italicised words crossed out in the original] but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38 South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us and therefore by the same Rule belongs to great Brittan" [italicised words crossed out in the original]. [43] [44]
In March 1772 Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne , in command of two French ships, reached Van Diemen's land on his way to Tahiti and the South Seas. His party became the first recorded Europeans to encounter the Indigenous Tasmanians and to kill one of them. [45]
In the same year, a French expedition led by Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn , became the first Europeans to formally claim sovereignty over the west coast of Australia, but no attempt was made to follow this with colonisation. [46]
Colonisation
Two of the Natives of New Holland, Advancing To Combat (1784), lithograph based on 1770 sketch by Cook's illustrator Sydney Parkinson
A General Chart of New Holland including New South Wales & Botany Bay with The Adjacent Countries and New Discovered Lands, published in An Historical Narrative of the Discovery of New Holland and New South Wales, London, Fielding and Stockdale, November 1786
Although various proposals for the colonisation of Australia were made prior to 1788, none were attempted. In 1717, Jean-Pierre Purry sent a plan to the Dutch East India Company for the colonisation of an area in modern South Australia. The company rejected the plan with the comment that, "There is no prospect of use or benefit to the Company in it, but rather very certain and heavy costs". [47]
In contrast, Emanuel Bowen , in 1747, promoted the benefits of exploring and colonising the country, writing: [48]
It is impossible to conceive a Country that promises fairer from its Situation than this of
TERRA AUSTRALIS
, no longer incognita, as this Map demonstrates, but the Southern Continent Discovered. It lies precisely in the richest climates of the World... and therefore whoever perfectly discovers and settles it will become infalliably possessed of Territories as Rich, as fruitful, and as capable of Improvement, as any that have hitherto been found out, either in the East Indies or the West.
John Harris, in his Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or Voyages and Travels (1744–1748, 1764) recommended exploration of the east coast of New Holland, with a view to a British colonisation. [49] John Callander put forward a proposal in 1766 for Britain to found a colony of banished convicts in the South Sea or in Terra Australis . [50] Sweden's King Gustav III had ambitions to establish a colony for his country at the Swan River in 1786 but the plan was stillborn. [51]
The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) saw Britain lose most of its North American colonies and consider establishing replacement territories. Britain had transported about 50,000 convicts to the New World from 1718 to 1775 and was now searching for an alternative. The temporary solution of floating prison hulks had reached capacity and was a public health hazard, while the option of building more jails and workhouses was deemed too expensive. [52] [53]
In 1779, Sir Joseph Banks , the eminent scientist who had accompanied James Cook on his 1770 voyage, recommended Botany Bay as a suitable site for a penal settlement. Banks's plan was to send 200 to 300 convicts to Botany Bay where they could be left to their own devices and not be a burden on the British taxpayer. [54]
Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770
Under Banks's guidance, the American Loyalist James Matra , who had also travelled with Cook, produced a new plan for colonising New South Wales in 1783. [55] Matra argued that the country was suitable for plantations of sugar, cotton and tobacco; New Zealand timber and hemp or flax could prove valuable commodities; it could form a base for Pacific trade; and it could be a suitable compensation for displaced American Loyalists. [56] Following an interview with Secretary of State Lord Sydney in 1784, Matra amended his proposal to include convicts as settlers, considering that this would benefit both "Economy to the Publick, & Humanity to the Individual". [57]
The major alternative to Botany Bay was sending convicts to Africa. From 1775 convicts had been sent to garrison British forts in west Africa, but the experiment had proved unsuccessful. In 1783, the Pitt government considered exiling convicts to a small river island in Gambia where they could form a self-governing community, a "colony of thieves", at no expense to the government. [58]
In 1785, a parliamentary select committee chaired by Lord Beauchamp recommended against the Gambia plan, but failed to endorse the alternative of Botany Bay. In a second report, Beauchamp recommended a penal settlement at Das Voltas Bay in modern Namibia. The plan was dropped, however, when an investigation of the site in 1786 found it to be unsuitable. Two weeks later, in August 1786, the Pitt government announced its intention to send convicts to Botany Bay. [59] The Government incorporated the settlement of Norfolk Island into their plan, with its attractions of timber and flax, proposed by Banks's Royal Society colleagues, Sir John Call and Sir George Young. [60]
There has been a longstanding debate over whether the key consideration in the decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay was the pressing need to find a solution to the penal management problem, or whether broader imperial goals – such as trade, securing new supplies of timber and flax for the navy, and the desirability of strategic ports in the region – were paramount. [61] Christopher and Maxwell-Stewart argue that whatever the government's original motives were in establishing the colony, by the 1790s it had at least achieved the imperial objective of providing a harbour where vessels could be careened and resupplied. [62]
The colony of New South Wales
The perilous situation of The Guardian Frigate as she appeared striking on the rocks of ice ( c. 1790) – Robert Dighton; depicting the Second Fleet
The colony of New South Wales was established with the arrival of the First Fleet of 11 vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip in January 1788. It consisted of more than a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts (192 women and 586 men). [63] A few days after arrival at Botany Bay the fleet moved to the more suitable Port Jackson where a settlement was established at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. [64] This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day . The colony was formally proclaimed by Governor Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip described as being, 'with out exception the finest Harbour in the World [...] Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security'. [65]
The territory of New South Wales claimed by Britain included all of Australia eastward of the meridian of 135° East. This included more than half of mainland Australia. [66] The claim also included "all the Islands adjacent in the Pacific" between the latitudes of Cape York and the southern tip of Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). [67] In 1817, the British government withdrew the extensive territorial claim over the South Pacific, passing an act specifying that Tahiti, New Zealand and other islands of the South Pacific were not within His Majesty's dominions. [66] However, it is unclear whether the claim ever extended to the current islands of New Zealand. [68]
Founding of the settlement of Port Jackson at Botany Bay in New South Wales in 1788 – Thomas Gosse
Governor Phillip was vested with complete authority over the inhabitants of the colony. His intention was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony. Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce. Between 1788 and 1792 about 3546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney. Many new arrivals were sick or unfit for work and the condition of healthy convicts also deteriorated due to the hard labour and poor food. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790 and the Second Fleet which finally arrived in June 1790 had lost a quarter of its passengers through sickness, while the condition of the convicts of the Third Fleet appalled Phillip. From 1791, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies. [69]
In 1788, Phillip established a subsidiary settlement on Norfolk Island in the South Pacific where he hoped to obtain timber and flax for the navy. The island, however, had no safe harbour, which led the settlement to be abandoned and the settlers evacuated to Tasmania in 1807. [70] The island was subsequently re-established as a site for secondary transportation in 1825. [71]
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils, fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion, and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life. This left Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life. Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie , but a building program, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily. Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their gaolers made up the majority of the population; however, a free population soon began to grow, consisting of emancipated convicts, locally born children, soldiers whose military service had expired and, finally, free settlers from Britain. Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years. [69]
Consolidation: 1793 to 1821
The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment of the British Army to relieve the marines who had accompanied the First Fleet. Officers of the Corps soon became involved in the corrupt and lucrative rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh (1806 – 1808) tried to suppress the rum trade and the illegal use of Crown Land, resulting in the Rum Rebellion of 1808. The Corps, working closely with the newly established wool trader John Macarthur , staged the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, deposing Bligh and instigating a brief period of military rule prior to the arrival from Britain of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. [73] [74]
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales , from 1810 to 1821, and had a leading role in the social and economic development of New South Wales which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding civil society. He established a bank, a currency and a hospital. He employed a planner to design the street layout of Sydney and commissioned the construction of roads, wharves, churches, and public buildings. He sent explorers out from Sydney and, in 1815, a road across the Blue Mountains was completed, opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in the lightly wooded pastures west of the Great Dividing Range . [75] [76]
Central to Macquarie's policy was his treatment of the emancipists , whom he considered should be treated as social equals to free-settlers in the colony. He appointed emancipists to key government positions including Francis Greenway as colonial architect and William Redfern as a magistrate. His policy on emancipists was opposed by many influential free settlers, officers and officials, and London became concerned at the cost of his public works. In 1819, London appointed J. T. Bigge to conduct an inquiry into the colony, and Macquarie resigned shortly before the report of the inquiry was published. [77] [78]
Expansion: 1821 to 1850
Map of the south eastern portion of Australia, 1850
In 1820, British settlement was largely confined to a 100 kilometre radius around Sydney and to the central plain of Van Diemen's land. The settler population was 26,000 on the mainland and 6,000 in Van Diemen's Land. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the transportation of convicts increased rapidly and the number of free settlers grew steadily. [79] From 1821 to 1840, 55,000 convicts arrived in New South Wales and 60,000 in Van Diemen's Land. However, by 1830, free settlers and the locally born exceeded the convict population of New South Wales. [80]
From the 1820s squatters increasingly established unauthorised cattle and sheep runs beyond the official limits of the settled colony. In 1836, a system of annual licences authorising grazing on Crown Land was introduced in an attempt to control the pastoral industry , but booming wool prices and the high cost of land in the settled areas encouraged further squatting. By 1844 wool accounted for half of the colony's exports and by 1850 most of the eastern third of New South Wales was controlled by fewer than 2,000 pastoralists. [81] [82]
In 1825, the western boundary of New South Wales was extended to longitude 129° East, which is the current boundary of Western Australia. As a result, the territory of New South Wales reached its greatest extent, covering the area of the modern state as well as modern Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory. [83] [68]
By 1850 the settler population of New South Wales had grown to 180,000, not including the 70,000 – 75,000 living in the area which became the separate colony of Victoria in 1851. [84]
Establishment of further colonies
Melbourne Landing, 1840; watercolor by W. Liardet (1840)
Pastoralists from Van Diemen's land began squatting in the Port Phillip hinterland on the mainland in 1834, attracted by its rich grasslands. In 1835, John Batman and others negotiated the transfer of 100,000 acres of land from the Kulin people. However, the treaty was annulled the same year when the British Colonial Office issued the Proclamation of Governor Bourke . The proclamation meant that from then, all people found occupying land without the authority of the government would be considered illegal trespassers. [90]
In 1836, Port Phillip was officially recognised as a district of New South Wales and opened for settlement. The main settlement of Melbourne was established in 1837 as a planned town on the instructions of Governor Bourke. Squatters and settlers from Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales soon arrived in large numbers. In 1851, the Port Phillip District separated from New South Wales as the colony of Victoria. [91] [92]
Adelaide in 1839. South Australia was founded as a free-colony, without convicts.
The Province of South Australia was established in 1836 as a privately financed settlement based on the theory of "systematic colonisation" developed by Edward Gibbon Wakefield . Convict labour was banned in the hope of making the colony more attractive to "respectable" families and promote an even balance between male and female settlers. The city of Adelaide was to be planned with a generous provision of churches, parks and schools. Land was to be sold at a uniform price and the proceeds used to secure an adequate supply of labour through selective assisted migration. [96] [97] [98] Various religious, personal and commercial freedoms were guaranteed, and the Letters Patent enabling the South Australia Act 1834 included a guarantee of Aboriginal land rights. [99]
The colony, however, was badly hit by the depression of 1841–44. Conflict with Indigenous traditional landowners also reduced the protections they had been promised. In 1842, the settlement became a Crown colony administered by the governor and an appointed Legislative Council. The economy recovered and by 1850 the settler population had grown to 60,000. In 1851, the colony achieved limited self-government with a partially elected Legislative Council. [96] [97] [100]
Brisbane (Moreton Bay Settlement), 1835; watercolour by H. Bowerman
In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present-day Brisbane . In 1842, the penal colony was closed and the area was opened for free settlement. By 1850 the population of Brisbane had reached 8,000 and increasing numbers of pastoralists were grazing cattle and sheep in the Darling Downs west of the town. Frontier violence between settlers and the Indigenous population became severe as pastoralism expanded north of the Tweed River . A series of disputes between northern pastoralists and the government in Sydney led to increasing demands from the northern settlers for separation from New South Wales. In 1857, the British government agreed to the separation and in 1859 the colony of Queensland was proclaimed. [101] [102] [103]
Convicts and colonial society
Black-eyed Sue and Sweet Poll of Plymouth, England mourning their lovers who are soon to be transported to Botany Bay (published in London in 1792)
Between 1788 and 1868, approximately 161,700 convicts were transported to the Australian colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia. [104] The literacy rate of convicts was above average and they brought a range of useful skills to the new colony including building, farming, sailing, fishing and hunting. [105] The small number of free settlers meant that early governors also had to rely on convicts and emancipists for professions such as lawyers, architects, surveyors and teachers. [106] Convicts initially worked on government farms and public works such as land clearing and building. After 1792, the majority were assigned to work for private employers including emancipists . Emancipists were granted small plots of land for farming and a year of government rations. Later they were assigned convict labour to help them work their farms. [107] Some convicts were assigned to military officers to run their businesses. These convicts learnt commercial skills which could help them work for themselves when their sentence ended or they were granted a "ticket of leave" (a form of parole). [108]
Convicts soon established a system of piece work which allowed them to work for wages once their allocated tasks were completed. [109] By 1821 convicts, emancipists and their children owned two-thirds of the land under cultivation, half the cattle and one-third of the sheep. [110] They also worked in trades and small business. Emancipists employed about half of the convicts assigned to private masters. [111]
A series of reforms recommended by J. T. Bigge in 1822 and 1823 worsened conditions for convicts. The food ration was cut and their opportunities to work for wages restricted. [112] More convicts were assigned to rural work gangs, bureaucratic control and surveillance of convicts was made more systematic, isolated penal settlements were established as places of secondary punishment, the rules for tickets of leave were tightened, and land grants were skewed to favour free settlers with large capital. [113] As a result, convicts who arrived after 1820 were far less likely to become property owners, to marry, and to establish families. [114]
Free settlers
The humanitarian Caroline Chisholm was a leading advocate for women's issues and family friendly colonial policy.
The Bigge reforms also aimed to encourage free settlers by offering them land grants in proportion to their capital. From 1831, the colonies replaced land grants with land sales by auction at a fixed minimum price per acre, the proceeds being used to fund the assisted migration of workers. From 1821 to 1850, Australia attracted 200,000 immigrants from the United Kingdom. However, the system of land allocations led to the concentration of land in the hands of a small number of affluent settlers. [115]
Two-thirds of the migrants to Australia during this period received assistance from the British or colonial governments. [116] Families of convicts were also offered free passage and about 3,500 migrants were selected under the English Poor Laws . Various special-purpose and charitable schemes, such as those of Caroline Chisholm and John Dunmore Lang , also provided migration assistance. [117]
Women
Businesswoman Elizabeth Macarthur helped establish the merino wool industry.
Women comprised only about 15% of convicts transported. Due to the shortage of women in the colony they were more likely to marry than men and tended to choose older, skilled men with property as husbands. The early colonial courts enforced the property rights of women independently of their husbands, and the ration system also gave women and their children some protection from abandonment. Women were active in business and agriculture from the early years of the colony, among the most successful being the former convict turned entrepreneur Mary Reibey and the agriculturalist Elizabeth Macarthur . [118] One-third of the shareholders of the first colonial bank (founded in 1817) were women. [119]
One of the goals of the assisted migration programs from the 1830s was to promote migration of women and families to provide a more even gender balance in the colonies. Caroline Chisholm established a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales in the 1840s and promoted the settlement of single and married women in rural areas. [120] [121]
Between 1830 and 1850 the female proportion of the Australian settler population increased from 24 per cent to 41 per cent. [122]
Religion
The Church of England was the only recognised church before 1820 and its clergy worked closely with the governors. Richard Johnson , (chief chaplain 1788–1802) was charged by Governor Arthur Phillip , with improving "public morality" in the colony and was also heavily involved in health and education. [123] Samuel Marsden (various ministries 1795–1838) became known for his missionary work, the severity of his punishments as a magistrate, and the vehemence of his public denunciations of Catholicism and Irish convicts. [124]
About a quarter of convicts were Catholics. The lack of official recognition of Catholicism was combined with suspicion of Irish convicts which only increased after the Irish-led Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804. [125] [126] Only two Catholic priests operated temporarily in the colony before Governor Macquarie appointed official Catholic chaplains in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land in 1820. [127]
The Bigge reports recommended that the status of the Anglican Church be enhanced. An Anglican archdeacon was appointed in 1824 and allocated a seat in the first advisory Legislative Council. The Anglican clergy and schools also received state support. This policy was changed under Governor Burke by the Church Acts of 1836 and 1837. The government now provided state support for the clergy and church buildings of the four largest denominations: Anglican, Catholic, Presbyterian and, later, Methodist. [127]
Many Anglicans saw state support of the Catholic Church as a threat. The prominent Presbyterian minister John Dunmore Lang also promoted sectarian divisions in the 1840s. [128] [129] State support, however, led to a growth in church activities. Charitable associations such as the Catholic Sisters of Charity , founded in 1838, provided hospitals, orphanages and asylums for the old and disabled. Religious organisations were also the main providers of school education in the first half of the nineteenth century, a notable example being Lang's Australian College which opened in 1831. Many religious associations, such as the Sisters of St Joseph , co-founded by Mary MacKillop in 1866, continued their educational activities after the provision of secular state schools grew from the 1850s. [130] [131]
Exploration of the continent
Flinders prepares to circumnavigate Terra Australis - July 1802
In 1798–99 George Bass and Matthew Flinders set out from Sydney in a sloop and circumnavigated Tasmania , thus proving it to be an island. [132] In 1801–02 Matthew Flinders in HMS Investigator led the first circumnavigation of Australia. Aboard ship was the Aboriginal explorer Bungaree , who became the first person born on the Australian continent to circumnavigate it. [132]
Matthew Flinders led the first successful circumnavigation of Australia in 1801–02.
In 1798, the former convict John Wilson and two companions crossed the Blue Mountains, west of Sydney, in an expedition ordered by Governor Hunter. Hunter suppressed news of the feat for fear that it would encourage convicts to abscond from the settlement. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland , William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the mountains by a different route and a road was soon built to the Central Tablelands . [133]
In 1824, Hamilton Hume and William Hovell led an expedition to find new grazing land in the south of the colony, and also to find out where New South Wales' western rivers flowed. Over 16 weeks in 1824–25, they journeyed to Port Phillip and back. They discovered the Murray River (which they named the Hume) and many of its tributaries, and good agricultural and grazing lands. [134]
Charles Sturt led an expedition along the Macquarie River in 1828 and discovered the Darling River . Leading a second expedition in 1829, Sturt followed the Murrumbidgee River into the Murray River. His party then followed this river to its junction with the Darling River . Sturt continued down river on to Lake Alexandrina , where the Murray meets the sea in South Australia. [135]
Surveyor General Sir Thomas Mitchell conducted a series of expeditions from the 1830s to follow up these previous expeditions. Mitchell employed three Aboriginal guides and recorded many Aboriginal place names. He also recorded a violent encounter with traditional owners on the Murray in 1836 in which his men pursued them, "shooting as many as they could." [136] [137]
The Polish scientist and explorer Count Paul Edmund Strzelecki conducted surveying work in the Australian Alps in 1839 and, led by two Aboriginal guides, became the first European to ascend Australia's highest peak, which he named Mount Kosciuszko in honour of the Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko . [138] [139]
John Longstaff , Arrival of Burke, Wills and King at the deserted camp at Cooper's Creek, Sunday evening, 21 April 1861
The German scientist Ludwig Leichhardt led three expeditions in northern Australia in the 1840s, sometimes with the help of Aboriginal guides. He and his party disappeared in 1848 while attempting to cross the continent from east to west. [140] Edmund Kennedy led an expedition into what is now far-western Queensland in 1847 before being speared by Aborigines in the Cape York Peninsula in 1848. [141]
In 1860, Burke and Wills led the first south–north crossing of the continent from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria . Lacking bushcraft and unwilling to learn from the local Aboriginal people, Burke and Wills died in 1861, having returned from the Gulf to their rendezvous point at Coopers Creek only to discover the rest of their party had departed the location only a matter of hours previously. They became tragic heroes to the European settlers, their funeral attracting a crowd of more than 50,000 and their story inspiring numerous books, artworks, films and representations in popular culture. [142] [143]
In 1862, John McDouall Stuart succeeded in traversing central Australia from south to north. His expedition mapped out the route which was later followed by the Australian Overland Telegraph Line . [144]
The completion of this telegraph line in 1872 was associated with further exploration of the Gibson Desert and the Nullarbor Plain . While exploring central Australia in 1872, Ernest Giles sighted Kata Tjuta from a location near Kings Canyon and called it Mount Olga. [145] The following year Willian Gosse observed Uluru and named it Ayers Rock, in honour of the Chief Secretary of South Australia , Sir Henry Ayers . [146]
In 1879, Alexander Forrest trekked from the north coast of Western Australia to the overland telegraph, discovering land suitable for grazing in the Kimberley region. [144]
Impact of British settlement on Indigenous population
Alexander Schramm's A Scene in South Australia (1850) depicts German settlers with Aborigines
Disease
The relative isolation of the Indigenous population for some 60,000 years meant that they had little resistance to many introduced diseases. An outbreak of smallpox in April 1789 killed about half the Aboriginal population of the Sydney region. The source of the outbreak is controversial ; some researchers contend that it originated from contact with Indonesian fisherman in the far north while others argue that it is more likely to have been inadvertently or deliberately spread by settlers. [149] [150] [151]
There were further smallpox outbreaks devastating Aboriginal populations from the late 1820s (affecting south-eastern Australia), in the early 1860s (travelling inland from the Coburg Peninsula in the north to the Great Australian Bight in the south), and in the late 1860s (from the Kimberley to Geraldton). According to Josphine Flood, the estimated Aboriginal mortality rate from smallpox was 60 per cent on first exposure, 50 per cent in the tropics, and 25 per cent in the arid interior. [152]
Other introduced diseases such as measles, influenza, typhoid and tuberculosis also resulted in high death rates in Aboriginal communities. Butlin estimates that the Aboriginal population in the area of modern Victoria was around 50,000 in 1788 before two smallpox outbreaks reduced it to about 12,500 in 1830. Between 1835 and 1853, the Aboriginal population of Victoria fell from 10,000 to around 2,000. It is estimated that about 60 per cent of these deaths were from introduced diseases, 18 per cent from natural causes and 15 per cent from settler violence. [153]
Venereal diseases were also a factor in Indigenous depopulation, reducing Aboriginal fertility rates in south-eastern Australia by an estimated 40 per cent by 1855. By 1890 up to 50 per cent of the Aboriginal population in some regions of Queensland were affected. [154]
Conflict and dispossession
Mounted police engaging Indigenous people during the Slaughterhouse Creek Massacre of 1838, during the Australian frontier wars .
The British settlement was initially planned to be a self-sufficient penal colony based on agriculture. Karskens argues that conflict broke out between the settlers and the traditional owners of the land because of the settlers' assumptions about the superiority of British civilisation and their entitlement to land which they had "improved" through building and cultivation. [155]
Proclamation issued in Van Diemen's Land around 1828–1830 by Lieutenant-Governor Arthur , which explains the precepts of British justice in pictorial form for the Tasmanian Aboriginals . Tasmania suffered a higher level of conflict than the other British colonies in Australia. [156]
Conflict also arose from cross-cultural misunderstandings and from reprisals for previous actions such as the kidnapping of Aboriginal men, women and children. Reprisal attacks and collective punishments were perpetrated by colonists and Aboriginal groups alike. [157] Sustained Aboriginal attacks on settlers, the burning of crops and the mass killing of livestock were more obviously acts of resistance to the loss of traditional land and food resources. [158]
There were serious conflicts between settlers in the Sydney region and Aboriginals ( Darug people) from 1794 to 1800 in which 26 settlers and up to 200 Darug were killed. [159] [160] Conflict also erupted south-west of Sydney (in Dharawal country) from 1814 to 1816, culminating in the Appin massacre (April 1816) in which at least 14 Aboriginal people were killed. [161] [162]
In the 1820s, the colony spread over the Great Dividing Range , opening the way for large scale farming and grazing in Wiradjuri country. [75] From 1822 to 1824 Windradyne led a group of 50-100 Aboriginal men in raids which resulted in the death of 15-20 colonists. Estimates of Aboriginal deaths in the conflict range from 15 to 100. [163] [164]
In Van Diemen's land, the Black War broke out in 1824, following a rapid expansion of settler numbers and sheep grazing in the island's interior. Martial law was declared in November 1828 and in October 1830 a "Black Line" of around 2,200 troops and settlers swept the island with the intention of driving the Aboriginal population from the settled districts. From 1830 to 1834, George Augustus Robinson and Aboriginal ambassadors including Truganini led a series of "Friendly Missions" to the Aboriginal tribes which effectively ended the war. [165] Around 200 settlers and 600 to 900 Aboriginal Tasmanians were killed in the conflict and the Aboriginal survivors were eventually relocated to Flinders Island. [166] [167]
Fighting near Creen Creek, Queensland in September 1876
The spread of settlers and pastoralists into the region of modern Victoria in the 1830s also sparked conflict with traditional landowners. Broome estimates that 80 settlers and 1,000–1,500 Aboriginal people died in frontier conflict in Victoria from 1835 to 1853. [168]
The growth of the Swan River Colony in the 1830s led to conflict with Aboriginal people, culminating in the Pinjarra massacre in which some 15 to 30 Aboriginal people were killed. [169] [170] According to Neville Green, 30 settlers and 121 Aboriginal people died in violent conflict in Western Australia between 1826 and 1852. [171]
The Australian native police consisted of native troopers under the command of white officers that was largely responsible for the 'dispersal' of Aboriginal tribes in eastern Australia, but particularly in New South Wales and Queensland
The spread of sheep and cattle grazing after 1850 brought further conflict with Aboriginal tribes more distant from the closely settled areas. Aboriginal casualty rates in conflicts increased as the colonists made greater use of mounted police, Native Police units, and newly developed revolvers and breech-loaded guns. Conflict was particularly intense in NSW in the 1840s and in Queensland from 1860 to 1880. In central Australia, it is estimated that 650 to 850 Aboriginal people, out of a population of 4,500, were killed by colonists from 1860 to 1895. In the Gulf Country of northern Australia five settlers and 300 Aboriginal people were killed before 1886. [172] The last recorded massacre of Aboriginal people by settlers was at Coniston in the Northern Territory in 1928 where at least 31 Aboriginal people were killed. [173]
The spread of British settlement also led to an increase in inter-tribal Aboriginal conflict as more people were forced off their traditional lands into the territory of other, often hostile, tribes. Butlin estimated that of the 8,000 Aboriginal deaths in Victoria from 1835 to 1855, 200 were from inter-tribal violence. [174]
Broome estimates the total death toll from settler-Aboriginal conflict between 1788 and 1928 as 1,700 settlers and 17–20,000 Aboriginal people. Reynolds has suggested a higher "guesstimate" of 3,000 settlers and up to 30,000 Aboriginals killed. [175] A project team at the University of Newcastle, Australia, has reached a preliminary estimate of 8,270 Aboriginal deaths in frontier massacres from 1788 to 1930. [176]
Accommodation and protection
Portrait of Bungaree at Sydney in 1826, by Augustus Earle .
In the first two years of settlement the Aboriginal people of Sydney mostly avoided the newcomers. In November 1790, Bennelong led the survivors of several clans into Sydney, 18 months after the smallpox epidemic that had devastated the Aboriginal population. [177] Bungaree , a Kuringgai man, joined Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia from 1801 to 1803, playing an important role as emissary to the various Indigenous peoples they encountered. [178]
Governor Macquarie attempted to assimilate Aboriginal people, providing land grants, establishing Aboriginal farms, and founding a Native Institution to provide education to Aboriginal children. [179] However, by the 1820s the Native Institution and Aboriginal farms had failed. Aboriginal people continued to live on vacant waterfront land and on the fringes of the Sydney settlement, adapting traditional practices to the new semi-urban environment. [180] [181]
Following escalating frontier conflict, Protectors of Aborigines were appointed in South Australia and the Port Phillip District in 1839, and in Western Australia in 1840. The aim was to extend the protection of British law to Aboriginal people, to distribute rations, and to provide education, instruction in Christianity, and occupational training. However, by 1857 the protection offices had been closed due to their cost and failure to meets their goals. [182] [183]
Aboriginal farmers at Loddon Aboriginal Protectorate Station at Franklinford, Victoria , in 1858
In 1825, the NSW governor granted 10,000 acres for an Aboriginal Christian mission at Lake Macquarie. [184] In the 1830s and early 1840s there were also missions in the Wellington Valley, Port Phillip and Moreton Bay. The settlement for Aboriginal Tasmanians on Flinders Island operated effectively as a mission under George Robinson from 1835 to 1838. [185]
In New South Wales, 116 Aboriginal reserves were established between 1860 and 1894. Most reserves allowed Aboriginal people a degree of autonomy and freedom to enter and leave. In contrast, the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines (created in 1869) had extensive power to regulate the employment, education and place of residence of Aboriginal Victorians, and closely managed the five reserves and missions established since self government in 1858. In 1886, the protection board gained the power to exclude "half caste" Aboriginal people from missions and stations. The Victorian legislation was the forerunner of the racial segregation policies of other Australian governments from the 1890s. [186]
In more densely settled areas, most Aboriginal people who had lost control of their land lived on reserves and missions, or on the fringes of cities and towns. In pastoral districts the British Waste Land Act 1848 gave traditional landowners limited rights to live, hunt and gather food on Crown land under pastoral leases. Many Aboriginal groups camped on pastoral stations where Aboriginal men were often employed as shepherds and stockmen. These groups were able to retain a connection with their lands and maintain aspects of their traditional culture. [187]
Foreign pearlers moved into the Torres Strait Islands from 1868 bringing exotic diseases which halved the Indigenous population. In 1871, the London Missionary Society began operating in the islands and most Torres Strait Islanders converted to Christianity which they considered compatible with their beliefs. Queensland annexed the islands in 1879. [188]
From autonomy to federation
Imperial legislation in 1823 had provided for a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales, and a new Supreme Court, providing additional limits to the power of governors. A number of prominent colonial figures, including William Wentworth . campaigned for a greater degree of self-government, although there were divisions about the extent to which a future legislative body should be popularly elected. Other issues included traditional British political rights, land policy, transportation and whether a large population of convicts and former convicts could be trusted with self-government. The Australian Patriotic Association was formed in 1835 by Wentworth and William Bland to promote representative government for New South Wales. [189] [190] [191]
The opening of Australia's first elected Parliament in Sydney ( c. 1843)
Transportation to New South Wales was suspended in 1840. In 1842 Britain granted limited representative government to the colony by reforming the Legislative Council so that two-thirds of its members would be elected by male voters. However, a property qualification meant that only 20 per cent of males were eligible to vote in the first Legislative Council elections in 1843 . [192]
The increasing number of free settlers and people born in the colonies led to further agitation for liberal and democratic reforms. [193] In the Port Phillip District there was agitation for representative government and independence from New South Wales. [194] In 1850, Britain granted Van Diemen's Land, South Australia and the newly created colony of Victoria semi-elected Legislative Councils on the New South Wales model. [195]
The gold rushes of the 1850s
Mr E.H. Hargraves, The Gold Discoverer of Australia, Feb 12th 1851 returning the salute of the gold miners – Thomas Tyrwhitt Balcombe
In February 1851, Edward Hargraves discovered gold near Bathurst, New South Wales . Further discoveries were made later that year in Victoria, where the richest gold fields were found. New South Wales and Victoria introduced a gold mining licence with a monthly fee, the revenue being used to offset the cost of providing infrastructure, administration and policing of the goldfields. [196]
The gold rush initially caused inflation and labour shortages as male workers moved to the goldfields. Immigrants poured in from Britain, Europe, the United States and China, many of whom sought to go to the goldfields. The Australian population increased from 430,000 in 1851 to 1,170,000 in 1861. Victoria became the most populous colony and Melbourne the largest city. [197] [198]
Chinese migration was a particular concern for colonial officials due to the widespread belief that it represented a danger to white Australian living standards and morality. Colonial governments responded by imposing taxes and restrictions on Chinese migrants and residents. Anti-Chinese riots erupted on the Victorian goldfields in 1856 and in New South Wales in 1860. [199]
The Eureka stockade
Eureka Stockade Riot. J. B. Henderson (1854) watercolour
Faced with increasing competition, Victorian miners increasingly complaint about the licence fee, corrupt and heavy-handed officials, and the lack of voting rights for itinerant miners. Protests intensified in October 1854 when three miners were arrested following a riot at Ballarat. Protesters formed the Ballarat Reform League to support the arrested men and demanded manhood suffrage, reform of the mining licence and administration, and land reform to promote small farms. Further protests followed and protesters built a stockade on the Eureka Field at Ballarat. On 3 December troops overran the stockade, killing about 20 protesters. Five troops were killed and 12 seriously wounded. [200]
Following a Royal Commission, the monthly licence was replaced with a cheaper annual miner's right which gave holders the right to vote and build a dwelling on the goldfields. The administration of the Victorian goldfields was also reformed. The Eureka rebellion soon became a part of Australian nationalist mythology. [201] [202]
Self-government and democracy
Elections for the semi-representative Legislative Councils, held in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Van Diemen's Land in 1851, produced a greater number of liberal members who agitated for full self-government. In 1852, the British Government announced that convict transportation to Van Diemen's Land would cease and invited the eastern colonies to draft constitutions enabling self-government. [203]
The constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria and Van Diemen's Land (renamed Tasmania in 1856) gained Royal Assent in 1855, that for South Australia in 1856. The constitutions varied, but each created a lower house elected on a broad male franchise and an upper house which was either appointed for life (New South Wales) or elected on a more restricted property franchise. When Queensland became a separate colony in 1859 it immediately became self-governing. Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890. [204]
The secret ballot was adopted in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in 1856, followed by New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1859) and Western Australia (1877). South Australia introduced universal male suffrage for its lower house in 1856, followed by Victoria in 1857, New South Wales (1858), Queensland (1872), Western Australia (1893) and Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluded Aboriginal males from voting in 1885. [205] In Western Australia a property qualification for voting existed for male Aboriginals, Asians, Africans and people of mixed descent. [204]
Societies to promote women's suffrage were formed in Victoria in 1884, South Australia in 1888 and New South Wales in 1891. The Women's Christian Temperance Union also established branches in most Australian colonies in the 1880s, promoting votes for women and a range of social causes. [206] Female suffrage, and the right to stand for office, was first won in South Australia in 1895. [207] Women won the vote in Western Australia in 1899, with racial restrictions. Women in the rest of Australia only won full rights to vote and to stand for elected office in the decade after Federation, although there were some racial restrictions. [208] [209]
The long boom (1860 to 1890)
From the 1850s to 1871 gold was Australia's largest export and allowed the colonies to import a range of consumer and capital goods. The increase in population in the decades following the gold rush stimulated demand for housing, consumer goods, services and urban infrastructure. [210]
In the 1860s, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia introduced Selection Acts intended to promote family farms and mixed farming and grazing. [211] Improvements in farming technology and the introduction of crops adapted to Australian conditions eventually led to the diversification of rural land use. The expansion of the railways from the 1860s allowed wheat to be cheaply transported in bulk, stimulating the development of a wheat belt from South Australia to Queensland. [212] [213]
The period 1850 to 1880 saw a revival in bushranging . The resurgence of bushranging from the 1850s drew on the grievances of the rural poor (several members of the Kelly gang , the most famous bushrangers, were the sons of impoverished small farmers). The exploits of Ned Kelly and his gang garnered considerable local community support and extensive national press coverage at the time. After Kelly's capture and execution for murder in 1880 his story inspired numerous works of art, literature and popular culture and continuing debate about the extent to which he was a rebel fighting social injustice and oppressive police, or a murderous criminal. [214]
The seizure of the blackbirder ship 'Daphne' ca.1869; The Pacific Slave trade operated between 1863 and 1904 saw tens of thousands of South Sea Islanders brought to the sugarcane plantations of Queensland either as indentured workers or slaves
By the 1880s half the Australian population lived in towns, making Australia more urbanised than the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. [215] Between 1870 and 1890 average income per person in Australia was more than 50 per cent higher than that of the United States, giving Australia one of the highest living standards in the world. [216]
The size of the government sector almost doubled from 10 per cent of national expenditure in 1850 to 19 per cent in 1890. Colonial governments spent heavily on infrastructure such as railways, ports, telegraph, schools and urban services. Much of the money for this infrastructure was borrowed on the London financial markets, but land-rich governments also sold land to finance expenditure and keep taxes low. [217] [218]
In 1856, building workers in Sydney and Melbourne were the first in the world to win the eight hour working day. The 1880s saw trade unions grow and spread to lower skilled workers and also across colonial boundaries. By 1890 about 20 per cent of male workers belonged to a union, one of the highest rates in the world. [219] [220]
Economic growth was accompanied by expansion into northern Australia. Gold was discovered in northern Queensland in the 1860s and 1870s, and in the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia in the 1880s. Sheep and cattle runs spread to northern Queensland and on to the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory and the Kimberley region of Western Australia in the 1870s and 1880s. Sugar plantations also expanded in northern Queensland during the same period. [221] [222]
From the late 1870s trade unions, Anti-Chinese Leagues and other community groups campaigned against Chinese immigration and low-wage Chinese labour. Following intercolonial conferences on the issue in 1880–81 and 1888, colonial governments responded with a series of laws which progressively restricted Chinese immigration and citizenship rights. [223]
1890s depression
"The labor crisis. – The riot in George Street, Sydney" ( c. 1890)
Falling wool prices and the collapse of a speculative property bubble in Melbourne heralded the end of the long boom. A number of major banks suspended business and the economy contracted by 20 per cent from 1891 to 1895. Unemployment rose to almost a third of the workforce. The depression was followed by the " Federation Drought " from 1895 to 1903. [224]
In 1890, a strike in the shipping industry spread to wharves, railways, mines and shearing sheds. Employers responded by locking out workers and employing non-union labour, and colonial governments intervened with police and troops. The strike failed, as did subsequent strikes of shearers in 1891 and 1894, and miners in 1892 and 1896. [225]
The defeat of the 1890 Maritime Strike led trade unions to form political parties. In New South Wales, the Labor Electoral League won a quarter of seats in the elections of 1891 and held the balance of power between the Free Trade Party and the Protectionist Party . Labor parties also won seats in the South Australian and Queensland elections of 1893 . The world's first Labor government was formed in Queensland in 1899, but it lasted only a week. [226]
At an Intercolonial Conference in 1896, the colonies agreed to extend restrictions on Chinese immigration to "all coloured races". Labor supported the Reid government of New South Wales in passing the Coloured Races Restriction and Regulation Act, a forerunner of the White Australia Policy. However, after Britain and Japan voiced objections to the legislation, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia instead introduced European language tests to restrict "undesirable" immigrants. [227]
Growth of nationalism
The origins of a distinctly Australian style of painting are often associated with the Heidelberg School movement, Tom Roberts ' Shearing the Rams (1890) being an iconic example.
By the late 1880s, a majority of people living in the Australian colonies were native born, although more than 90 per cent were of British and Irish heritage. [228] The Australian Natives Association , campaigned for an Australian federation within the British Empire, promoted Australian literature and history, and successfully lobbied for the 26 January to be Australia's national day. [229]
The bush balladeer Banjo Paterson penned a number of classic works including " Waltzing Matilda " (1895), regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.
Many nationalists spoke of Australians sharing common blood as members of the British "race". [230] Henry Parkes stated in 1890, "The crimson thread of kinship runs through us all...we must unite as one great Australian people." [231]
A minority of nationalists saw a distinctive Australian identity rather than shared "Britishness" as the basis for a unified Australia. Some, such as the radical magazine The Bulletin and the Tasmanian Attorney-General Andrew Inglis Clark , were republicans, while others were prepared to accept a fully independent country of Australia with only a ceremonial role for the British monarch. [232]
A unified Australia was usually associated with a white Australia. In 1887, The Bulletin declared that all white men who left the religious and class divisions of the old world behind were Australians. [233] A white Australia also meant the exclusion of cheap Asian labour, an idea strongly promoted by the labour movement. [234]
The growing nationalist sentiment in the 1880s and 1890s was associated with the development of a distinctively Australian art and literature. Artists of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton , Frederick McCubbin and Tom Roberts followed the example of the European Impressionists by painting in the open air. They applied themselves to capturing the light and colour of the Australian landscape and exploring the distinctive and the universal in the "mixed life of the city and the characteristic life of the station and the bush". [235]
In the 1890s Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson and other writers associated with The Bulletin produced poetry and prose exploring the nature of bush life and themes of independence, stoicism, masculine labour, egalitarianism, anti-authoritarianism and mateship. Protagonists were often shearers, boundary riders and itinerant bush workers. In the following decade Lawson, Paterson and other writers such as Steele Rudd , Miles Franklin, and Joseph Furphy helped forge a distinctive national literature. Paterson's ballad " The Man from Snowy River" (1890) achieved popularity, and his lyrics to the song " Waltzing Matilda " (c. 1895) helped make it the unofficial national anthem for many Australians. [236]
Federation movement
Growing nationalist sentiment coincided with business concerns about the economic inefficiency of customs barriers between the colonies, the duplication of services by colonial governments and the lack of a single national market for goods and services. [237] Colonial concerns about German and French ambitions in the region also led to British pressure for a federated Australian defence force and a unified, single-gauge railway network for defence purposes. [238]
A Federal Council of Australasia was formed in 1885 but it had few powers and New South Wales and South Australia declined to join. [239]
Sir Henry Parkes delivering the first resolution at the federation conference in Melbourne, 1 March 1890
An obstacle to federation was the fear of the smaller colonies that they would be dominated by New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, in particular, although generally favouring a white Australia policy, wished to maintain an exception for South Sea Islander workers in the sugar cane industry. [240]
Another major barrier was the free trade policies of New South Wales which conflicted with the protectionist policies dominant in Victoria and most of the other colonies. Nevertheless, the NSW premier Henry Parkes was a strong advocate of federation and his Tenterfield Oration in 1889 was pivotal in gathering support for the cause. [241]
In 1891, a National Australasian Convention was held in Sydney, with all the colonies and New Zealand represented. A draft constitutional Bill was adopted, but the worsening economic depression and opposition in colonial parliaments delayed progress. [242]
Citizen Federation Leagues were formed, and at a conference in Corowa in July 1893 they developed a new plan for federation involving a constitutional convention with directly elected delegates and a referendum in each colony to endorse the proposed constitution. The new NSW premier, George Reid , endorsed the "Corowa plan" and in 1895 convinced the majority of other premiers to adopt it. [243]
All of the colonies except Queensland sent representatives to a constitutional convention which held sessions in 1897 and 1898. The convention drafted a proposed constitution for a Commonwealth of federated states under the British Crown. [244]
Referendums held in 1898 resulted in solid majorities for the constitution in Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. However, the referendum failed to gain the required majority in New South Wales. [245] The premiers of the other colonies agreed to a number of concessions to New South Wales (particularly that the future Commonwealth capital would be located in that state), and in 1899 further referendums were held in all the colonies except Western Australia. All resulted in yes votes. [246]
In March 1900, delegates were dispatched to London, including leading federation advocates Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin . Following negotiations with the British government, the federation Bill was passed by the imperial parliament on 5 July 1900 and gained Royal Assent on 9 July. Western Australia subsequently voted to join the new federation. [247]
From federation to war (1901—1914)
The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed by the Governor-General , Lord Hopetoun on 1 January 1901, and Barton was sworn in as Australia's first prime minister. [247] The first Federal elections were held in March 1901 and resulted in a narrow plurality for the Protectionist Party over the Free Trade Party with the Australian Labor Party (ALP) polling third. Labor declared it would support the party which offered concessions to its program, and Barton's Protectionists formed a government, with Deakin as Attorney-General . [248]
The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was one of the first laws passed by the new Australian parliament . This centrepiece of the White Australia policy, the act used a dictation test in a European language to exclude Asian migrants, who were considered a threat to Australia's living standards and majority British culture. [249] [250]
With federation, the Commonwealth inherited the small defence forces of the six former Australian colonies. By 1901, units of soldiers from all six Australian colonies had been active as part of British forces in the Boer War . When the British government asked for more troops from Australia in early 1902, the Australian government obliged with a national contingent. Some 16,500 men had volunteered for service by the war's end in June 1902. [251] [252]
In 1902, the government introduced female suffrage in the Commonwealth jurisdiction, but at the same time excluded Aboriginal people from the franchise unless they already had the vote in a state jurisdiction. [253]
Implementing the White Australia policy was one of the first acts of the new parliament. Pictured: The Melbourne Punch (c. May 1888)
The government also introduced a tariff on imports, designed to raise revenue and protect Australian industry. [254] However, disagreements over industrial relations legislation led to the fall of Deakin's Protectionist government in April 1904 and the appointment of the first national Labor government under prime minister Chris Watson . The Watson government itself fell in April and a Free Trade government under prime minister Reid successfully introduced legislation for a Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Court to settle interstate industrial disputes. [255]
In July 1905, Deakin formed a Protectionist government with the support of Labor. The new government embarked on a series of social reforms and a program dubbed "new protection" under which tariff protection for Australian industries would be linked to their provision of "fair and reasonable" wages. In the Harvester case of 1907, H. B. Higgins of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court set a basic wage based on the needs of a male breadwinner supporting a wife and three children. By 1914 the Commonwealth and all the states had introduced systems to settle industrial disputes and fix wages and conditions. [256] [257]
The base of the Labor Party was the Australian Trade Union movement which grew from under 100,000 members in 1901 to more than half a million in 1914. [258] The party also drew considerable support from clerical workers, Catholics and small farmers. [259] In 1905, the Labor party adopted objectives at the federal level which included the "cultivation of an Australian sentiment based upon the maintenance of racial purity" and "the collective ownership of monopolies". In the same year, the Queensland branch of the party adopted an overtly socialist objective. [260]
Procession in support of an eight-hour work day, George Street, Sydney , 4 October 1909
After the December 1906 elections Deakin's Protectionist government remained in power, but following the passage of legislation for old age pensions and a new protective tariff in 1908, Labor withdrew its support for the government. In November, Andrew Fisher became the second Labor prime minister. In response, opposition parties formed an anti-Labor coalition and Deakin became prime minister in June 1909. [261]
In the elections of May 1910 , Labor won a majority in both houses of parliament and Fisher again became prime minister. The Labor government introduced a series of reforms including a progressive land tax (1910), invalid pensions (1910) and a maternity allowance (1912). The government established the Commonwealth Bank (1911) but referendums to nationalise monopolies and extend Commonwealth trade and commerce powers were defeated in 1911 and 1913. The Commonwealth took over responsibility for the Northern Territory from South Australia in 1911. [262] [263] The government increased defence spending, expanding the system of compulsory military training which had been introduced by the previous government and establishing the Royal Australian Navy. [264] [265] [266]
The new Commonwealth Liberal Party won the May 1913 elections and former Labor leader Joseph Cook became prime minister. The Cook government's attempt to pass legislation abolishing preferential treatment for union members in the Commonwealth Public Service triggered a double dissolution of parliament. Labor comfortably won the September 1914 elections and Fisher resumed office. [267]
The prewar period saw strong growth in the population and economy. The economy grew by 75 per cent, with rural industries, construction, manufacturing and government services leading the way. [268] The population increased from four million in 1901 to five million in 1914. From 1910 to 1914 just under 300,000 migrants arrived, all white, and almost all from Britain. [269]
First World War
Australia at war 1914–18
When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, the declaration automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. [270] Both major parties offered Britain 20,000 Australian troops. As the Defence Act 1903 precluded sending conscripts overseas, a new volunteer force, the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), was raised to meet this commitment. [271] [272]
Public enthusiasm for the war was high, and the initial quota for the AIF was quickly filled. The troops left for Egypt on 1 November 1914, one of the escort ships, HMAS Sydney, sinking the German cruiser Emden along the way. Meanwhile, in September, a separate Australian expeditionary force had captured German New Guinea. [273]
After arriving in Egypt, the AIF was incorporated into an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC). The Anzacs formed part of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force with the task of opening the Dardanelles to allied battleships, threatening Constantinople , the capital of the Ottoman Empire which had entered the war on the side of the Central Powers . The Anzacs, along with French, British and Indian troops, landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The Australian and New Zealand position at Anzac Cove was vulnerable to attack and the troops suffered heavy losses in establishing a narrow beachhead. After it had become clear that the expeditionary force would be unable to achieve its objectives, the Anzacs were evacuated in December, followed by the British and French in early January. [274] [275]
The Australians suffered about 8,000 deaths in the campaign. [276] Australian war correspondents variously emphasised the bravery and fighting qualities of the Australians and the errors of their British commanders. The 25 April soon became an Australian national holiday known as Anzac Day , centring on themes of "nationhood, brotherhood and sacrifice". [277] [278]
In 1916, five infantry divisions of the AIF were sent to the Western Front. In July 1916, at Fromelles , the AIF suffered 5,533 casualties in 24 hours, the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. [279] Elsewhere on the Somme , 23,000 Australians were killed or wounded in seven weeks of attacks on German positions. In Spring 1917, Australian troops suffered 10,000 casualties at the First Battle of Bullecourt and the Second Battle of Bullecourt . In the summer and autumn of 1917, Australian troops also sustained heavy losses during the British offensive around Ypres . Overall, almost 22,000 Australian troops were killed in 1917. [280]
In November 1917 the five Australian divisions were united in the Australian Corps , and in May 1918 the Australian general John Monash took over command. The Australian Corps was heavily involved in halting the German Spring Offensive of 1918 and in the allied counter-offensive of August that year. [281]
In the Middle East, the Australian Light Horse brigades were prominent at the Battle of Romani in August 1916. In 1917, they participated in the allied advance through the Sinai Peninsula and into Palestine. In 1918, they pressed on through Palestine and into Syria in an advance that led to the Ottoman surrender on 31 October. [282]
By the time the war ended on 11 November 1918, 324,000 Australians had served overseas. Casualties included 60,000 dead and 150,000 wounded—the highest casualty rate of any allied force. Australian troops also had higher rates of unauthorised absence, crime and imprisonment than other allied forces. [283]
The home front
Prime Minister W. M. Hughes in 1919
In October 1914, the Fisher Labor government introduced the War Precautions Act which gave it the power to make regulations "for securing the public safety and defence of the Commonwealth". [284] After Billy Hughes replaced Fisher as prime minister in October 1915, regulations under the act were increasingly used to censor publications, penalise public speech and suppress organisations that the government considered detrimental to the war effort. [285] [286] Anti-German leagues were formed and 7,000 Germans and other "enemy aliens" were sent to internment camps during the war. [287] [285]
The economy contracted by 10 per cent during the course of hostilities. Inflation rose in the first two years of war and real wages fell. [288] [289] Lower wages and perceptions of profiteering by some businesses led, in 1916, to a wave of strikes by miners, waterside workers and shearers. [290]
Enlistments in the military also declined, falling from 35,000 a month at its peak in 1915 to 6,000 a month in 1916. [291] In response, Hughes decided to hold a referendum on conscription for overseas service. Following the narrow defeat of the October 1916 conscription referendum , Hughes and 23 of his supporters left the parliamentary Labor party and formed a new Nationalist government with the former opposition. The Nationalists comfortably won the May 1917 elections and Hughes continued as prime minister. [292]
From August to October 1917 there was a major strike of New South Wales railway, transport, waterside and coal workers which was defeated after the Commonwealth and New South Wales governments arrested strike leaders and organised special constables and non-union labour. [293] A second referendum on conscription was also defeated in December. Enlistments in 1918 were the lowest for the war, leading to the disbandment of 12 battalions and mutinies in the AIF. [294]
Paris peace conference
Hughes attended the Imperial War Conference and Imperial War Cabinet in London from June 1918 where Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa won British support for their separate representation at the eventual peace conference. [295] [296] At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Hughes argued that Germany should pay the full cost of the war, but ultimately gained only £5 million in war reparations for Australia. Australia and the other self-governing British dominions won the right to become full members of the new League of Nations , and Australia obtained a special League of Nations mandate over German New Guinea allowing Australia to control trade and immigration. Australia also gained a 42 per cent share of the formerly German-ruled island of Nauru, giving access to its rich superphosphate reserves. Australia argued successfully against a Japanese proposal for a racial equality clause in the League of Nations covenant, as Hughes feared that it would jeopardise the White Australia policy. [297] As a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles and a full member of the League of Nations, Australia took an important step towards international recognition as a sovereign nation. [298]
Inter-war years
1920s: men, money and markets
Built between 1920 and 1930, a cultural masterpiece of Australian architecture , Brisbane City Hall was one of the most expensive buildings and the second largest construction of the Inter-war period, after the Sydney Harbour Bridge .
After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party , formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor (of which he was the most prominent), after the deep and bitter split over Conscription . An estimated 12,000 Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1919, almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers. [299]
Edith Cowan (1861–1932) was elected to the West Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921 and was the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament.
The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War . Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War . [300] [301]
The Country Party (today's National Party ) formed in 1920 to promulgate its version of agrarianism , which it called " Countrymindedness ". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. [302] Enduring longer than any other major party save the Labor party, it has generally operated in coalition with the Liberal Party (since the 1940s), becoming a major party of government in Australia—particularly in Queensland.
Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the 1923 Victorian Police strike . [303] Industrial disputes characterised the 1920s in Australia. Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late 1920s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) in 1927 in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions.
The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the 1920s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6 pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs. [304]
The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, despite more than 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at 1250 venues. A Royal Commission in 1927 failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), atrophied until its revival in the 1970s . [305] [306]
Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and that he was seeking such from Britain. [307] The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia, [308] although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers "on the land" were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous". [309]
In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. [310] Despite Imperial Preference , a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924. .. to ... 1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities. [311]
Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000. [312] The stage coach company Cobb and Co , established in 1853, finally closed in 1924. [313] In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas ) was established. [314] The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service , the world's first air ambulance in 1928. [315] Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft Southern Cross . He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935. [316]
Dominion status
The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states.
From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20°S . New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island , Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island , McDonald Islands , and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947).
The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra ( Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.
Great Depression
Ribbon ceremony to open the Sydney Harbour Bridge on 20 March 1932. Breaking protocol, the soon to be dismissed Premier Jack Lang cuts the ribbon while Governor Philip Game looks on.
Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat. [319] Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. [320] Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia , but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. [321] In 1926, Australian Finance magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency" unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers..." [322] Thus, well before the Wall Street crash of 1929 , the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose. [323]
In 1931, more than 1,000 unemployed men marched from the Esplanade to the Treasury Building in Perth, Western Australia , to see Premier Sir James Mitchell .
At elections held in October 1929 , the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory ; Stanley Bruce , the former prime minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin , and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang , others to Prime Minister Scullin.
Various "plans" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer , a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales , Jack Lang , proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. [324] The "Premier's Plan" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation. [325] In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales , Philip Game , had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game . At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed. [326]
May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party . At Federal elections in December 1931 , the United Australia Party , led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons , easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious. [327] Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9 million to £485.9 million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04)." [328]
21-year-old Don Bradman is chaired off the cricket pitch after scoring a world record 452 runs not out in 1930. Sporting success lifted Australian spirits through the Depression years.
Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute , Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery. [329]
The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. "Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment" wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that "over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low." [330] [331] Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed. [332] Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra . This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.
In the working class suburb of Paddington , 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed. [333] Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors. [334] In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east Victoria and Western Australia , who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments. [335]
Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman , a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes. [336] The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row. [337] Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup , following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight. [338] Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. [339] The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia).
Indigenous policy
Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people. [340]
Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers. [341]
The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves. [342]
In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions. [343]
The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.
[T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end. [344]
The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people. [344]
... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites. [345]
The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare. [346] In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war. [345]
Second World War
Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections , both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need". [347] Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40 million on the Royal Australian Navy , £20 million on the Australian Army and £6 million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the "youngest" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war. [348]
The light cruiser HMAS Sydney , lost in a battle in the Indian Ocean, November 1941
Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments. [349] Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF , as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated. [350] In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy." [351] According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time." But "this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners", such as the 1937 Imperial Conference . [352]
By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars. [353] A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000. [354] The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War. [355]
War
Australian troops at Milne Bay, Papua. The Australian army was the first to inflict defeat on the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II at the Battle of Milne Bay of August–September 1942.
An Australian light machine gun team in action near Wewak , Papua New Guinea , in June 1945
On 3 September 1939, the prime minister, Robert Menzies , made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland , Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war." [356]
Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk , turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign , undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, Darwin . [357]
The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany . Britain stood alone with its dominions . Menzies called for "all-out war", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election . [358]
In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz , Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill 's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as prime minister. [349] Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor .
A patrol from the 2/13th Infantry Battalion at Tobruk in North Africa, (AWM 020779). The 1941 Siege of Tobruk saw an Australian garrison halt the advance of Hitler's Panzer divisions for the first time since the commencement of the war.
A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya , by the German-Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: " The Rats of Tobruk ". [359] Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal , the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth , which was then standing alone against Hitler.[ citation needed ]
The war came closer to home when HMAS Sydney was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider Kormoran in November 1941.
With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship HMS Prince of Wales and battlecruiser HMS Repulse sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement: [360] "The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom." [361]
US General Douglas MacArthur , Commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, with Prime Minister John Curtin
British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore , before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia" would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid , the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times.
Dutch and Australian PoWs at Tarsau, in Thailand in 1943. 22,000 Australians were captured by the Japanese; 8,000 died as POWs.
Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur , to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour . On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. [362]
In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby , in the Australian Territory of New Guinea . In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north. [132] Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track , in the highlands of New Guinea . The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces.
Australian soldiers display Japanese flags they captured at Kaiapit , New Guinea in 1943.
Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt . A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein , which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies. [363]
The Battle of Buna–Gona , between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign , which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. [364] On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur , though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan. [365] [366]
Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's Burma-Thailand Railway . [367] In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war. [368]
MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo . Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley .
Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese. [369]
Australian home front
Australian women were encouraged to contribute to the war effort by joining one of the female branches of the armed forces or participating in the labour force.
While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort. [370] Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti-aircraft and sea defences. [371]
The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II. [372] Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940. [373] Total war expenditure was £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945. [374]
Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor government , formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life". [375] Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced. [376] In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements." [375] Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas".
In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states." [377]
Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so." [378] From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter , although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US. [379] The Boomerang fighter , designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced.
Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000. [380] Dame Enid Lyons , widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons , became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies' new centre-right Liberal Party of Australia , formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate .
Post-war boom
Menzies and Liberal dominance: 1949–72
Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks [381] and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party . Menzies became the country's longest-serving prime minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party , won every federal election until 1972.
As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north, Mao Zedong 's Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea . The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia's involvement in the Korean War . After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San . 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed. [382]
Queen Elizabeth II inspecting sheep at Wagga Wagga on her 1954 Royal Tour. Huge crowds greeted the Royal party across Australia.
During the course of the Korean War , the Liberal government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia , first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951. [383] While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov , added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party. [384] The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948–49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill-health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy. [385]
Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included youth culture and its rock and roll music and, in the late 1950s, the arrival of television broadcasting. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty , who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad " Pub With No Beer ", [386] while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe 's " Wild One " became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20. [387] [388] Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature , featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch .
Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States , but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner. [389]
When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and prime minister by Harold Holt . Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968–1971) and then by William McMahon (1971–1972).
Post-war immigration
Postwar migrants arriving in Australia in 1954
After World War II and by the 1950s, Australia had a population of 10 million, and the most populous urban centre was its oldest city, Sydney . It has retained its status as Australia's largest city ever since.
Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely." [390] All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish". Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance. [391]
Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers". [392] The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme . This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from more than 30 countries , to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia. [393] Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland. [394] The 1957 novel They're a Weird Mob was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author John O'Grady . The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city.
In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria. [395] [396] Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy . It legally ended in 1973.
Economic growth and suburban living
Tumut 3 power station was constructed as part of the vast Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Scheme (1949–1974). Construction necessitated the expansion of Australia's immigration programme.
Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time. [397] [398] The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961. [399] By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, "at least four-fifths of them migrants". [400]
In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy", neglecting research and development and the search for new markets. [400] The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development.
Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period. [401] Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966. [402]
The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms. [403] Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world. [404] By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car. [405] According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car." [397]
Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable. [406] Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd , a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as "'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas". [407] In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone , a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson , a vulgar parody of a Whitlam-era politician. [408]
Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "...solution to the needs of migrants..." Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings". [409] Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves..." [410]
In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the ABC , and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne , with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia. [411] Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975.
Indigenous civil rights, assimilation and child removal
The Menzies era (1949–1972) saw significant strides in civil rights for indigenous Australians. Over the period, Menzies and his successors dismantled remaining restrictions on voting rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples culminating in the Menzies Government's 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act, while the Holt Government's landmark 1967 Referendum received overwhelming public support for the transfer of responsibility for Aboriginal Affairs to the Federal Government, and the removal of discriminatory provisions regarding the national census from the Australian Constitution . By 1971, the first Aboriginal Senator was sitting on the government benches, with Neville Bonner becoming a Liberal Senator for QLD. [412]
Prime Minister Harold Holt with Aboriginal rights campaigners ahead of the 1967 Referendum .
Liberal Senator Neville Bonner , the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal, joined the Senate in 1971
During this period, the policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families slowed by the late 1960s and by 1973 the Commonwealth had adopted a policy of self-determination for Indigenous Australians. [413]
The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials had agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians. Paul Hasluck , the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: "Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do." [345] [346]
Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965. [414]
In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to 1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent. [415] Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent. [416]
Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: "Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference." [415]
Alliances 1950–1972
In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain. [417] At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia. [418] Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952. [419] Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis . [420]
Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch , in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom." [421]
Harold Holt and US President John F. Kennedy in the Oval Office in Washington, D.C., 1963. By the 1960s, Australian defence policy had shifted from Britain to the US as key ally.
As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape , the first of several built during the next decade. [422] [423] Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part.
According to diplomat Alan Renouf , the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism. [424] Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years. [425] The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant. [426] The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War . [427]
As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973 : "seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives." [428] Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been "hedging its British bets" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 "marked the demise of British Australia." [427]
Vietnam War
By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States", a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam . [429] In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us". The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it. [430] Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam. [431] By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets. [432]
In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States." [433] While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson "...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, [Australia] that will be all the way with LBJ." [434]
The Liberal-CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966 , fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader Gough Whitlam had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there. [435] Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later.
Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections , the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds—the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns . As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisers of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor government in mid-December 1972. [432]
The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218 million between 1962 and 1972. [432]
Reform and reaction: 1972–1996
The Whitlam government: 1972–75
Gough Whitlam and US President Richard Nixon in 1973. The Whitlam government was responsible for significant reforms, but went on to be dismissed in controversial circumstances.
Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam , introducing significant reforms and expanding the federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs, the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam. [436]
In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $23 million to $141 million during the three years of the government. [437] One of the first acts of the Whitlam government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 . [437]
As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at elections in May 1974 , the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent. [438]
In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$4 billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan , and Treasurer Jim Cairns misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair , the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General , John Kerr on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker prime minister, pending an election. [439]
Fraser government: 1975–83
The Federal elections of December 1975 resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as prime minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian prime minister up to that time. [440] The Fraser government espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential environmental movement in Australia . [441] [440]
On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a "fight inflation first" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the Federal elections in March 1983 the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader Bob Hawke . [442]
Labor governments: 1983–1996
Bob Hawke with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987. Hawke went on to become the longest-serving Labor Prime Minister.
The Hawke government pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring "summits" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced. [443] The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party. [444] These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on imports were reduced, and a number of government enterprises were privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and "contributions" (HECS) . [445] Paul Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture." [446]
The government's environmental interventions included stopping the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing. [443] In foreign policy, the government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990. [443] [447]
Opening of the new Parliament House during the Australian Bicentenary , May 1988.
The government took other initiatives aimed at fostering national unity. The Australia Act 1986 eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority at the federal level. The Australian Bicentenary in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new Parliament House in Canberra was opened. [448]
Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into recession in 1990 and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling, Paul Keating successfully challenged for the leadership and became prime minister in December 1991. [443]
The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the "One Nation" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the Great Depression in Australia . The Liberal-National opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election , including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax . Keating campaigned strongly against the tax and was returned to office in March 1993. [449]
Paul Keating delivering the Redfern Park Speech on 10 December 1992
In May 1994 a more ambitious "Working Nation" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of "big picture" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region, Indigenous reconciliation , and an Australian republic . The government engaged closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto and other regional partners, and successfully campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation. [450] A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic Mabo decision in 1992, the first national Native Title legislation was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title. [451] In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions. [452]
Under the Hawke government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal immigrants arriving without a valid visa. Immigration fell to 67,900 in 1992–93. [453] [454]
With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, Keating lost the March 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard . [455] [456]
Australia in a globalised world: 1996–2022
Main article: Howard government
Howard government: 1996–2007
John Howard , the 25th Prime Minister of Australia held office from 1996 to 2007, the second-longest tenure in history
John Howard with a Liberal–National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. The Howard government introduced a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur . The coalition introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996 which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000. [457]
The government responded to the populist anti-immigration policies of Pauline Hanson and her One Nation party by publicly criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values. [458] [459] The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the Office of Multicultural Affairs and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants. [460] Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees. Following the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair in 2001, the government introduced the Pacific Solution , which involved moving unauthorised immigrants to detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea. [461]
In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of "practical reconciliation" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health, employment and housing. In response to the High Court's decision in Wik Peoples v Queensland , in 1996, the government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the " Little Children are Sacred " report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard government launched the Northern Territory Intervention in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, but was supported by the Labor opposition. [462]
Honouring an election commitment, the Howard government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, a monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people. [463] [464]
The Australian-led multinational force in response to the Solomon Islands conflict (1999–2003). Operation RAMSI (2003–2017) became Australia's largest effort in democracy and nation-building
In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. Australia also committed to other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville , including Operation Bel Isi (1998–2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis . [465] Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War . These events, along with the 2002 Bali Bombings and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation. [457]
In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of "Asia first, but not Asia only", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the War on Terror was followed by an Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India. [466]
After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased steadily, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. Immigration also became more diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08. Inbound tourism also grew, helped by the Sydney Olympic games in 2000. [467]
The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports, imports and foreign investment grew, and China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan. The coalition delivered budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales, were partly invested in a Future Fund to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners. [468]
By 2007, the Howard government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. There were also leadership tensions between Howard and Costello, and opinion polls indicated a desire for a generational change in leadership. Labor won the November 2007 election with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting prime minister to lose his seat in an election. [469]
Labor governments: 2007–2013
Kevin Rudd and Julia Gillard in 2006. Gillard went on to become Australia's first female Prime Minister.
The Rudd government moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the removal of Aboriginal children from their families . [470] The government was soon confronted by the Global Financial Crisis and subsequent global recession , responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession. [471]
The Rudd government proposed an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to address climate change, but the legislation was twice rejected in the Senate. After the failed December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens. [472] The government's proposed a Resources Super Profits Tax adversely affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia. [473]
The government changed its predecessor's asylum seeker policy by closing the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and improving the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in mandatory detention stretched capacity. The new leader of the opposition, Tony Abbot , promised that a coalition government would "stop the boats." [474] [475]
In June 2010, with the government behind the opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with Julia Gillard as leader: Australia's first female prime minister. [475] The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there. [476]
Following the August 2010 federal election , Gillard formed a minority Labor government with the support of the Australian Greens and three independents. [477] The Gillard government passed enabling legislation for a National Broadband Network , a carbon pricing scheme , a mining tax, a National Disability Insurance Scheme , and school funding reforms. [477] The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some asylum seekers there but the plan was struck down by the High Court. In response, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru. [478]
Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as prime minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat would not be settled in Australia. [479] The opposition, promising to "stop the boats," abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the September 2013 election . [480]
Liberal-National Coalition governments (2013–2022)
Abbott government (2013–2015)
Prime Minister Tony Abbott's government began implementing its policies on unauthorised maritime arrivals, including Operation Sovereign Borders , boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015. [481] [482] The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with China , South Korea and Japan . The government also embraced the intervention against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army. [483]
The government's May 2014 Budget proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises. [484] The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014). [483]
The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions – most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh – which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media. [485] [486] By September 2015 the government had lost 30 Newspolls in a row and Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged for the leadership. [487]
Turnbull government (2015–2018)
The new Turnbull government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax. [488] However, the elections of July 2016 saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised same-sex marriage in December 2017. [489]
In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US. [490] There was increased tension with China over its policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's 5G communications network. [491]
In 2017, the United States, Japan, India and Australia agreed to revive the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue in order to counter Chinese ambitions in the South China Sea . [492] Australia signed a modified Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement. [493]
The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government made a commitment to meet Australia's emissions target under the Paris Agreement , a number of coalition members rebelled. The controversy harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as prime minister. [494]
Morrison government (2018–2022)
A barricade in Coolangatta enforcing the border closure between Queensland and New South Wales in April 2020 that was implemented by the Queensland Government in response to the COVID-19 pandemic [495]
The Morrison government committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices. [496] In foreign affairs the government signed the Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) in March 2019. [497] The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority.
In 2017, a convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the Uluru Statement from the Heart , calling for constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a "voice to parliament". In 2019, the government announced a process to ensure that Indigenous Australians would be heard at all levels of government. [498]
In 2020, the government was confronted with the world COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years. [499] The government banned foreign nationals entering Australia and formed a National Cabinet to address the crisis. [500] [501] The national cabinet announced restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people. These restrictions were eased from May, although individual states and territories reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19. [502] [503]
The Australian government made provision for $267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19. [504] As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate peaked at 7.5 per cent in July 2020 before falling to 5.6 per cent in March 2021. [503] [505] [506]
Scott Morrison with fellow AUKUS founders Prime Minister Boris Johnston of the UK and US President Joe Biden .
In June 2021, Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a free-trade agreement . [507] On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed AUKUS . The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric Attack-class submarine with the French company Naval Group. [508] The decision drew rebukes from China and France. [509] [510]
Post-pandemic: 2022–present
Albanese government (2022–present)
Main article: Albanese government
On 23 May 2022, Anthony Albanese was sworn in as Australia's new prime minister. His Labor Party defeated Scott Morrison's conservative government in the election . Prime Minister Albanese formed Australia's first Labor government in almost a decade. [511]
The global surge in inflation that began in 2021, continued. The Australian inflation rate peaked at 7.5% at the end of 2022: a 32 year high. By November 2023, the Reserve Bank of Australia had raised interest rates to 4.35%, a 12-year high. [512]
A referendum on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was held on 14 October 2023 and was rejected nationally. [513] The Yes23 campaign co-chair Rachel Perkins called for a week of silence "to grieve this outcome and reflect on its meaning and significance". [514]
Society and culture: 1960s–present
Social developments
Indigenous Australians
The 1960s proved a key decade for Indigenous rights in Australia, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders , and embraced by the wider population as citizenship rights were extended. [515]
At the start of the decade, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns. [516]
The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture. [517] In 1962, the Menzies Government 's Commonwealth Electoral Act gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people. [518] [519]
In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971. [520] In 1965, Charles Perkins , helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights. [521]
In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians. [522] A 1967 referendum changed the Australian constitution to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf. [523] A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established. [524]
Popular acclaim for Aboriginal artists, sportspeople and musicians also grew over the period. In 1968, boxer Lionel Rose was proclaimed Australian of the Year . [525] That same year, artist Albert Namatjira was honoured with a postage stamp. [526] Singer-songwriter Jimmy Little 's 1963 Gospel song " Royal Telephone " was the first No.1 hit by an Aboriginal artist. [527] Women's Tennis World No. 1 Evonne Goolagong Cawley was celebrated as Australian of the Year in 1971. [528]
Country Liberal Adam Giles became the first indigenous Australian to head a state or territory government when he became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory in 2016.
Neville Bonner was appointed Liberal Senator for QLD in 1971, becoming the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal. Eric Deeral (QLD) and Hyacinth Tungutalum (NT) followed at a state and territory level in 1974. [529] In 1976, Sir Doug Nicholls was appointed Governor of South Australia , the first indigenous Australian to hold vice-regal office. [530] By the 2020s, Aboriginal representation in the federal parliament had exceeded the proportion of Aboriginal people in the general population, and Australia had its first Aboriginal leader of a state or territory in 2016, when the Country Liberal Party's Adam Giles became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory . [531]
In January 1972, Aboriginal activists erected an Aboriginal "tent embassy" on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands. [532]
The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people. [437] The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 . [437]
Uluru: returned to traditional owners in 1985
Following this, some states introduced their own land rights legislation; however, there were significant limitations on the returned lands, or that available for claim. [533] In 1985, the Hawke government handed over Uluru (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth. [534]
In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case , holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land. [535] By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title. [536]
From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population) but by 2016 had grown to 786,900 (3 per cent of the population) with a third living in major cities. [537] Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small outstations (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities. [538]
From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous. [539] High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018. [540]
Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved." [541]
Women
A female police officer in 2008
Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s. [542] [543]
The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal Sex Discrimination Act in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986. [544]
Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and the Family Law Act 1975 bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services. [542] The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres. [545]
According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity. [542] In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. 68 per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men. [546]
In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually. [546] However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the Inter-Parliamentary Union 's ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments. [547]
Migrants and cultural diversity
Malcolm Fraser: Committed to a multicultural Australia
In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe. [548] The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed. [549]
By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia". [550]
The Pai Lau Gate in the ethnically diverse suburb of Cabramatta in Sydney
Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants. [550] James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market. [551]
In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values". [552]
Following 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security. [553] The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07. [454]
Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants. [554] The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.". [555]
By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world. [556]
Arts and culture
John Gorton in 1970. As Prime Minister, Gorton revitalised government support for Australian cinema
The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The Gorton government (1968–71) established the Australian Council for the Arts , the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School. [557] The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television. [558]
In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series Homicide (1964–67) became the highest rating program and the family drama Skippy the Bush Kangaroo became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include Rush (1973–76), The Sullivans (1976–83) and Neighbours (1985–present). [559]
From the late 1960s a "new wave" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the Pram Factory , La Mama and the Australian Performing Group in Melbourne and the Jane Street Theatre and Nimrod Theatre Company in Sydney. Playwrights associated with the new wave included David Williamson , Alex Buzo , Jack Hibberd and John Romeril . Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states. [560]
Patrick White: In 1973, became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize in Literature
Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), My Brilliant Career (1979), Breaker Morant (1980), Gallipoli (1981), the Mad Max trilogy (1979–85) and Crocodile Dundee (1986). [561]
In 1973, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature. [562] While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988. [563] By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board. Writers who published their first book between 1975 and 1985 include Peter Carey , David Malouf , Murray Bail , Elizabeth Jolley , Helen Garner and Tim Winton . [564]
There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at Papunya began using acrylic paints to make "dot" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography. [564] Indigenous writers such as Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker), Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert produced significant work in the 1970s and 1980s. A National Black Theatre was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the Bangarra Dance Theatre in 1989. In 1991, the rock band Yothu Yindi , which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success. [565]
In music, ABC television's popular music show Countdown (1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels. [566]
Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: "There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain." [564] However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as P. P. McGuiness and Geoffrey Serle were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet Chris Wallace-Crabbe questioned whether Australia had overcome its former " cultural cringe " only to fall into cultural overconfidence. [567]
In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the " tyranny of distance " which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the Australian Ballet and Australian Chamber Orchestra frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as Art Basel Hong Kong and the Queensland Art Gallery's Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art , have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market. [568] [569]
In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s. [570] A number of Australian directors and actors, including Baz Luhrmann , George Miller , Peter Weir , Cate Blanchett , Nicole Kidman , Geoffrey Rush and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia. [568] Major international productions made in Australia in the past decade include Mad Max: Fury Road and The Great Gatsby .
Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: "Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets." [571]
Historiography
The first Australian histories, such as those by William Wentworth and James Macarthur , were written to influence public opinion and British policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. Typical of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the Cambridge History of the British Empire published in 1933. [572] [573]
Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with Charles Bean's 12 volume History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 (1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: "immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood – the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation." [574]
Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s. Brian Fitzpatrick published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence. Russel Ward's The Australian Legend (1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s, Marxist historians such as Bob Gollan and Ian Turner explored the relationship of the labour movement to radical nationalist politics. [575]
Donald Horne 's The Lucky Country (1964) is a critique of a "dull and provincial" Australia that gets by on its abundance of natural resources. [576] The book's title has been constantly misinterpreted since the book was published. [577]
In the first two volumes of his History of Australia (1962, 1968) Manning Clark developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of "epic tragedy" in which "the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting". [578] Donald Horne's The Lucky Country (1964) was scathing in its observations of a complacent, dull, anti-intellectual and provincial Australia, with a swollen suburbia and absence of innovation. Geoffrey Blainey 's The Tyranny of Distance (1966) argued that Australia's distance from Britain had shaped its history and identity. [579] [580]
Humphrey McQueen in A New Britannia (1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. Anne Summers in Damned Whores and God's Police (1975) and Miriam Dixson in The Real Matilda (1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity. [581] Oral histories, such as Wendy Lowenstein 's Weevils in the Flour (1978) became more prominent. [582]
From the 1970s, histories of the Aboriginal–settler relationship became prominent. Charles Rowley 's The Destruction of Aboriginal Society (1970), Henry Reynolds ' The Other Side of the Frontier (1981) and Peter Reid's work on the " stolen generations " of Aboriginal children are notable. [583] [584]
Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in Greg Dening 's Mr Bligh's Bad Language (1992). [585] Memory studies and Pierre Nora 's ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums. [586] Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s. [587] Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades. [588]
In the 21st century, most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades. [589] [590]
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Russell, Penny (2013). "Gender and colonial society". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 479–80.
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Dixon, Robert; Hoorn (2013). "Art and literature". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. Jeanette. pp. 500, 508.
^ Macintyre, Stuart (2020), p. 140-41
^ Hirst, John (2020). pp. 45–61
^ Irving, Helen (2013). p. 252
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^ Hirst, John (2000). pp. 107, 171–73, 204–11
Irving, Helen (2013). "Making the federal Commonwealth". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 249–51.
^ Irving, Helen (2013). "Making the federal Commonwealth". The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume I. pp. 252–55
^ Irving, Helen (2013). pp. 255–59
^ Irving, Helen (2013). pp. 259–61.
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^ a b Irving, Helen (2013). pp. 263–65
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^ Hirst (2013). p. 24
^ Macintyre (1993). p. 101
^ Hirst (2013). p. 35
^ McMullin (1991). p. 64
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 139–40
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^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 26–34
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 34–35
^ Frank Crowley (1973) p. 214
^ Macintyre (2020). pp. 166–67
^ Lowe (2013). pp. 506–08
Garton, Stephen; Stanley, Peter (2013). "The Great War and its aftermath, 1914-22". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2, The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–42, 48. ISBN
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 147–49
^ Macintyre (2020). p. 168
^ Macintyre (2020). p. 168-69
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 43
^ Bill Gammage (1974) The Broken Years. pp. 158–162 Penguin Australia
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 175–76
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). pp. 46–47
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). pp. 40–45
^ Mcintyre (1993). pp. 142, 161
^ a b Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 49
^ Mcintyre (2020). pp. 172–73
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 155–57
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 51
^ Macintyre (1993). p. 155
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 52
^ Macintyre (1993). pp. 162–67
^ Mcintyre (1993). pp. 170–72
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 47
^ Garton and Stanley (2013). p. 39
Bridge, Carl (2013). "Australia, Britain and the British Commonwealth". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2, The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. pp. 522–24. ISBN
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 236
^ Rae Wear, "Countrymindedness Revisited", (Australian Political Science Association, 1990) online edition Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Lloyd Robson (1980) p. 18
^ Lloyd Robson (1980) p. 45
^ Lloyd Robson (1980) p. 48
^ Also see for example – Eric Reade (1979) History and Heartburn; The Saga of Australian Film 1896–1978. Harper and Row, Sydney.
^ Stuart MacIntyre (1986) pp. 200–201
^ Josie Castle, "The 1920s" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 285
^ Josie Castle, "The 1920s" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 253
^ Stuart MacIntyre (1986) p. 204
^ Josie Castle, "The 1920s" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 273
^ Jan Bassett (1986) pp. 56–57
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 213
^ Cited in Jan Bassett (1986) p. 271. It has also been argued that the signing of the Treaty of Versailles by Australia shows de facto recognition of sovereign nation status. See Sir Geoffrey Butler KBE, MA and Fellow, Librarian and Lecturer in International Law and Diplomacy of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge author of A Handbook to the League of Nations.
^ Frank Crowley (1973) p. 417
L.F. Giblin (28 April 1930). "Australia, 1930: An inaugural lecture" . Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
^ Geoff Spenceley (1981) The Depression Decade. p. 14, Thomas Nelson, Australia.
^ Australian Finance, London, 1926, cited in Geoff Spenceley (1981) p. 14
^ Henry Pook (1993) Windows on our Past; Constructing Australian History. p. 195 Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
^ Jan Bassett(1986) pp. 118–19
^ John Close "The Depression Decade" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 318
^ See for example John Close "The Depression Decade" in R. Willis, et al. (eds.) (1982), p. 318
^ Stuart MacIntyre (1986) p. 287
^ Anne Henderson ; Joseph Lyons: The People's Prime Minister; NewSouth; 2011.
^ Wendy Lowenstein (1978) Weevils in the Flour: an oral record of the 1930s depression in Australia. p. 14, Scribe Publications, Fitzroy.
^ David Potts p. 395
^ Spearritt cited in Henry Pook (1993) pp. 211–12. See Also Drew Cottle (1979) "The Sydney Rich and the Great Depression" in Bowyang magazine, September 1979
^ Geoff Spenceley (1981) p. 46
^ Geoff Spenceley (1981) p. 52
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Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve. "Indigenous Australia". Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2. pp. 333–34.
^ Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 195–98
^ Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 172
^ Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 122–36
^ a b Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 210–11
^ a b Broome, Richard (2019). p. 212
^ John Robertson (1984) Australia goes to War, 1939–1945. p. 12. Doubleday, Sydney.
"Primeministers.naa.gov.au" . Primeministers.naa.gov.au. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
^ Gavin Long (1952) To Benghazi. Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Vol. 1. Series One; Army. pp. 22–23. Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
^ John Robertson (1984) p. 12
^ John Robertson "The Distant War: Australia and Imperial defence 1919–1914." In M. McKernan and M. Browne (1988) p. 225
^ John Robertson (1984) p. 17
^ Gavin Long (1952) p. 26
^ John Robertson (1984) p. 20. Thus Australian battalions of World War II carried the prefix 2/ to distinguish them from battalions of World War I
^ Frank Crowley (1973) Modern Australia in Documents 1939–1970. p. 1. Wren Publishing, Melbourne.
^ David Littlewood, "Conscription in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada during the Second World War," History Compass 18#4 (2020) online
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^ Cited in Frank Crowley (1973) Vol 2, p. 51
"Encyclopedia | Australian War Memorial" . Awm.gov.au. 23 October 1942. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2011.
^ John Robertson (1984) p. 198.
^ Gavin Long (1973) The Six Years War p. 474. Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
^ John Robertson (1984) pp. 202–03
^ Frank Crowley (1973) Vol 2, p. 55
^ John Close "Australians in Wartime" in Ray Willis et al. (eds.) (1982) p. 210
^ John Robertson (1984) pp.189–90
^ John Close "Australians in Wartime" in Ray Willis et al. (eds.) (1982) p. 211
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 18
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^ See Menzies in Frank Crowley (1973) Modern Australia in Documents, 1939–1970. pp. 222–26. Wren Publishing, Melbourne.
^ House of Representatives Hansard, 2 August 1945, pp. 4911–15. Arthur Calwell – White Paper on Immigration. john.curtin.edu.au Archived 6 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine
^ Michal Dugan and Josef Swarc (1984) There Goes the Neighbourhood! Australia's Migrant Experience. p. 138 Macmillan, South Melbourne.
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^ Jan Bassett (1986) pp. 138–39
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 273
^ Frank Crowley (1973) p. 358
^ Lynn Kerr and Ken Webb (1989) Australia and the World in the Twentieth Century. pp. 123–24 McGraw Hill Australia.
^ The New Rulers of the World by John Pilger
Crawford, Robert; Humphery, Kim (9 June 2010). Consumer Australia: Historical Perspectives . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 174. ISBN
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^ Cited in Geoffrey Bolton (1990) p. 124
^ Peter Cuffley (1993) Australian Houses of the Forties and Fifties. p. 26. The Five Mile Press, Victoria.
^ Neville Bonner ; Biographical Dictionary of the Australian Senate
^ Broome, Richard (2019). p. 215-17, 230
^ Broome, Richard (2019). p. 212-13
^ a b Broome, Richard (2015). p. 215
^ Flood, Josephine (2019). p. 285
^ Glen Barclay and Joseph Siracusa (1976) Australian American Relations Since 1945, pp. 35–49. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Sydney.
^ See Adrian Tame and F.P.J. Robotham (1982) Maralinga; British A-Bomb, Australian legacy, p. 179, Fontana Books, Melbourne,
^ Glen Barclay and Joseph Siracusa (1976) p. 63
^ Also see Desmond Ball (1980) A suitable piece of real estate; American Installations in Australia. Hale and Iremonger. Sydney.
^ See Gregory Clark (1967) In fear of China. Lansdowne Press.
^ See discussion on the role of ANZUS in Australia's commitment to the Vietnam War in Paul Ham (2007) Vietnam; The Australian War. pp. 86–87 HarperCollins Publishers, Sydney.
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^ Russell Ward, A Nation for a Continent: the history of Australia, 1901–1975 (1977) p 343
^ E.M. Andrews (1979) p. 160
^ Glen Barclay and Joseph Siracusa (1976) p. 74
^ See discussion in E.M. Andrews (1979) pp. 172–73
^ a b c Ashley Elkins, Australian War Memorial: Overview of Australian military involvement in the Vietnam War, 1962–1975. AWM.gov.au
^ Glen Barclay and Joseph Siracusa (1976) p. 79
^ Jan Bassett (1986) p. 265
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^ Walter (2013). pp. 177–78
^ Day, David (2016). "Paul John Keating". In Grattan, Michelle (ed.). Australian Prime Ministers. Sydney: New Holland. pp 432–4.
Grattan, Michelle (2016). "John Winston Howard". Australian Prime Ministers. pp. 452–3.
^ Bashford and MacIntyre (eds) (2013). pp 178, 205–7
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^ Bashford and MacIntyre (eds) The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2. (2013). pp. 182, 207–09.
^ Walter, James (2013). p 179
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Grattan, Michelle (2016). "Anthony John Abbott". Australian Prime Ministers. pp. 512–13.
^ Grattan, Michelle (2016), "Anthony John Abbott". In Australian Prime Ministers. pp 513–15
Grattan, Michelle (2016). "Anthony John Abbott". Australian Prime Ministers. pp. 513–15.
^ Grattan, Michelle (2016). "Anthony John Abbott". Australian Prime Ministers. pp. 514
^ Macintyre, Stuart (2020). p. 319
^ Grattan, Michelle (2016). "Anthony John Abbott". Australian Prime Ministers. pp. 516–20
^ Turnbull, Malcolm (2020). pp 179–81, 321–23
^ Turnbull, Malcolm (2020), pp 516–19.
^ Turnbull, Malcolm (2020). p 400
^ Turnbull, Malcolm (2020). pp 422–35
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^ SCRGSP (Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision) 2020, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020, Productivity Commission, Canberra. Section 1.11
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^ Geoffrey Bolton (1990) p.190
^ SCRGSP (Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision) 2020, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2020, Productivity Commission, Canberra. Section 1.7
^ Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 190–94. The vote represented a record in terms of support for constitutional change.
^ Geoffrey Bolton (1990) pp. 190–94.
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^ Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 216, 320–21, 352–3
^ Broome, Richard (2019). pp. 247–48, 367–68
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Green, Jeremy N.: Treasures from the ' Vergulde Draeck ' (Gilt Dragon). (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1974)
Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Jacht ' Vergulde Draeck ', Western Australia 1656. An Historical Background and Excavation Report With an Appendix on Similar Loss of the Fluit 'Lastdrager' [2 volumes]. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1977)
Green, Jeremy N.: The Loss of the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie Retourschip ' Batavia ', Western Australia, 1629. An Excavation Report and Catalogue of Artefacts. (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1989)
Heeres, J. E.: Het aandeel der Nederlanders in de ontdekking van Australië, 1606–1765. (Leiden: Brill, 1899) [in Dutch]
Heeres J. E. (ed.): Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal of His Discovery of Van Diemens Land and New Zealand in 1642: With Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644. (Amsterdam: Frederick Muller, 1898)
Henderson, Graeme: Unfinished Voyages: Western Australian Shipwrecks , 1622–1850. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1980)
Henderson, J.: Sent Forth a Dove: The Discovery of Duyfken . (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1999, 232pp)
Hiatt, Alfred; Wortham, Christopher; et al. (eds.): European Perceptions of Terra Australis . (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011)
Hoving, Ab; Emke, Cor: De schepen van Abel Tasman [The Ships of Abel Tasman]. (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2000) [in Dutch]
Kenny, John: Before the First Fleet: European Discovery of Australia, 1606–1777. Kangaroo Press, 1995, 192 pp
Leys, Simon: The Wreck of the Batavia. A True Story. (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005)
McHugh, Evan: 1606: An Epic Adventure. (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2006)
Mundle, Rob : Great South Land : How Dutch Sailors found Australia and an English Pirate almost beat Captain Cook. (ABC Books, 2016,
Murdoch, Priscilla: Duyfken and the First Discoveries of Australia. Artarmon, N.S.W.: Antipodean Publishers, 1974
Mutch, T. D.: The First Discovery of Australia – With an Account of the Voyage of the "Duyfken" and the Career of Captain Willem Jansz . (Sydney, 1942) Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society, Vol. XXVIII., Part V
Nichols, Robert; Woods, Martin (eds.): Mapping Our World: Terra Incognita to Australia. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2013,
Pelsaert, Francisco : The Batavia Journal of Francisco Pelsaert (1629). Edited and translated by Marit van Huystee. (Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum, 1998)
Peters, Nonja : The Dutch Down Under , 1606–2006. (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 2006)
Playford, Phillip : The Wreck of the Zuytdorp on the Western Australian Coast in 1712. (Nedlands: Royal Western Australian Historical Society, 1960)
Playford, Phillip: Carpet of Silver: The Wreck of the Zuytdorp . (Nedlands: University of Western Australia Press, 1996)
Playford, Phillip: Voyage of Discovery to Terra Australis by Willem de Vlamingh in 1696–97. [Includes journal of Willem Vlamingh translated from an early 18th-century manuscript held in the Archives Nationales de France]. (Perth: Western Australian Museum, 1998)
Pearson, Michael: Great Southern Land: The Maritime Exploration of Terra Australis . (Canberra: Department of Environment and Heritage, 2005)
Quanchi, Max; Robson, John: Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands. (Lanham, MD and Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2005)
Richards, Michael; O'Connor, Maura (eds.): Changing Coastlines: Putting Australia on the World Map, 1493–1993. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993)
Robert, Willem C. H.: The Explorations, 1696–1697, of Australia by Willem de Vlamingh . Extracts from Two Log-Books Concerning the Voyage to and Explorations on the Coast of Western Australia and from Other Documents Relating to this Voyage. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1972)
Robert, Willem C. H.: The Dutch Explorations, 1605–1756, of the North and Northwest Coast of Australia. Extracts from Journals, Log-books and Other Documents Relating to These Voyages. [Original Dutch texts]. (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1973)
Ryan, Simon: The Cartographic Eye: How Explorers Saw Australia. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Schilder, Günter: Australia Unveiled: The Share of the Dutch Navigators in the Discovery of Australia. Translated from the German by Olaf Richter. (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1976)
Schilder, Günter: Voyage to the Great South Land , Willem de Vlamingh, 1696–1697. Translated by C. de Heer. (Sydney: Royal Australian Historical Society, 1985)
Schilder, Günter: In the Steps of Tasman and De Vlamingh. An Important Cartographic Document for the Discovery of Australia. (Amsterdam: Nico Israel, 1988)
Schilder, Günter; Kok, Hans: Sailing for the East: History and Catalogue of Manuscript Charts on Vellum of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), 1602–1799. (BRILL, 2010,
Shaw, Lindsey; Wilkins, Wendy (eds.): Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian-Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006. (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006)
Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: Dutch Discoveries of Australia: Shipwrecks, Treasures and Early Voyages off the West Coast. (Adelaide: Rigby, 1979)
Sigmond, J. P.; Zuiderbaan, L. H.: Nederlanders ontdekken Australië: Scheepsarcheologische vondsten op het Zuidland. (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1988) [in Dutch]
Stapel, F.W.: De Oostindische Compagnie en Australië. (Amsterdam: Van Kampen, 1937) [in Dutch]
Stein, Stephen K.: The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade. (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2017)
Suárez, Thomas: Early Mapping of the Pacific : The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who Mapped the Earth's Greatest Ocean. (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 2004)
Tasman, Abel : The Journal of Abel Jansz Tasman, 1642; with Documents Relating to His Exploration of Australia in 1644. Edited by G.H. Kenihan. (Adelaide: Australian Heritage Press, 1960)
Tasman, Abel: Het Journaal van Abel Tasman, 1642–1643. [eds.: Vibeke Roeper & Diederick Wilderman]. (The Hague: Nationaal Archief, 2006) [in Dutch]
Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy: The Batavia Shipwreck: An Archaeological Study of an Early Seventeenth-Century Dutch East Indiaman . (PhD diss., Texas A&M University , Dept of Anthropology, 2008)
Van Zanden, Henry: 1606 : Discovery of Australia. (Perth: Rio Bay Enterprises, 1997)
Veth, Peter; Sutton, Peter; Neale, Margo: Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press, 2008,
Journal articles, scholarly papers, essays
Beaumont, Joan. "Australian military historiography" War & Society 42#1 (2023) pp. 99–121 doi.org/10.1080/07292473.2023.2150485
Broomhall, Susan (2014), "Emotional Encounters: Indigenous Peoples in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands," Australian Historical Studies 45(3): pp. 350–367
Broomhall, Susan (2015), " 'Quite indifferent to these things': The Role of Emotions and Conversion in the Dutch East India Company's Interactions with the South Lands,". Journal of Religious History 39(4): 524–44.
Broomhall, Susan (2016), 'Dishes, Coins and Pipes: The Epistemological and Emotional Power of VOC Material Culture in Australia,'. In The Global Lives of Things: The Material Culture of Connections in the Early Modern World, edited by Anne Gerritsen & Giorgio Riello. (London: Routledge, 2016), pp. 145–61
Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Fire, Smoke and Ashes: Communications of Power and Emotions by Dutch East India Company Crews on the Australian Continent,'. In Fire Stories, edited by G. Moore. (New York: Punctum Books, 2017)
Broomhall, Susan (2017), 'Shipwrecks, Sorrow, Shame and the Great Southland: The Use of Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Dutch East India Company Communicative Ritual,'. In Emotion, Ritual and Power in Europe, 1200–1920: Family, State and Church, edited by M. Bailey and K. Barclay. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 83–103
Broomhall, Susan (2018), 'Dirk Hartog's Sea Chest: An Affective Archaeology of VOC Objects in Australia,'; in Feeling Things: Objects and Emotions through History, edited by Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 175–91
Donaldson, Bruce (2006), 'The Dutch Contribution to the European Discovery of Australia,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under , 1606–2006. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006)
Gaastra, Femme (1997), 'The Dutch East India Company: A Reluctant Discoverer,'. Great Circle – Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History 19(2): 109–123
Gentelli, Liesel (2016), 'Provenance Determination of Silver Artefacts from the 1629 VOC Wreck Batavia using LA-ICP-MS,'. Journal of Archaeological Science [Reports] 9: 536–542.
Gerritsen, Rupert (2008), 'The landing site debate: Where were Australia's first European residents marooned in 1629?', pp. 105–129; in P. Hornsby & J. Maschke (eds.) Hydro 2007 Conference Proceedings: Focus on Asia. (International Federation of Hydrographic Societies, Belrose)
Gerritsen, Rupert (2009), 'The Batavia Mutiny: Australia's first military conflict in 1629,'. Sabretache: Journal and Proceedings of the Military Historical Society of Australia 50(4): 5–10
Gerritsen, Rupert (2011), 'Australia's First Criminal Prosecutions in 1629'. (Canberra: Batavia Online Publishing)
Gibbs, Martin (2002), 'Maritime Archaeology and Behavior during Crisis: The Wreck of the VOC Ship Batavia (1629),'; in John Grattan & Robin Torrence (eds.), Natural Disasters and Cultural Change. (New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 66–86
Green, Jeremy N. (1975), 'The VOC ship Batavia wrecked in 1629 on the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia,'. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 4(1): 43–63.
Guy, Richard (2015), 'Calamitous Voyages: the social space of shipwreck and mutiny narratives in the Dutch East India Company,'. Itinerario 39(1): 117–140.
Ketelaar, Eric (2008), 'Exploration of the Archived World: From De Vlamingh's Plate to Digital Realities,'. Archives and Manuscripts 36(2): 13–33
McCarthy, M. (2006), ' Dutch place names in Australia ,'. In Nonja Peters (ed.), The Dutch Down Under, 1606–2006. (Crawley: University of Western Australia Press, 2006)
McCarthy, M. (2006), 'The Dutch on Australian shores: The Zuytdorp tragedy – unfinished business,'. In L. Shaw & W. Wilkins (eds.), Dutch Connections: 400 Years of Australian–Dutch Maritime Links, 1606–2006 (Sydney: Australian National Maritime Museum, 2006), pp. 94–109
Mutch, T. D. (1942), 'The First Discovery of Australia with an Account of the Voyages of the Duyfken and the Career of William Jansz. ,'. JRAHS 28(5): 303–352
Schilder, Günter (1976), 'Organisation and Evolution of the Dutch East India Company's Hydrographic Office in the Seventeenth Century,'. Imago Mundi 28: 61–78
Schilder, Günter (1988), ' New Holland : The Dutch Discoveries,'; in Glyndwr Williams and Alan Frost (eds.), Terra Australis to Australia. (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 83–115
Schilder, Günter (1984), 'The Dutch Conception of New Holland in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,'. The Globe: Journal of the Australian Map Circle 22: 38–46
Schilder, Günter (1989), 'From Secret to Common Knowledge – The Dutch Discoveries,'; in John Hardy and Alan Frost (eds.), Studies from Terra Australis to Australia. (Canberra, 1989)
Schilder, Günter (1993), 'A Continent Takes Shape: The Dutch mapping of Australia ,'; in Changing Coastlines, edited by Michael Richards & Maura O'Connor. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1993), pp. 10–16
Sheehan, Colin (2008), 'Strangers and Servants of the company: The United East India Company and the Dutch Voyages to Australia ,'; in Peter Veth, Margo Neale, et al. (eds.), Strangers on the Shore: Early Coastal Contacts in Australia. (Canberra: National Museum of Australia Press,
Van Duivenvoorde, Wendy; Kaiser, Bruce; Megens, Luc; van Bronswijk, Wilhelm (2015), 'Pigments from the Zuiddorp (Zuytdorp) ship sculpture: red, white and blue?,'. Post-Medieval Archaeology 49(2): 268–290
Yahya, Padillah; Gaudieri, Silvana; Franklin, Daniel (2010), ' DNA Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains Associated with the Batavia Mutiny of 1629,'. Records of the Western Australian Museum 26: 98–108
Primary sources
Clark, C.M.H. ed. Select Documents in Australian History (2 vol. 1950)
Kemp, Rod, and Marion Stanton, eds. Speaking for Australia: Parliamentary Speeches That Shaped Our Nation Allen & Unwin, 2004 online edition Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Crowley, Frank, ed. A Documentary History of Australia (5 vol. Melbourne: Wren, 1973); v.1. Colonial Australia, 1788–1840 – v.2. Colonial Australia, 1841–1874 -v.3. Colonial Australia, 1875–1900 -v.4. Modern Australia, 1901–1939 -v.5. Modern Australia, 1939–1970
Daniels, Kay, ed. Australia's Women, a Documentary History: From a Selection of Personal Letters, Diary Entries, Pamphlets, Official Records, Government and Police Reports, Speeches, and Radio Talks (2nd ed. U of Queensland Press, 1989) 335pp. The first edition was entitled Uphill All the Way: A Documentary History of Women in Australia (1980).
Teale, Ruth, ed. Colonial Eve: Sources on Women in Australia, 1788–1914 (Melbourne : Oxford University Press, 1978)
Further reading
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Australian History
History of Australia
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Bilateral relations
Country comparison
Coat of arms
Australia and Britain share a sovereign, Charles III
In 1770, Royal Navy Lieutenant James Cook , during his first voyage to the Pacific , sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. [1] 17 years later, following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the First Fleet , under the command Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788, and the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was formally promulgated on 7 February 1788. Further Crown Colonies were established in Van Diemen's Land (now known as Tasmania ) in 1803; Swan River Colony (now known as Western Australia ) in 1828; South Australia in 1836; Victoria in 1851; and Queensland in 1859. The six colonies federated in 1901 and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire .
Australia fought alongside Britain and its Allies in World War I , notably at Gallipoli (against the Ottoman Empire ) and the Western Front. It fought with Britain and its allies again in World War II , protecting Britain's Pacific colonies from Imperial Japan.
Until 1949, Britain and Australia shared a common nationality code . The final constitutional ties between the United Kingdom and Australia ended in 1986 with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 .
Formal economic relations between the two countries declined following Britain's accession to the European Economic Community in 1973. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains the second largest overall foreign investor in Australia. In turn, Australia is the seventh largest foreign direct investor in Britain.
Due to Australia's history as a colony of Britain, the two nations retain significant shared threads of cultural heritage , many of which are common to all English-speaking countries . English is the de facto language of both nations. Both legal systems are based on the common law .
Pom is a common nickname given by Australians to British people, said in jest without malice or prejudice, in a similar way to how British (and other) people call Australians Aussies, and refer to Australia as "Oz" or "down under" (a reference to the fact that Australia is notable for being entirely in the southern hemisphere).
In June 2021, the countries agreed on a historic free trade agreement , which was signed on 17 December 2021. [2] [3]
Streams of migration from the British Isles to Australia played a key role in Australia's development, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin (See: Anglo-Celtic Australians ). According to the 2011 Australian Census, around 1.1 million Australians were born in Britain, despite the last substantial scheme for preferential migration from Britain to Australia ending in 1972.
Former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard was born in Barry, Vale of Glamorgan in Wales . The former leader of the Liberal Party of Australia and former prime minister Tony Abbott was also born in Britain, although to an Australian-born mother.
In recent years there has been growing support for the idea of freedom of movement between the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand with citizens able to live and work in any of the four countries - similar to the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand. [5] [6] The Australia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement includes increased freedom of movement between the two countries. [2] [3]
Australian AP-3C Orion joins UK survey ship HMS Echo in the search for MH370
The two countries have a long history of close collaboration in military affairs. In modern times they are members of the AUSCANNZUKUS security cooperation including the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance with the US, Canada and New Zealand, and the Five Power Defence Arrangements with Malaysia, Singapore and New Zealand. They also collaborate in ad hoc groupings like Combined Task Force 151 to counter piracy off Somalia, and the search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 in 2014. Australia shared the British honours system until 1975, and so four Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross in the Vietnam War despite Britain not participating. Australia created its own VC in 1991, made from the same block of metal as the British ones.
On 15 September 2021, the leaders of the U.S., the UK and Australia announced AUKUS a trilateral security partnership for the Indo-Pacific region that will "promote deeper information and technology sharing" and "foster deeper integration of security and defense-related science, technology, industrial bases, and supply chains". The partnership "will significantly deepen cooperation on a range of security and defense capabilities" including "to support Australia in acquiring nuclear-powered submarines for the Royal Australian Navy ". [7] The long-term strategic goal is to help neutralize Chinese military expansion to the South. China has denounced the agreement as "extremely irresponsible". [8] [9]
In March 2023, AUKUS announced a new class of nuclear-powered submarine would be built SSN-AUKUS based on a United Kingdom's submarine design that will incorporate technology from all three nations, including cutting edge US submarine technologies. The SSN-AUKUS class will be built and operated by both the UK and Australia. [10]
The two countries signed a defence and security cooperation agreement on 21 March 2024. [11]
The contemporary political relationship between London and Canberra is underpinned by a robust bilateral dialogue at head-of-government, ministerial and senior officials level. As Commonwealth realms , the two countries share a monarch, King Charles III , and are both active members within the Commonwealth of Nations . In 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair became the first British head of government to address the Australian Parliament.
Australia maintains a High Commission in London . The United Kingdom, in turn, maintains a High Commission in Canberra .
In September 2012, the UK and Canada signed a Memorandum of Understanding on diplomatic cooperation, with the intention of extending the scheme to include Australia and New Zealand.
After the UK voted to leave the European Union in June 2016, Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull phoned British Prime Minister Theresa May to float the idea of a free trade agreement between the two nations post- Brexit . Australia was one of the first nations to publicly express interest in such an agreement after the vote. The Australian Prime Minister has also suggested that an immigration and commercial accords could be negotiated with the two nations and New Zealand . [12] [13] Proposed closer ties and preferential visa access between Australia, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Canada named CANZUK has been argued for by numerous individuals in both countries for several years.
Gallery
Following the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, Australia and the UK opened negotiations on signing a bilateral free trade agreement . The Australia-United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement was signed on 17 December 2021. [3] [14] It was the first free trade agreement signed completely anew since Brexit. [15] The agreement was ratified by the UK on the 24 March 2023. [16] Prior to the King's Coronation , the Prime Ministers of Australia and the United Kingdom agreed that the FTA would enter force on 31 May 2023. [17] [18]
London celebrates England's victory in the 2005 Ashes cricket series
Australia excels in many sports that originate in England, and the two countries enjoy a close sporting rivalry. The rivalry is typified by their Test cricket series for the Ashes ; there were ticker-tape parades when England won the 2005 series after 18 years of Australian domination. The finest moment of the England rugby union team was beating Australia to win the 2003 Rugby World Cup in Sydney; their rugby league counterparts have been far less successful. The two countries usually vie for leadership of the medal table at the Commonwealth Games . In 2014 England came top with 174 medals and Australia second with 137 medals. Melbourne golfer Peter Thomson is the second-most successful at The Open Championship with 5 wins. The two share a similar rivalry at the Olympic Games : throughout the latter half of the 20th century, Australia was the more successful, finishing above Britain at all but three Olympic Games between 1956 and 2012, the nadir occurring in 1996 when Australia finished in 7th place and Great Britain finished in 36th place. [20] [21] [22] Australian tennis players have been particularly successful in the men's doubles at Wimbledon with pairings such as Mark Woodforde and 9-time winner Todd Woodbridge ; Rod Laver , John Newcombe and Margaret Court all won multiple singles titles at Wimbledon but no British player has won the Australian Open since 1934 . Following the conclusion 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris it was British-born track cyclist Matthew Richardson who had won three medals whilst competing for Australia at the aforementioned 2024 Olympics would be switching his allegiance to the British Cycling team following following a successful application to the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) to change allegiance. [23] [24] [25] [26] This defection was not well received in Australia with AusCycling saying it was exploring the option of whether to enforce a two-year 'non-competition order' on Richardson which would effectively ban the three-time Olympic medallist from competing for British team on the international stage until 2026. [27]
Monthly value of Australian merchandise exports to the United Kingdom ( A$ millions) since 1988
Monthly value of UK merchandise exports to Australia ( A$ millions) since 1988
The City of London has been funding the development of resources in Australia since colonial times, and Anglo-Australian companies have become some of the biggest multinational mining companies such as Rio Tinto and BHP . The oil industry in Australia started with Commonwealth Oil Refineries , a collaboration between the Australian government and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (later BP ). Ties are strong in the media industry; Rupert Murdoch's involvement in British newspapers and BSkyB is mentioned above, but Fremantle has gone the other way to acquire and merge Crackerjack Productions with the creators of Neighbours .
The relationship is supported through the Australian British Chamber of Commerce in Australia and Australian Business in the UK based in the Australia Centre in London.
British nuclear test
Science and engineering
Opinion polls
Sister cities
"European discovery and the colonisation of Australia" . Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 11 January 2008. Archived from the original on 16 February 2011.
"Born Abroad – Australia" . BBC News. 7 September 2005. Retrieved 17 October 2007.
Prime Minister of Australia Scott Morrison; Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Boris Johnson; President of the United States of America Joseph R. Biden (16 September 2021). "Joint Leaders Statement on AUKUS" . Prime Minister of Australia (Press release). Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2021.
This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under a Attribution 4.0 International licence .
^ See "Aukus: UK, US and Australia launch pact to counter China" (BBC, 16 September 2021) online
^ See also "AUKUS: The Trilateral Security Partnership Between Australia, U.K. and U.S." (U.S. Dept of Defense, 2023) online
^ This article incorporates text published under the British Open Government Licence v3.0:
Australia–United Kingdom relations
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This article discusses the history of Australia from the arrival of European explorers in the 16th century to the present. For a more detailed discussion of Aboriginal culture , see Australian Aboriginal peoples .
Australia to 1900
Early exploration and colonization
Early contacts and approaches
Prior to documented history, travelers from Asia may have reached Australia. China’s control of South Asian waters could have extended to a landing in Australia in the early 15th century. Likewise, Muslim voyagers who visited and settled in Southeast Asia came within 300 miles (480 km) of Australia, and adventure, wind, or current might have carried some individuals the extra distance. Both Arab and Chinese documents tell of a southern land, but with such inaccuracy that they scarcely clarify the argument. Makassarese seamen certainly fished off Arnhem Land , in the Northern Territory , from the late 18th century and may have done so for generations.
Viceroys of Spain’s American empire regularly sought new lands. One such expedition , from Peru in 1567, commanded by Álvaro de Mendaña , discovered the Solomon Islands . Excited by finding gold, Mendaña hoped that he had found the great southern land and that Spain would colonize there. In 1595 Mendaña sailed again but failed to rediscover the Solomons. One of his officers was Pedro Fernández de Quirós , a man of the Counter-Reformation who wanted Roman Catholicism to prevail in the southland, the existence of which he was certain. Quirós won the backing of King Philip III for an expedition under his own command. It left Callao, Peru, in December 1605 and reached the New Hebrides . Quirós named the island group Australia del Espirítu Santo , and he celebrated with elaborate ritual. He (and some later Roman Catholic historians) saw this as the discovery of the southern land. But Quirós’s exultation was brief; troubles forced his return to Latin America. The other ship of the expedition, under Luis de Torres , went on to sail through the Torres Strait but almost certainly failed to sight Australia; and all Quirós’s fervour failed to persuade Spanish officialdom to mount another expedition.
Oceanic exploration
The Dutch
The Duyfken off Australia, 1606 The Duyfken off Australia, 1606, oil on canvas by Robert Ingpen, 2011.
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Late in 1605 Willem Jansz (Janszoon) of Amsterdam sailed aboard the Duyfken from Bantam in the Dutch East Indies in search of New Guinea . He reached the Torres Strait a few weeks before Torres and named what was later to prove part of the Australian coast—Cape Keer-Weer, on the western side of Cape York Peninsula . More significantly, from 1611 some Dutch ships sailing from the Cape of Good Hope to Java inevitably carried too far east and touched Australia: the first and most famous was Dirck Hartog ’s Eendracht, from which men landed and left a memorial at Shark Bay , Western Australia , October 25–27, 1616. Pieter Nuyts explored almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of the southern coast in 1626–27, and other Dutchmen added to knowledge of the north and west.
Most important of all was the work of Abel Tasman , who won such respect as a seaman in the Dutch East Indies that in 1642 Gov.-Gen. Anthony van Diemen of the Indies commissioned him to explore southward. In November–December, having made a great circuit of the seas, Tasman sighted the west coast and anchored off the southeast coast of what he called Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania). He then explored the island of New Zealand before returning to Batavia, on Java. A second expedition of 1644 contributed to knowledge of Australia’s northern coast; the Dutch named the new landmass New Holland.
The Netherlands spent little more effort in exploration, and the other great Protestant power in Europe, England, took over the role. In 1688 the English buccaneer William Dampier relaxed on New Holland’s northwestern coast. On returning to England, he published his Voyages and persuaded the Admiralty to back another venture. He traversed the western coast for 1,000 miles (1699–1700) and reported more fully than any previous explorer, but he did so in terms so critical of the land and its people that another hiatus resulted.
The middle decades of the 18th century saw much writing about the curiosities and possible commercial value of the southern seas and terra australis incognita. This was not restricted to Great Britain, but it had especial vigour there. The British government showed its interest by backing several voyages. Hopes flourished for a mighty empire of commerce in the eastern seas.
Natives Opposing Captain Cook's Landing Natives Opposing Captain Cook's Landing, lithograph by W. (William) MacLeod, 1888.
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This was the background for the three voyages of Captain James Cook on behalf of the British Admiralty. The first, that of the HMS Endeavour, left England in August 1768 and had its climax on April 20, 1770, when a crewman sighted southeastern Australia. Cook landed several times, most notably at Botany Bay and at Possession Island in the north, where on August 23 he claimed the land, naming it New South Wales . Cook’s later voyages (1772–75 and 1776–79) were to other areas in the Pacific, but they were both symptom and cause of strengthening British interest in the eastern seas.
Later explorations
Cook’s voyages led to settlement but did not complete the exploration of the Australian coasts. Marion Dufresne of France skirted Tasmania in 1772, seeing more than had Tasman. The count de La Pérouse , another French explorer, made no actual discoveries in Australia but visited Botany Bay early in 1788. In 1791 the British navigator George Vancouver traversed and described the southern shores discovered by Pieter Nuyts years before. The French explorer Joseph-Antoine Raymond de Bruni, chevalier d’Entrecasteaux, also did significant work, especially in southern Tasmania.
Two Britons— George Bass , a naval surgeon, and Matthew Flinders , a naval officer—were the most famous postsettlement explorers. Together they entered some harbours on the coast near Botany Bay in 1795 and 1796. Bass ventured farther south in 1797–98, pushing around Cape Everard to Western Port . Flinders was in that region early in 1798, charting the Furneaux Islands. Late that year Flinders and Bass circumnavigated Tasmania in the Norfolk, establishing that it was an island and making further discoveries. Several other navigators, including merchantmen, filled out knowledge of the Bass Strait area; most notable was the discovery of Port Phillip in 1802.
Meanwhile Flinders had returned home and in 1801 was appointed to command an expedition that would circumnavigate Australia and virtually complete the charting of the continent . Over the next three years Flinders proved equal to this task. Above all, he left no doubt that the Australian continent was a single landmass. Appropriately, Flinders urged that the name Australia replace New Holland, and this change received official backing from 1817.
France sponsored an expedition, similar in intent to Flinders’s, at the same time. Under Nicolas Baudin , it gave French names to many features (including “Terre Napoléon” for the southern coast) and gathered much information but did little new exploration. It was on the northern coast, from Arnhem Land to Cape York Peninsula , that more exploration was needed. Two Admiralty expeditions—under Phillip Parker King (1817–22) and John Clements Wickham (1838–39)—filled this gap.
European settlement
The British government determined on settling New South Wales in 1786, and colonization began early in 1788. The motives for this move have become a matter of some controversy. The traditional view is that Britain thereby sought to relieve the pressure upon its prisons —a pressure intensified by the loss of its American colonies , which until that time had accepted transported felons. This view is supported by the fact that convicts went to the settlement from the outset and that official statements put this first among the colony’s intended purposes. But some historians have argued that this glossed a scheme to provide a bastion for British sea power in the eastern seas. Some have seen a purely strategic purpose in settlement, but others have postulated an intent to use the colony as a springboard for economic exploitation of the area. It is very likely that the government had some interest in all these factors.
Whatever the deeper motivation, plans went ahead, with Lord Sydney (Thomas Townshend), secretary of state for home affairs, as the guiding authority. Arthur Phillip was commander of the expedition; he was to take possession of the whole territory from Cape York to Tasmania , westward as far as 135° and eastward to include adjacent islands. Phillip’s power was to be near absolute within his domain. The British government planned to develop the region’s economy by employing convict labour on government farms, while former convicts would subsist on their own small plots.
The First Fleet sailed on May 13, 1787, with 11 vessels, including 6 transports, aboard which were about 730 convicts (570 men and 160 women). More than 250 free persons accompanied the convicts, chiefly marines of various rank. The fleet reached Botany Bay on January 19–20, 1788. Crisis threatened at once. The Botany Bay area had poor soil and little water, and the harbour itself was inferior . Phillip therefore sailed northward on January 21 and entered a superb harbour, Port Jackson , which Cook had marked but not explored. He moved the fleet there; the flag was hoisted on January 26 and the formalities of government begun on February 7. Sydney Cove, the focus of settlement, was deep within Port Jackson, on the southern side; around it was to grow the city of Sydney .
Phillip at once established an outstation at Norfolk Island . Its history was to be checkered; settlement was abandoned in 1813 and revived in 1825 to provide a jail for convicts who misbehaved in Australia. (It served a new purpose from 1856 as a home for the descendants of the mutineers of the HMS Bounty, by then too numerous for Pitcairn Island .)
| 496 |
57 | what did australia provide for the british empire | https://www.rba.gov.au/speeches/2013/sp-gov-181013.html | Search
Glenn Stevens [*] Governor
18 October 2013
Audio 18.84 MB
It could have been the Dutch who started European settlement in Australia. In
their journeys to the East Indies numerous Dutch traders saw the western and
northern coastlines of the continent and some came ashore. But the conditions
were not hospitable and, finding nothing in the way of commodities that they
could exchange for value at home, they left.
Or it could have been the French: Jean-François de Galaup La Perouse
arrived in Botany Bay only a few days after Arthur Phillip's fleet in 1788.
Apparently the English and French mariners, despite the rivalry of their countries,
enjoyed cordial relations for a brief interlude before La Perouse sailed off
into the South Pacific, never to be seen by Europeans again (Dyer 2009).
But it was the English who came to start a colony. Eighteen years after James
Cook landed at Botany Bay, the First Fleet anchored there in January 1788.
After only a few days, finding the shallow, sandy bay too exposed and short
on potable water, they sailed 20 kilometres or so north to Port Jackson, which
they regarded as a superior location to found the settlement. Looking at Sydney
Harbour today, it appears they made the right call.
The contrast with today's prosperity could not, however, have been more
pronounced. In time the Great South Land would help to feed the world, but
in 1788 the new arrivals couldn't feed themselves. Geoffrey Blainey's
book The Tyranny of Distance records how the fledgling settlement nearly
starved – and how, later in 1788, HMS Sirius was sent to
a suitable supply station to bring back food and seed. That station was
the Cape of Good Hope (now Cape Town, South Africa) – 11,000 kilometres
away – a measure of the degree of isolation the First Fleeters must have
felt. The return journey took about seven months, shorter than it would have
been had Captain Hunter not ignored the advice of his superiors. After proceeding
south from Sydney, he turned east, rather than west, so picking up a favourable
wind for the outward journey. He sailed more miles, but in a shorter time.
And so began the inflow of people, capital, and know-how that ultimately resulted
in the modern Australian nation. Today Australia is still a nation of immigrants,
where almost one-quarter of our 23 million inhabitants were born somewhere
else (ABS 2012). Just about every nationality is here and we face the ‘Asian
Century’ with the sense that – for the first time in our modern
history – our geographical position is an economic advantage.
For a long time, the economic and financial relationship with the UK dominated,
despite the distance. In colonial times, the UK was by far Australia's
most prominent trading partner – in the 1880s the UK was the source of
70 per cent of Australia's imports and the destination for up
to 80 per cent of exports (Vamplew 1987). By the turn of the 20th
century still more than half of Australia's trade was with the UK. Though
overall Australia accounted for less than 10 per cent of the UK's
bilateral trade in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Australia was among the
UK's largest sources of wheat imports and at times accounted for more than
50 per cent of the UK's wool imports (Mitchell and Deane 1962;
Mitchell and Jones 1971).
The Australian Pound was linked to the pound sterling and the Australian banks
kept reserve balances in sterling – ‘London funds’. In time,
Australia created its own central banking arrangements, and by the 1930s the
Commonwealth Bank was serving as a basic central bank (though without, at that
time, the same full central banking mandate and obligations that the RBA has
today). Still, the links with Britain were strong. The decision not to devalue the Australian currency with sterling in 1967 was a
departure from previous practice. When Australia got into financial difficulties
meeting its obligations in the late 1920s, Sir Otto Niemeyer was despatched
from the Bank of England in 1930 to offer advice to the Australian Government.
Niemeyer's diagnosis – that Australia had lived beyond its means,
and should accept lower living standards in order to service its international
debts – was not, shall we say, universally welcomed, but his influence
lived on. The monthly statement of Commonwealth Government finances, which
he devised, was still known as the ‘Niemeyer’ statement until well
into the 1980s, when I was a junior economist in the Reserve Bank.
So the links were strong. But of course the world was changing. Two world wars
saw the UK's financial strength diminish and its weight in the global economy
decline, as that of the United States rose. In the 1970s the UK also increasingly
turned towards Europe, with EU-directed trade increasing strongly in the two
decades after joining the EEC. [1] By then, Australian trade had long turned towards first the US, then Japan.
Trade with the USA had been increasing steadily since the late 1940s and the
USA replaced the UK as Australia's largest bilateral trading partner in
the mid 1960s. Similarly, trade with Japan grew rapidly and overtook that with
the UK by the 1970s (and began to rival that with the US as well) (Vamplew
1987; RBA 1996).
In the subsequent decades Australia's trade focus continued its shift towards
Asia generally and, in the past decade especially, towards China in particular.
Today nearly three-quarters of our trade is with the Asia Pacific, while half
of the UK's trade is with Europe (ABS 2013b; ONS 2013).
Historically, the UK was a top destination for Australians travelling abroad
– ‘falling towards England’ as Clive James memorably described
it. In 1950 around 30 per cent of Australian outbound tourists were
destined for the UK and Ireland. That had fallen to 6 per cent by
2013. Australians' travel to the USA has remained fairly consistent since
the 1970s at around 10 per cent. Travel to Asia increased dramatically
with destinations in South-East Asia now accounting for more than 30 per cent
of the total. The UK is, though, still a major source of tourism for Australia.
Despite a decline since the GFC, UK citizens account for around 10 per
cent of all arrivals in Australia, remaining close to the historical (post-1950)
average of around 15 per cent. These days, China is the biggest source
of Australia's inbound arrivals after New Zealand, and is usually the fastest
growing. Interestingly, however, recent data show that in the year to August
2013, UK arrivals grew faster than arrivals from China (Vamplew 1987; ABS 2013c).
Those picture postcards of sun and blue skies must be very appealing during
the European winter!
It will take a good deal more time yet for these shifts in trading relationships
to be mirrored in the accumulated stock of invested capital. The UK's foreign
investment in Australia during the country's formative years was large,
even for the UK. Between 1870 and 1913 about 8 per cent of Britain's
total foreign investment went to Australia. As recently as the mid 1950s, the
UK's investment in Australia dwarfed that from any other country, and was
more than double the investment of our second largest investment partner, the
USA (Vamplew 1987; RBA 1997; Ukhov and Goetzmann 2005). As at the end of 2012
the stock of foreign invested capital that came via the UK amounted to almost
$500 billion, and it is still growing (it rose at an annual average compound
rate of more than 6 per cent over the past 10 years) (ABS 2013a). [2] The stock of Chinese inbound investment has been growing at 20 per cent
over the past decade, but is estimated at only 2 per cent of the
combined total from the US and UK. Similarly, and perhaps more surprisingly,
the stock of Australian investment abroad remains concentrated in the UK and
the US – though that is beginning to change now, with a bigger focus
on Asia.
That accumulated inbound investment has helped Australia become a very affluent
nation, augmenting our own national savings to a significant extent. According
to Angus Maddison's data set, within 80 years of the founding of a penal
colony on the shore of Sydney harbour, about a kilometre from our present location,
Australia's real GDP per head matched the UK's (Maddison 2003). Today,
Australia's real GDP per head of about $44,600, measured at purchasing
power parity, is noticeably higher than the UK's ($36,900), though for
the UK that comparison is adversely affected by the economic weakness in recent
years. [3]
Such an outcome is perhaps not surprising given the endowment of land and natural
resources that Australia has. Opening up of large areas of land for agriculture
enabled Australia to enter powerfully the markets for grain and wool. Agriculture
was a major source of wealth over most of our history (and many predict will
play a big role in future). The gold rush of the mid-nineteenth century helped
to propel the city of Melbourne in particular to globally significant size
and affluence (though there were later excesses that led to a serious depression).
The things the Dutch and others couldn't see under the ground when they
surveyed the inhospitable northwest four centuries ago are the source of massive
wealth today. About 1.5 million tonnes of iron ore, valued at about $150 million
at current prices, leave those shores each day in ships about 250 times the
size of Cook's Endeavour. A combination of those endowments with a willingness to
accept international capital, including very prominently from the UK, has given
Australians the opportunity to grow our economy quickly.
But it wasn't just money, land and minerals. There are other countries with
resources and land that do not enjoy the same incomes. And there are nations
with very little in the way of resources or land that are wealthy. It was other
things about the British heritage that were of higher value.
It turns out that the English language is just about everyone's second language,
which means even with our broad accent, we can communicate with educated people
virtually everywhere and engage in commerce in most places. The common law
and parliamentary democracy provide a foundation for the sorts of property
rights and governance processes that are widely and rightly regarded as fundamental
to building a prosperous modern economy. That property rights could become
so well established in a society in which the ‘immigrants’ of 1788
had no such rights is, perhaps, an ironical outcome. And we are still coming
to terms with the property rights of those descended from the inhabitants who
were here before 1788.
But the point is that this heritage, so important for enterprise, is something
we have in common with the UK. One has to observe as well that Britain traded
with and invested in her former colonies, however imperfectly, rather than
simply extracting the rents. The fact that so many prominent English-speaking
former colonies are counted among the rich of the advanced world today is perhaps
not entirely a coincidence (Grier 1997; Acemoglu, Johnson and Robinson 2001
and 2005). [4]
In my own field of central banking, we have a good deal in common. The Bank
of England and the Reserve Bank of Australia conduct monetary policy using
the approach of a medium-term target for consumer price inflation, endorsed
by government, with operational independence for the central bank, and a flexible
exchange rate. We are not alone in this – there are quite a few countries
that follow a version of this approach these days – but the Bank of England
and the RBA were, after the central banks of Canada and New Zealand, fairly
early adopters of the approach. There is a very practical level of cooperation
between the two institutions, exemplified by staff exchanges as well as contact
at the highest levels. I well remember a phone call from Mervyn King on the
morning of 15 September 2008, to ask how our markets were absorbing the news
of the Lehman failure that had been announced just after trading started. (The
answer was: reasonably calmly, initially, but that subsequently changed.)
In the ensuing five years, Australia and the UK have both faced the challenges
arising from the global financial crisis (GFC). For various reasons the UK
has had a harder time of it, with bigger problems in its banking system, which
is also bigger relative to its economy, and a higher exposure to a troubled
Europe, in contrast to our exposure to a resilient Asia. Hence, while Australia
has experienced growth, albeit slower than average, in the years following
the GFC, the UK suffered a painful and rather protracted recession. It seems
of late though that there are more signs of expansion in the UK economy, which
will no doubt be very much welcomed by citizens and policymakers alike.
The UK still warrants the label ‘major economy’. Its GDP is still
among the top 10 in the world. Perhaps more significantly London remains easily
the world's pre-eminent international financial centre. New York, being
in the US, boasts bigger domestic markets of course, but London services the
world. In the councils of global governance the UK holds an important position
– in bodies like the IMF, the BIS, the UN and others, it holds its own
seat and acts with influence. Australia, with a third the UK's population
and about half its absolute GDP, as the eighteenth largest economy, [5] and with a correspondingly more modest stature on international bodies, cannot
see itself in quite the same way. We have well-developed financial markets
and there are plans to develop more as a regional financial centre, but realistically
Sydney will never rival London.
Nonetheless we have our contribution to make, and our UK partners have always
been welcoming in hearing it. And this has to be because there is so much in
common today, in the modern world. The ties that bind are not just history.
They extend beyond a fascination and affection among Australians for the royal
family – strong though that is – or the long-contested rivalry
between ‘old enemies’ for one of the world's smallest sporting
trophies.
There is a real sense in which the UK and Australia share an outlook, at a very
basic level, on how an economy should be organised and governed. They share
a perspective on the role – and the limits – of markets in setting
prices and allocating resources. They share a commitment to a world economy
in which trade is free and capital, in general, is free to move. We have had
some differences of nuance in recent years about matters financial, reflecting
mainly our differing experiences of the crisis, but in the broad the perspective
of the role of the financial services sector in facilitating the real economy
is very much shared. The business communities of the two countries have strong
links, evidence for which is your attendance here today. I'm sure that
this association will continue to strengthen and mature over the years ahead,
even though the two countries are at opposite ends of the globe.
Perhaps the most important thing the two countries have in common is the strong
belief that societies prosper when policies are debated in an open way, when
evidence, reason and judgement can be brought to bear on decisions, and where
accountability and evaluation are key attributes of the process.
That set of commonly held values will be important for us over the year ahead,
as Australia assumes the chair of the G20. What issues will be on the
agenda? And how can the business communities of the two countries contribute?
The full agenda is of course for the Australian Government to determine, in
consultation with other G20 member governments. It will certainly have a strong
focus on growth, and on the role of the private sector in driving growth, including
its role in infrastructure investment. So I expect there will be significant
call for engagement of the business communities of Australia and the UK, and
other member economies, over the year ahead. I will make just two points here.
First, in the area of financial regulation, there is a major agenda for reform,
on which very good progress has been made, but on which there is still much
work to do. In my view, having developed a very substantial pipeline of work
since 2008, our energies need now to be devoted to careful and systematic implementation
of the already agreed reforms. That is not to preclude new regulatory initiatives,
which are still being put forward. But the implementation task arising from
the pipeline of reforms already agreed, either in detail or at a conceptual
level, is very large indeed. Of these, the most important ones are the Basel
III package, the reforms for OTC derivatives trading and clearing, establishing
appropriate oversight of ‘shadow banking’, and work to address
the problem of ‘too big to fail’, including cross-border resolution
of systemically important financial institutions.
This by no means exhausts the list of work streams, but these are the key ones.
Each is individually very demanding for regulators and industry players alike.
Taken together, they are, in a word, daunting. We need to avoid reform fatigue,
and to sustain our support to those doing the hard grind of devising the new
rules and making them work. To do that, we need, in my opinion, to contain
the growth in the regulatory agenda, and to respond only to the most important
calls for further major work streams, at least for the next little while.
Let me be clear this is NOT a call for current reform efforts to stop, or to
be watered down. It is about ensuring we focus our finite energies and resources
on the most important problems, and getting industry to do the same.
The second point is that the business community, both in the UK and Australia,
and generally under the auspices of the ‘B20’, can contribute to
meaningful progress towards the G20's broader goals. That contribution
will be most constructive if it can avoid being dominated by particular national
or industry interests, if it can adopt a genuinely global perspective, if it
can have realistic aspirations and if it can understand the constraints under
which policymakers operate. A contribution like that will be key to achieving
the G20's goals: an open world economy, characterised by strong, sustainable
and balanced growth. I hope that Australian and UK business leaders, along
with their peers from around the other G20 countries, will seize that opportunity
and that responsibility.
Endnotes
I thank Alexandra Rush for assistance in preparing these remarks. [*]
IMF Direction of Trade Statistics. [1]
It should be noted that the country level data in ABS (2013a) are based on the country
of residence of the creditor or the debtor. Since London is an international
financial hub, for some transactions the ultimate owner or recipient may
reside in another country. [2]
World Bank, World Development Indicators, September 2013; figures are for 2012. [3]
Acemoglu et al (2001) assert that ‘settler colonies’
(such as Australia, Canada, USA and New Zealand) have had better economic
outcomes compared to colonies set up for resource extraction (giving the
example of the Belgian Congo). Recent literature identifies that economic,
trade and education policies, as well as the institutions set up by Britain
and other colonial powers have been important to economic performance today
(see Grier (1997) and Acemoglu et al (2005) as examples). [4]
IMF World Economic Outlook, October 2013; figure is for 2012. [5]
References
ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2012), ‘Migration, Australia, 2010–11’,
ABS Cat No 3412.0, August.
ABS (2013a), ‘International Investment Position, Australia: Supplementary Statistics,
2012’, ABS Cat No 5352.0, Tables 2 and 5.
ABS (2013b), ‘International Trade in Goods and Services, Australia,
Aug 2013’, ABS Cat No ABS 5368.0, Tables 14a and 14b.
ABS (2013c), ‘Overseas Arrivals and Departures, Australia, Aug 2013’,
ABS Cat No 3401.0, Tables 5 and 9.
Acemoglu D, S Johnson and JA Robinson (2001), ‘The Colonial Origins of Comparative
Development: An Empirical Investigation’, The American Economic Review, 91(5), pp 1369-1401.
Acemoglu D, S Johnson and JA Robinson (2005), ‘Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run
Growth’, in P Aghion and SN Durlauf (eds), Handbook of Economic Growth,
Vol 1A, Chapter 6, Elsevier BV.
Blainey G (1983), The Tyranny of Distance: How Distance Shaped Australia's History,
Macmillan, Melbourne.
Dyer C (2009), The French Explorers and Sydney, University of Queensland Press,
Brisbane.
Grier RM (1997), ‘Colonial Legacies and Economic Growth’, Public Choice,
Vol 98, pp 317–335.
Maddison A (2003), The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Development Centre Studies,
OECD Publishing.
Mitchell BR and Deane P (1962), Abstract of British Historical Statistics, Cambridge University
Press, London.
Mitchell BR and Jones HG (1971), Second Abstract of British Historical Statistics, Cambridge University
Press, London.
ONS (Office for National Statistics) (2013), ‘UK Trade, June 2013’, Statistical Bulletin, August, pp 1–51.
RBA (Reserve Bank of Australia) (1997), ‘ Australian Economic Statistics 1949–50 to 1996–97 ’,
Reserve Bank of Australia Occasional Paper No 8.
Ukhov A and WN Goetzmann (2005), ‘British Investment Overseas 1870–1913:
A Modern Portfolio Theory Approach’, NBER Working Paper No 11266.
Vamplew W (1987), Australians: Historical Statistics, Fairfax, Sync & Weldon Associates,
Sydney.
The Reserve Bank of Australia supports the Foundation for Children .
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The Reserve Bank of Australia acknowledges the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples of Australia as the Traditional Custodians of this land, and recognises their continuing connection to country.
We pay our respects to their Elders, past and present. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples should be aware that this website may contain the names, images and voices of people who are now deceased.
References
| 497 |
58 | who is the king and queen of the netherlands | https://www.royal-house.nl/members-royal-house/queen-maxima | Search within English part of Royal House of the Netherlands
Queen Máxima is married to King Willem-Alexander. The royal couple have three daughters, Princess Catharina-Amalia (the Princess of Orange), Princess Alexia and Princess Ariane.
Queen Máxima, 2020.
As King Willem-Alexander’s wife, Queen Máxima’s main role is to support the head of state in performing his formal duties and the other work he does in the interests of the inhabitants of the Kingdom, assisting him in his task of unifying, representing and encouraging the people.
Queen Máxima holds numerous public posts. She also performs representative duties, such as representing the Royal House at official occasions of all kinds.
Queen Máxima is a member of the Council of State. She occupies a number of other positions in the Netherlands and abroad.
News
| 498 |
58 | who is the king and queen of the netherlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands | Monarchy of the Netherlands
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article includes a list of general references , but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2024) (
Details
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Residence
The monarchy of the Netherlands is governed by the country's constitution , roughly a third of which explains the mechanics of succession, accession, and abdication; the roles and duties of the monarch; the formalities of communication between the States General of the Netherlands ; and the monarch's role in creating laws. The monarch is head of state and head of government of the Netherlands .
The once-sovereign provinces of the Spanish Netherlands were intermittently ruled by members of the House of Orange-Nassau from 1559, when Philip II of Spain appointed William the Silent (William of Orange) as a stadtholder , until 1795, when the last stadtholder, William V, Prince of Orange , fled the country. William the Silent became the leader of the Dutch Revolt and of the independent Dutch Republic . Some of his descendants were later appointed as stadtholders by the provinces and, in 1747, the role of stadtholder became a hereditary position in all provinces of the thus " crowned " Dutch Republic.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands (not to be confused with the constituent country of the Netherlands ) has been an hereditary monarchy since 16 March 1815. Following the abdication of his mother Queen Beatrix , Willem-Alexander has been King of the Netherlands since 30 April 2013.
The monarchy of the Netherlands passes by right of succession to the heirs of William I (see House of Orange-Nassau ). [Cons 1] The heir is determined through two mechanisms: absolute cognatic primogeniture and proximity of blood . The Netherlands established absolute cognatic primogeniture instead of male-preference primogeniture by law in 1983.[ clarification needed ] Proximity of blood limits accession to the throne to a person who is related to the current monarch within three degrees of kinship. For example, the grandchildren of Princess Margriet of the Netherlands (sister of Princess Beatrix ) have no succession rights because their kinship with Beatrix when she was queen, was of the fourth degree (that is, Princess Beatrix is their parent's parent's parents' daughter). Succession is limited to legitimate heirs, precluding a claim to the throne by children born out of wedlock. [Cons 2] If the king dies while his wife is pregnant: the unborn child is considered the heir at that point, unless stillborn – the child is then considered never to have existed. As such, if the preceding king dies while his wife is pregnant with their first child, the unborn child is immediately considered born and immediately becomes the new king or queen. If the pregnancy ends in stillbirth, his or her reign is expunged (otherwise the existence of the stillborn king/queen would add a degree of separation for other family members to the throne and might suddenly exclude the next person in line for the throne). [Cons 3]
If the monarch is a minor, a regent is appointed and serves until the monarch comes of age. [Cons 4] [Cons 5] The regent is customarily the surviving parent of the monarch but the constitution stipulates that custody and parental authority of the minor monarch will be determined by law; any person might be appointed as regent, as legal guardian or both. [Cons 6]
There are also a number of special cases within the Constitution. First, if there is no heir when the monarch dies, the States-General may appoint a successor upon the suggestion of the government. This suggestion may be made before the death of the reigning monarch, even by the monarch himself (in case it is clear that the monarch will die without leaving an heir). [Cons 7] Second, some people are excluded from the line of succession. They are:
Any heir who marries without the permission of the States-General loses the right of succession. [Cons 8]
A person who is or has become truly undesirable or unfit as monarch can be removed from the line of succession by an act of the States-General, upon suggestion of the reigning monarch. [Cons 9] This clause has never been executed and is considered an "emergency exit". An example would be an heir apparent who commits treason or suffers an incapacitating accident.
Prince Carlos Enrique de Bourbon de Parme
Mr Nicolás Guillermo
Miss Juliana Guillermo
As with most monarchies, the Netherlands cannot be without a monarch – the constitution of the Netherlands does not recognise a situation in which there is no monarch. This is because there must be a head of state in order for the government to function, as there must be someone who carries out the tasks of the constitutional role of the King/Queen. For this reason, the new monarch assumes the role the moment the previous monarch ceases to hold the throne. The only exception is if there is no heir at all, in which case the Council of State assumes the role of the monarch pending the appointment of a monarch or regent. [Cons 10]
The monarch is expected to execute his duties and responsibilities for the good of the nation. The monarch must therefore swear to uphold the constitution and execute the office faithfully. The monarch must be sworn in as soon as possible after assuming the throne during a joint session of the States-General held in Amsterdam . Article 32 of the Dutch constitution describes a swearing-in in "the capital Amsterdam", which incidentally is the only phrase in the constitution that names Amsterdam as the capital of the Kingdom. [Cons 11] The ceremony is called the inauguration (inhuldiging).
The Dutch monarch is not crowned—although the crown, orb, and sceptre are present at the ceremony—the monarch's swearing of the oath constitutes acceptance of the throne. Also, note that this ceremony does not equal accession to the throne as this would imply a vacancy of the throne between monarchs which is not allowed. The monarch ascends immediately after the previous monarch ceases to reign. The swearing-in only constitutes acceptance in public.
End of a reign
Temporary loss of royal authority
Voluntary suspension of royal authority
The monarch temporarily ceases execution of his or her office.
Removal from royal authority
The government strips the monarch of his or her royal authority, as he or she is deemed unfit for their tasks.
These cases are both temporary (even if the monarch dies while not executing his office it still counts as temporary) and are described in detail in the constitution. A monarch can temporarily cease to reign for any reason. This can be at his own request or because the Council of Ministers deems the monarch unfit for office. [Cons 13] [Cons 14] Although there can be any reason for the monarch to cede royal authority or be removed from it, both monarch and council are deemed to act responsibly and not leave the execution of the office vacant unnecessarily. Both cases are intended to deal with emergency situations such as physical or mental inability to execute the office of the monarch.
In both cases, an act of the joint States-General is needed to strip the monarch of authority. In the case of the monarch ceding royal authority, the required act is a law. In case of removal, it is a declaration by the States-General. Formally, both require the normal procedure for passing a new law in the Netherlands. [Cons 13] [Cons 14] The former case is signed into law by the monarch himself, the latter is not, so technically it is not a law (this is allowed explicitly in the Constitution since the monarch who is being stripped of his authority will probably not agree to sign the act of his removal, and—in the case of the States-General removing a monarch who has become unfit due to mental or physical incapacitation—may not be able to).
Since neither ceding nor removal is permanent, neither triggers succession. Instead, the States-General appoint a regent. This must be the heir apparent if he or she is old enough. [Cons 5] In order for the monarch to resume his duties, a law (which is signed by the regent) must be passed to that effect. The monarch resumes the throne the moment the law of his return is made public. [Cons 13] [Cons 14]
The monarch and the government
Although the monarch has roles and duties in all parts of the government and in several important places in the rest of society, the primary role of the monarch is within the executive branch of the Dutch government: the monarch is part of the government of the Netherlands .
The role of the monarch within the government of the Netherlands is described in Article 42 of the constitution: [Cons 15]
1. De regering wordt gevormd door de Koning en de ministers. 2. De Koning is onschendbaar; de ministers zijn verantwoordelijk.
1. The government consists of the King and the ministers. 2. The King is inviolable; the ministers are responsible.
This article is the basis of the full power and influence of the monarch and makes him beyond reproach before the law, but also limits his practical power, as he can take no responsibility for it.
The first paragraph of Article 42 determines that the government of the Netherlands consists of the monarch and his ministers. The monarch is according to this article not the head of government; the ministers are not answerable to the monarch within the government. [Cons 16] [Cons 17] There is no distinction, no dichotomy, no segregation or separation: the monarch and his ministers are the government and the government is one. [ext 1]
This fact has practical consequences, in that it is not possible for the monarch and the ministers to be in disagreement. The government speaks with one voice and makes decisions as a united body. When the monarch acts in an executive capacity, he does so as a representative of the united government. And when the government decides, the monarch is in agreement (even if the monarch personally disagrees). As an ultimate consequence of this, it is not possible for the monarch to refuse to sign into law a proposal of law that has been agreed to and signed by the responsible minister. Such a disagreement between the monarch and his minister is a situation not covered by the constitution and is automatically a constitutional crisis . [ext 1]
The second paragraph of the article, though, is what really renders the monarch powerless. This paragraph states that the monarch is inviolable. He is beyond any reproach, beyond the grasp of any prosecution (criminal or otherwise) for any acts committed or actions taken as monarch. If anything goes wrong, the minister responsible for the topic at hand is responsible for the failings of the monarch. This sounds like it makes the monarch an absolute tyrant, but in fact, the opposite is true: since the ministers are responsible, they also have the authority to make the decisions. The ministers set the course of the government and the country, and the ministers make executive decisions and run the affairs of the state. And since the government is one, the monarch abides by the decision of the ministers. In fact, the monarchs of the Netherlands rarely make any executive decisions at all and practically never speak in public on any subject other than to read a statement prepared by the Prime Minister (since an unfortunate off-the-cuff remark could get a minister into trouble). The practical consequence of this limit on the power of the monarch is that the monarch never makes a decision on his own. Every decision, every decree must be countersigned by the responsible minister(s). [ext 1]
The monarch and the law of the land
Technically, the monarch holds significant formal power. For instance, no proposal of law becomes effective until it is signed by the monarch – while there is no legal requirement for the monarch to sign. [Cons 18] In practice, the monarch always gives assent since most proposals of law are put forward by the government "by or on behalf of the King". [Cons 19] Similarly, while proposals of law must be approved by the States-General, a lot of the practical running of the country is done by royal decree (in Dutch: Koninklijk Besluit). These royal decrees are used for all sorts of things, ranging from appointments of civil servants and military officers to clarifications of how public policy is to be executed to filling in the details of certain laws. Through royal decrees, ministries are created, [Cons 20] the houses of the States-General can be dissolved, [Cons 21] and ministers are appointed or dismissed. [Cons 22]
However, royal decrees are made by the responsible minister. Although the monarch must formally sign both laws and decrees before they take effect, the constitution requires that the responsible minister or state secretary countersigns them. [Cons 23] This arrangement ensures that, despite the monarch’s formal role, political accountability remains with the minister. In practice, the minister requests the monarch’s formal approval—signifying royal authority—and the monarch signs first as a guardian of the constitution, with the minister’s countersignature confirming responsibility on behalf of the Crown. While the monarch can technically propose laws "by or on behalf of the King," ministerial responsibility means that such proposals never actually originate from the monarch. Similarly, even though the government might theoretically refuse to sign a proposal approved by the States-General, such an event is extremely rare; the notion of the monarch independently withholding a signature would almost certainly trigger a constitutional crisis. [ext 2]
There is one special case in which the monarch has, if possible, even less power than normal: the appointment of his ministers. Ministers are appointed by royal decree, which has to be countersigned by the responsible minister. The royal decree to appoint a minister, however, is countersigned by two responsible ministers rather than one: the outgoing minister responsible for the ministry and the Prime Minister . [Cons 24]
Formation of the government
Though the powers of the monarch of the Netherlands are limited, he or she does not have a ceremonial role. The monarch has a role relating to the formation of a new government after parliamentary elections .[ citation needed ] This power is not directed in the constitution. [ext 1]
After the parliamentary election, there follows a period of time in which the leaders of the political parties in parliament seek to form a coalition of parties that can command a majority of the newly elected parliament. The current nationwide party-list system, combined with a low threshold for getting a seat (two-thirds of one percent of the vote), makes it all but impossible for one party to win an outright majority. Thus, the bargaining required to put together a governing coalition is as important as the election itself.
This process of negotiations, which can last anywhere from two to four months (more on occasion), is coordinated in the initial stages by one or more informateurs , whose duty it is to investigate and report upon viable coalitions. After a likely combination is found, a formateur is appointed to conduct the formal coalition negotiations and form a new Council of Ministers (of which the formateur himself usually becomes the Prime Minister). If the negotiations fail, the cycle starts over. The informateurs and formateur in question are all appointed to this task by the monarch. The monarch makes his own decision in this, based on advice from the leaders of the different parties in parliament, as well as other important figures (the speakers of the new parliament and the senate are among them). [ext 1]
There is usually some popular discussion in the Netherlands around the time of these negotiations about whether the authority of the monarch in this matter should not be limited and whether or not the newly elected parliament should not make the appointments that the monarch makes. These discussions usually turn (to varying degrees) on the argument that a decision by a monarch is undemocratic and there is no parliamentary oversight over the decision and the monarch might make use of this to push for a government of his or her liking.
On the other hand, it is somewhat questionable that the monarch really has much opportunity here to exert any influence. The informateur is there to investigate possible coalitions and report on them. He could technically seek "favourable" coalitions, but the political parties involved are usually quite clear on what they want and do not want and the first choice for coalition almost always is the coalition of preference of the largest party in the new parliament. Besides, the monarchs and (particularly) the queens have traditionally known better than to appoint controversial informateurs, usually settling for well-established yet fairly neutral people in the political arena (the deputy chairman of the Dutch Council of State is a common choice). Once a potential coalition has been identified the monarch technically has free rein in selecting a formateur. However, the formateur almost always becomes the next prime minister, and in any case, it is a strong convention that a government must command the support of a majority of the House of Representatives in order to stay in office. These considerations mean that the selected formateur is always the party leader of the largest party in the potential coalition. [ext 1]
However, in March 2012 the States-General altered its own procedures, such that any subsequent government formation is done without the monarch's influence. [ext 3] No more than a month later, the government coalition collapsed, [ext 4] triggering early elections in September 2012 . As no formal procedures had been outlined as to how a government formation without monarch should take place, it was initially feared the subsequent government formation would be chaotic. [ext 3] However, a new government coalition was formed within 54 days – surprisingly early for Dutch standards. [ext 5] Instead of the monarch, the Speaker of the House of Representatives appointed the informateur – whose function was renamed to 'scout'. [ext 6] After the negotiations, the installation ceremony of ministers – the only duty still left to the monarch – was held in public for the first time in history. [ext 7]
The monarch and the States-General
The Dutch Court is still known for their old traditions.
The throne of the Ridderzaal , from which the Dutch monarch delivers the Throne Speech on Prinsjesdag .
The one branch of government over which the monarch has no control is the legislative branch, formed by the States-General of the Netherlands . This parliamentary body consists of two chambers, the House of Representatives (also commonly referred to as Parliament) and the Senate . [Cons 25]
As in most parliamentary democracies , the States-General are dually responsible for overseeing the government in its executive duties as well as approving proposals of law before they can become as such. In this respect, it is vital for the government to maintain good relations with the States-General and technically the monarch shares in that effort (although the monarch never officially speaks to members of the States-General on policy matters due to ministerial responsibility).[ citation needed ]
Constitutionally, the monarch deals with the States-General in three areas: lawmaking, policy outlining at the opening of the parliamentary year and dissolution.
Of the three, policy outlining is the most straightforward. The parliamentary year is opened on the third Tuesday of September with a joint session of both houses. [Cons 26] At this occasion the monarch addresses the joint states in a speech in which he sets forth the outlines for his government's policies for the coming year (the speech itself is prepared by the ministers, their ministries and finally crafted and approved by the prime minister). This event is mandated by the constitution in Article 65. Tradition has made more of this occasion than a policy speech though, and the event known as Prinsjesdag has become a large affair with much pomp and circumstance, in which the States-General and other major bodies of government assemble in the Ridderzaal to hear the King deliver the speech from the throne after having arrived from the Noordeinde Palace in his golden carriage . Both in constitutional aspects and in ceremony the event has much in common with both the British State Opening of Parliament and the American State of the Union .
Lawmaking is the area in which the monarch has the most frequent involvement with the States-General (although he still has very little to do with it in practice). Laws in the Netherlands are primarily proposed by the government "by or on behalf of" the monarch (this phrase is repeated often in the constitution). [Cons 18] Technically, this means that the monarch may propose laws in person, hearkening back to the days of the first monarchs of the Netherlands when monarchs really could and did control this. However, this possibility is at odds with ministerial responsibility and modern monarchs have always avoided the issue by never proposing laws personally. The monarch must still sign proposals into law though, as historical deference to the fact that the law of the land is decreed by the monarch.
While the king has no practical involvement anymore in lawmaking other than a signature at the end, one might get a different impression from reading the communications between the government and the States-General regarding such affairs. All communication from the States-General to the government is addressed to the monarch and correspondence in the opposite direction formally from the monarch (it is also signed by the monarch, without a ministerial countersignature – such communication is not a decision or decree, so does not require a countersignature). The formal language still shows deference to the position of the monarch, with a refusal of the States-General to approve a proposal of law for example becoming "a request to the King to reconsider the proposal". The constitution prescribes a number of the forms used: [Cons 27]
If the government accepts a proposal of law and signs it into law, the language is that "The King accedes to the proposal".
If the government refuses a proposal of law, the language is that "The King shall keep the proposal under advisement".
A law, once passed, is formulated in such a way as to be decreed by the monarch.
The final involvement of the monarch with the States is dissolution . Constitutionally, the government is empowered to dissolve either house of the states by royal decree. This means that a minister (usually the prime minister) makes the decision and the monarch countersigns. The signing of such a royal decree constitutionally implies new elections for the house in question and the formation of a new house within three months of dissolution. [Cons 21]
The constitution prescribes a number of cases in which one or more houses of the States are dissolved (particularly for changes to the constitution); this is always done by royal decree. In addition, traditionally a collapse of the government is followed by dissolution of the House of Representatives and general elections. Before World War II , before it became common to form new governments with each new parliament, it would happen from time to time that a Council of Ministers found itself suddenly facing a new and unfriendly parliament. When the inevitable clash came, it was an established political trick for the Prime Minister to attempt to resolve the problem by dissolving the parliament in name of the monarch in the hope that new elections brought a more favourable parliament (but it was also possible for the trick to backfire, in which case the new, equally hostile and far more angry parliament would suspend the budget to force the resignation of the government).
Even though the monarch never speaks with members of the States-General formally, it was tradition until 1999 that the queen would invite the members of parliament a few times a year for informal talks about the general state of affairs in the country. These conversations were held in the strictest confidence due to ministerial responsibility. The tradition was suspended in 1999 though, after repeated incidents in which MPs divulged the contents of the conversations, despite agreeing not to (and embarrassing the Prime Minister in doing so). In 2009, an attempt was made to resume the tradition, this failed however when Arend Jan Boekestijn disclosed to the press contents of a private conversation he had with the Queen . Boekestinjin resigned shortly after being exposed as the source. [ext 8]
Other functions of the monarch
The monarch has several functions in addition to the duties and responsibilities described in previous sections. Some of these are (partly) constitutional; others are more traditional in nature.
The monarch is the head of state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . As such, the monarch is the face of the kingdom toward the world: ambassadors of the Netherlands are emissaries of the monarch, foreign ambassadors represent foreign heads of state to the monarch. It is the monarch that makes official state visits to foreign heads of state as representative of the Netherlands. He or She represents the monarch whose face is shown on Dutch stamps and Dutch euro coins .
Constitutionally, the monarch is the head of the Dutch Council of State . [Cons 28] The council is a constitutional body of the Netherlands that serves two purposes. First, it is an advisory council to the government which advises on the desirability, practicability and constitutionality of new proposals of law.
Second, it is the Supreme court for the Netherlands in matters of administrative law . [Cons 29] The position of the monarch as constitutional head of this Council means two things for the constitutional position of the monarch: [ext 9]
The monarch is constitutionally and directly involved with practically all aspects of lawmaking except approval by the States-General (which is representative of the electorate). From inception of the law through proposal to the States to finally signing into law, the monarch is involved. This involvement is derived from the days when the monarch was an absolute ruler and really made law. Originally, with the creation of the first constitutions, the monarchs strove to maintain power by maximum involvement with all aspects of lawmaking. Over time this has grown into a more advisory role.
The monarch is constitutionally involved with at least part of the judicial branch of government as well.
The role played by the monarch in the council is largely theoretical due to ministerial responsibility. While the monarch is officially chairman of the council, in practice the king never votes in Council meetings and always turns over his responsibility as chair of the meetings to the deputy head of the council. He is still presumed to be part of the discussions, though.[ citation needed ]
Despite the limitations on the role the monarch may play in the council, his involvement is seen as valuable due to the experience and knowledge that a monarch accrues over the years. Reciprocally, being part of the Council deliberations is considered invaluable training and preparation for the role of monarch, which is why the heir-apparent is constitutionally an observer-member of the council from the time he comes of age. [Cons 28]
Lastly, the monarch plays a prominent but equally unofficial role in the running of the country as an adviser and confidant to the government. This duty traditionally takes the form of a weekly meeting between the Prime Minister and the monarch in which they discuss government affairs of the week, the plans of the cabinet, and so on. It is assumed that the monarch exerts most of his influence (such as it is) in these meetings, in that he can bring his knowledge and experience to bear on what he tells the Prime Minister. In the case of Queen Beatrix, several former Prime Ministers have remarked that her case knowledge of each and every dossier is extensive and that she makes sure to be fully aware of all the details surrounding everything that arrives on her desk.[ citation needed ]
Perhaps somewhat surprisingly for a monarchy, the monarch is not the commander-in-chief of the military of the Netherlands (not even nominally). He was until 1983, but a large overhaul of the constitution that year shifted supreme command of the armed forces to the government as a whole. [Cons 30] In contrast to most monarchies, this required Willem-Alexander to resign from his (brigadier general level) ranks in all military branches when he ascended the throne. At that occasion the special Royal distinctive was created that the king could wear on his uniforms to show his lasting relation with the armed forces. This is however no formal rank.
Remuneration and privileges
Article 40 of the constitution states that the monarch is to receive an annual stipend from the kingdom (in other words wages , except that it cannot be called that since it implies the monarch is employed by the government, but rather it is the opposite). The exact rules surrounding these stipends are to be determined by law, as is the list of members of the royal house who also receive them. [Cons 31]
Under current Dutch law the monarch receives their annual stipend which is part of the annual budget, as do the heir-apparent (if of age), the spouse of the monarch, the spouse of the heir-apparent, the former monarch, and the spouse of the former monarch. [Law 4] In practice, as of June 2019, this means King Willem-Alexander, Queen Maxima, and Princess Beatrix. The monarch receives this stipend constitutionally, the others because they are not allowed to work for anybody due to their positions. For example, the recipients of royal stipends in 2009 were Queen Beatrix (€813,000), Prince Willem-Alexander (the heir-apparent; €241,000) and Princess Máxima (€241,000)). [Law 5] For 2017 the stipends were; for the King €888,000, for the Queen €352,000, and for Princess Beatrix €502,000. These personal stipends are in addition to an allowance for each of those named to meet official expenditure, these were set at €4.6 million for the King, €606,000 for the Queen and just over €1 million for Princess Beatrix. [2]
This stipend is linked to the development of the wages of Dutch civil servants . At the beginning of 2009 there was some upset in the parliament about the cost of the royal house and the lack of insight into the structure of those costs. At the insistence of the parliament the development of the stipends of the royal house members was then linked to the development of the salaries of the Dutch civil servants. During 2009 it was agreed collectively that the civil servants would receive a pay increase of 1%. In September 2009, at the first budget debate in parliament during the economic crisis, it was pointed out to the parliament that their earlier decision meant that the stipend to the queen would now also increase. This in turn was reason for the parliament to be displeased again.
Royal privileges
Under the constitution, royal house members receiving a stipend are exempt from income tax over that stipend. [Cons 31] They are also exempt from all personal taxes over assets and possessions that they use or need in the execution of their functions for the kingdom. [Cons 31] The monarch and the heir-apparent are exempt from inheritance tax on inheritances received from members of the royal house. [Cons 31]
The monarch has the use of Huis ten Bosch and Noordeinde Palace in The Hague as a residence and work palace, respectively. The Royal Palace of Amsterdam is also at the disposal of the monarch (although it is only used for state visits and is open to the public when not in use for that purpose), as is Soestdijk Palace near Baarn (which is open to the public and not in official use at all at this time). [Law 6]
In addition to a small fleet of cars (on which the Royal Standard may be displayed), the monarch has a private three-car royal train . [ext 10] For train journeys, the monarch has access to royal waiting rooms at three train stations: Den Haag HS railway station , Amsterdam Centraal station , and Baarn railway station . [3] The monarch also has access to a Boeing 737 Business Jet available to the Dutch government as a whole, which King Willem-Alexander is licensed to fly. [4]
Historically the Dutch monarch was protected by law against Lèse-majesté . The Netherlands was amongst the last remaining monarchies in Europe to actively prosecute citizens for publicly insulting the reigning sovereign or members of their immediate family, [5] [6] [7] although the sentences tend to be light. According to Dutch TV, in total 18 prosecutions were brought under the law between 2000 and 2012, half of which resulted in convictions. [8] Lèse-majesty in the Netherlands was formally abolished as of 1 January 2020. However, insulting the Monarch, the Royal Consort, the heir apparent or their consort, or the Regent, is still punishable on the same level as denigrating public officials acting in their official capacity, punishable by up to three months in prison and/or a fine. [9]
Positions of other members of the royal house and royal family
The royal family has become quite extensive since the birth of Queen Juliana 's children. By consequence so has the Dutch royal house (nominally the collection of persons in line for the throne and their spouses), to the extent that membership of the royal house was limited by a change in the law in 2002. [Law 7]
Despite being a large clan, the family as a whole has very little to do officially with Dutch government or the running of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, an important role is played by the monarch. The heir-apparent is deemed to be preparing for an eventual ascent to the throne, so there are some limited tasks and a number of limits on them (particularly he/she cannot hold a paying job, since this might lead to entanglements later on). Since neither the monarch nor the heir-apparent may hold jobs, they receive a stipend from the government. Their spouses are similarly forbidden from earning an income and receive a stipend as well. But constitutionally that is the whole of the involvement of the royal family with the Dutch government.
In particular, members of the royal house other than the monarch and the heir-apparent have no official tasks within the Dutch government and do not receive stipends. They are responsible for their own conduct and their own income. They may be asked to stand in from time to time such as to accompany the monarch on a state visit if the consort is ill, but this is always a personal favor and not an official duty. In addition, they are not exempt from taxation.
Many members of the royal family hold (or have held) significant positions within civil society , usually functioning as head or spokesperson of one or more charitable organizations , patron of the arts and similar endeavors. Some members of the royal family are also (or have been) avid supporters of some personal cause; Prince Bernhard for instance was always passionate about the treatment of World War II veterans and Princess Margriet (who was born in Canada) has a special relationship with Canadian veterans specifically. As a rule of thumb, the members of the royal family who are contemporaries of Princess Beatrix tend to hold civil society positions as a primary occupation whereas younger family members hold these positions in conjunction with a regular, paying job. A notable exception to this rule is Pieter van Vollenhoven (husband to Princess Margriet), who was chairman of the Dutch Safety Board until his retirement.
As noted earlier, the spouses of the monarch and the heir-apparent are forbidden from holding paying jobs or government responsibilities. This is to prevent any monetary entanglements or undue influences involving the current and future monarchs. These legal limits were not a great problem when they were instituted in the 19th century; The Netherlands had kings and it was considered normal for a married woman to tend the household, raise the family and not to hold any position outside the home. The limits have been more problematic since the early 20th century, when the monarchy of the Netherlands passed to a series of queens and the consorts became men, starting with Prince Hendrik in 1901. The male consorts since then have all either been raised with an expectation of government responsibility (such as Prince Hendrik), or had established careers of their own before marrying the future queen (Prince Bernhard and Prince Claus ). Upon marrying into the Dutch royal family they all found themselves severely restricted in their freedom to act and make use of their abilities. All of the male consorts have been involved in some form of difficulty or another (scandals involving infidelity and finances in the cases of Hendrik and Bernhard, deep depression in the case of Claus) and it has been widely speculated (and even generally accepted) that sheer boredom played at least a part in all of these difficulties.
Over time the restrictions on royal consorts have eased somewhat. Prince Hendrik was allowed no part or role in the Netherlands whatsoever. Due to his war efforts, Prince Bernhard was made Inspector General of the Dutch armed forces (although that role was created for him) and was an unofficial ambassador for the Netherlands who leveraged his wartime contacts to help Dutch industry. All that came to a halt in 1976, however, after the Lockheed bribery scandals . Prince Claus was allowed more leeway still after having established himself in Dutch society (he was unpopular at first, being a German marrying into the royal family after World War II); he was eventually given an advisorship within the Ministry for Development Cooperation pertaining to Africa, where he made good use of his experiences as a German diplomat in that continent. Nevertheless, neither Bernhard nor Claus ever fully got over the restrictive nature of their marriages and at the time of the royal wedding in 2002 it was broadly agreed in government circles that Queen Máxima (who had a career in banking before marrying King Willem-Alexander) should be allowed far more leeway if she desires.
Deceased members of the Dutch royal family since William I
Prince Frederik Nicholaas of the Netherlands (grandson of William I, died in 1834);
Queen Wilhelmine (first wife of William I, died in 1837);
Prince Willem Frederik of the Netherlands (grandson of William I, died in 1846);
King William II (son of William I, died in 1849);
Queen Dowager Anna (widow of William II, died in 1865);
Prince Albert of Prussia (husband of Princess Mariane, daughter of William I, died in 1872);
Queen Sophie (first wife of William III, died in 1877);
King William III (son of William II, died in 1890);
Queen Mother Emma (widow of William III, died in 1934);
Queen Juliana (daughter of Wilhelmina, died in 2004);
Death and burial
Although Dutch lawmakers have historically favored being very conservative about creating a special legal position for members of the royal house or the royal family, there is one area in which the rules for members of the royal house are very different from those for other Dutch citizens: the area of death and burial.
For Dutch citizens, the rules surrounding death and burial are laid out by the Funeral Services Law (Dutch: Wet op de Lijkbezorging). However, article 87 of this law states the rule doesn't apply to the royal family. The Minister of Internal Affairs can also waive the law for other relatives of the monarch. The reason for this is that the exceptional position of members of the royal house is traditional.
Ever since the burial of William the Silent in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft , members of the Orange-Nassau family have favored burial in the same crypt as William. Some members of the family buried elsewhere were even moved there later. However, for health and hygiene reasons, burial in churches was forbidden in the Netherlands by decree of William I in 1829. To allow members of the royal family to be entombed, all Dutch laws on burial have made an exception for the royal house ever since the 1829 decree. The practice was banned before under French occupation but returned after 1815.
The burial of the royal house members is a matter of tradition, circumstance, practicality, and spirit of the times. This is due to the lack of any formal rules whatsoever. The body of a departed member of the royal house is typically placed on display for a few days in one of the palaces to allow the family to say goodbye. Depending on the deceased family member's identity (a monarch, for instance), there may also be a viewing for the public. Then, on the burial day, the body is transported to Delft in a special horse-drawn carriage. The current protocol specifies eight horses for a deceased monarch and six for a dead royal consort, which is relatively new since Prince Hendrik was borne to Delft by eight horses. The current carriage is purple with white trim. This also changed since the burial of Queen Wilhelmina in 1962, when the carriage was white. Currently, members of the Dutch armed forces line the route to Delft, which is also new since the burial of Prince Hendrik, which was a quiet affair.
Once in Delft, the body is placed in the family crypt after a short service. Only members of the family are allowed in the crypt through the main entrance in the church, which only opens for royal funerals (the mayor of Delft has a key to a separate service entrance, which is only allowed to open in the presence of two military police officers and two members of the Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service for maintenance).
The monarchy in Dutch society
The importance and position of the monarchy within Dutch society has changed over time, together with changes in the constitutional position of the monarchy.
The monarchy of the Netherlands was established in 1815 as a reaction to the decline and eventual fall of the Dutch Republic . It was observed at the time that a large part of the decline of the republic was due to a lack of a strong, central government in the face of strong, centrally led competitor nations such as Great Britain and the French kingdom . After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1813 and the resurrection of the Netherlands, it was decided to reform the republic in the Kingdom of the Netherlands with a monarchy rather than the old stadtholder system.
The original monarchy was absolute in nature, with the States-General serving as more of an advisory board without the power to do much against the king. This state of affairs allowed the king great freedom to determine the course of the nation and indeed William I was able to push through many changes that set the nation on the course towards industrialization and wealth. He also established the first Dutch railway system and the Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij , which would later evolve into the ABN Amro bank. On the other hand, his policies caused great discord with the Southern Netherlands, leading to the Belgian Revolution and a years-long war. A backlash against these policies plus rising fear of early Marxism led to acceptance by William II of a series of reforms, starting with a new constitution in 1848 (which was the start of a continuing series of limitations on royal power).
Direct political power and influence of the king continued until 1890, although it slowly declined in the meantime. Both William I and William II proved quite conservative rulers (although William II was less inclined to interfere with policy than his father was), William I resisted major reforms until eventually conflict with the States-General and his own government forced his abdication. William III 's reign was a continuous saga of power struggles between the monarch and the parliamentary government (which he forced out a couple of times), plus major international crises due to the same stubbornness (including the Luxembourg Crisis ). As a result, the Dutch government used the succession of William III by a female regent as an opportunity to make a power play and establish government authority over royal authority.
Queen Wilhelmina was not happy with the new situation and made several half-hearted attempts during her reign to reassert authority. She was partly successful in certain areas (being able to push for military rearmament before World War I ) but she never succeeded in restoring royal power. She did introduce a new concept to Dutch royalty though: the popular monarch. Establishing her popularity in military circles through her support of Dutch military prior to 1917, she was able to wield her personal popularity to uphold the government against a socialist revolution in November 1918.
Royal power continued to decline until the start of World War II. Forced to flee to London , Queen Wilhelmina established the position of "mother of the Dutch state" through her radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and her support for other Dutchmen evading the Germans and fighting from England. She tried to position her family into more influence by giving Prince Bernhard an important position in the military, but was still relegated to a position of constitutional monarch after the war.
Following Wilhelmina's abdication in 1948, the Orange-Nassau dynasty seems to have settled for a position of unofficial influence behind the scenes coupled with a role as "popular monarchs" in public. As such the monarchs are practically never seen in public doing their official work (except news footage of state visits and the reading of the government plans on Prinsjesdag) and instead their relationship with the public has become more of a popular and romanticized notion of royalty. Queens Juliana and Beatrix were popularly perceived to have a figurehead role, serving to some extent as "mother of the nation" in times of crises and disasters (such as the 1953 floods). In addition, there is a public holiday called Koningsdag (King's Day, which was Koninginnedag, Queen's Day, before 2014), during which the royal family pays a visit somewhere in the country and participates in local activities and traditions in order to get closer to the people.
Popularity of the monarchy
The popularity of the monarchy has changed over time, with constitutional influence, circumstance and economic tides.
When the monarchy was established in 1815, popularity was not a major concern. Still, the Orange family held popular support in around 60% percent of the population following the fall of the French. This changed drastically over the following years as William I's policies alienated the Southern Netherlands, drew the country into civil war and established industries that favored the rich Protestants and not the general populace.
Royal popularity remained relatively low throughout the reign of the kings. William II was conservative, but on the whole did as little to lose popularity as he did to gain it. Economic decline drove most of his popular decline, although popular support for the monarch was still not considered of much import then. William III was unpopular under a wide section of the public.
Royal popularity started to increase with Wilhelmina's ascent to the throne. She pushed for national reforms, was a huge supporter of the armed forces and strove for renewed industrialization. Around 1917 the country was generally divided into two camps: socialists in the cities, royalists elsewhere. This showed in the dividing lines during the failed Troelstra revolution , where Troelstra gained popular support in the larger cities but the countryside flocked to the queen. Wilhelmina was able to muster popular support with a countryside "publicity tour" together with her daughter – this showing of popular support for the queen was instrumental in halting the revolution and stabilizing the government. Still, Wilhelmina remained deeply unpopular in the cities throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
Nationwide support came for Wilhelmina and the monarchy during World War II. Wilhelmina was forced to retreat to London, but refused evacuation all the way to Canada (although princess Juliana was sent there with her children). Wilhelmina regularly held radio broadcasts into the occupied Netherlands and staunchly supported the Dutch troops in exile. She became the symbol for Dutch resistance against the Germans.
After Dutch independence , the seven provinces of the Netherlands were each led by chief-executives called stadtholders . After 1747, the office of stadtholder was centralized (one stadtholder for all provinces) and became formally inherited by the House of Orange-Nassau through primogeniture . The Netherlands remained de jure a confederated republic until the Batavian Revolution of 1795.
The House of Orange-Nassau came from Dietz , Germany, seat of one of the Nassau counties. Their title ' Prince of Orange ' was acquired through inheritance of the Principality of Orange in southern France, in 1544. William of Orange (also known as William the Silent) was the first Orange-Nassau Stadtholder (ironically, appointed by Philip II of Spain ). From 1568 to his death in 1584, he led the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain. His younger brother, John VI, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg , Stadtholder of Utrecht, was the direct male line ancestor of the later Stadtholders of Friesland and Groningen , the hereditary stadtholders of all the Netherlands and the first King of the Netherlands.
The present monarchy was founded in 1813, when the French were driven out. The new regime was headed by Prince William Frederick of Orange , the son of the last stadtholder. He originally reigned over only the territory of the previous republic as " sovereign prince ". In 1815, after Napoleon escaped from Elba , William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I . As part of the rearrangement of Europe at the Congress of Vienna , the House of Orange-Nassau was confirmed as rulers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands , enlarged with what are now Belgium and Luxembourg . At the same time, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for ceding his family's hereditary lands in Germany to Nassau-Weilburg and Prussia. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was a part of the Netherlands (until 1839) while at the same time a member state of the German Confederation. It became fully independent in 1839, but remained in a personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1890. [10] [11] [12] [13]
Abdication of the throne has become a de facto tradition in the Dutch monarchy. Queen Wilhelmina and Queen Juliana both abdicated in favor of their daughters and William I abdicated in favor of his eldest son, William II . The only Dutch monarchs to die on the throne were William II and William III .
List of hereditary heads of state
Royal finances
The royal palaces are the property of the Dutch state and given for the use of the reigning monarch; [14] While the House of Orange-Nassau possesses a large number of personal belongings, items such as paintings, historical artifacts and jewelry are usually associated with the performance of royal duties and/or the decoration of royal residences. As such, these items have a cultural significance beyond that of simple artworks and jewelry, and have therefore been placed in the hands of trusts: the House of Orange-Nassau Archives Trust and the House of Orange-Nassau Historic Collections Trust. Part of the collection is on permanent loan to Het Loo Palace Museum in Apeldoorn and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam . Queen Juliana sold the remaining royal palaces and put the cultural assets (paintings, antiques, books, etc.) into non-personal trusts.
The crown jewels , comprising the crown , orb and sceptre , Sword of State , royal banner, and ermine mantle have been placed in the Crown Property Trust. The trust also holds the items used on ceremonial occasions, such as the carriages, table silver, and dinner services. Placing these goods in the hands of a trust ensures that they will remain at the disposal of the monarch in perpetuity. [15] The Royal Archives house the personal archives of the royal family. [16] This includes books, photographs, and artworks, as well as the books of the House of Orange-Nassau and the music library. The library was begun in 1813, following the return of the Orange-Nassaus to the Netherlands. King William I allowed the Stadtholder 's library to remain part of the Royal Library in The Hague . The library houses a collection of some 70,000 books, journals and brochures. The music library has 6,000 scores, going back to the mid 18th century.
The Royal House Finances Act (1972) [17] as amended in 2008 sets allowances for the King (or Queen Regnant), the Heir to the Throne, and the former sovereign who has abdicated. Provision is also made for their spouses (and in the case of death, for the surviving spouse). The allowances have two components: income (A-component) and personnel and materials (B-component). Annual increases or decreases are provided for: the A component is linked to changes in the annual salary of the Vice-President of the Council of State ; the B-component is linked to changes in civil service pay and the cost of living.
In 2009, the government decided that the annual state budget of the Netherlands should show in a transparent way all the costs of the royal house, some of which had previously been borne by various Government Ministries. [18] Three sets of costs are now separately allocated in the annual budget for the royal house (Budget I of the annual State Budget). These are:
Allowances paid under the Royal House Finances Act. They comprise the income and personnel and materials components mentioned above.
Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They include costs which had previously been borne by the budgets of three Government Ministries (Interior, Transport and Water Management, Health and Welfare) and which are now attributed to the Royal budget in the interest of transparency. They also include the costs relating to royal flights and the royal yacht, Groene Draeck.
Other expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They relate to expenses for the Government Information Service (AZ/RVD) in connection with the royal house, the cost of the Royal Military Household, the Queen's Cabinet and the travel and other costs incurred by royal visits to overseas provinces and countries within the Dutch Kingdom (former Netherlands Antilles and Aruba ).
Costs relating to the security of members of the royal house, state visits, and the maintenance and upkeep of the royal palaces (which are considered to be national monuments) continue to be funded by the budgets of the appropriate Government Ministries and are not included in the budget for the royal house. [19]
According to the State Budget for 2010, the budgetary allocation for the royal house in 2010 is €39.643 million. [20] There are the following categories of expenditure:
Allowances paid to the King, Queen Máxima , and the Princess under the Royal House Finances Act. They total some €7.102 million in 2010.
Expenses incurred in the performance of official duties. They total some €26.818 million in 2010.
Other expenses relating to the management of the royal house. They total some €5.723 million in 2010.
Monarchs of the Netherlands
When Wilhelmina came to the Dutch throne in 1890 at age 10, the throne of Luxembourg went to her very distant agnate (but incidentally also her maternal granduncle), Adolf , former Duke of Nassau. Thus ended the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg.
The 58-year reign of Queen Wilhelmina was dominated by the two World Wars. She married a German prince, Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin , who was not happy with his unrewarding role of husband-to-the-queen. Wilhelmina's strong personality and unrelenting passion to fulfill her inherited task overpowered many men in position of authority, including ministers, Prime Ministers and her own husband. She is mostly remembered for her role during World War II . The initial disappointment of many Dutch people because of her quick withdrawal to London faded (though it was never forgotten and by some was never forgiven) when she proved to be of great moral support to the people and the resistance in her occupied country, Netherlands. Hendrik and Wilhelmina had one daughter, Juliana , who came to the throne in 1948. They lived in The Hague and in Palace 't Loo (Paleis 't Loo) in Apeldoorn . She died in 1962.
Juliana (1948–1980)
Beatrix (1980–2013)
The Dutch royal family today is much larger than it has ever been. Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus had three sons: King Willem-Alexander (married to Queen Máxima ), Prince Friso (whose widow is Princess Mabel ) and Prince Constantijn (married to Princess Laurentien ). Her sister Princess Margriet and Pieter van Vollenhoven have four sons, princes Maurits , Bernhard , Pieter-Christiaan and Floris . Princess Margriet is in line to the throne behind King Willem-Alexander's daughters, princesses Catharina-Amalia , Alexia , and Ariane , and his brother Prince Constantijn. Prince Friso lost his right to the throne because no approval was asked for his marriage to Mabel Wisse Smit to the States-General . The two other sisters of Beatrix, Irene and Christina , lost their rights to the throne because their marriages were not approved by the States-General. They both married Roman Catholics and Irene herself converted to Roman Catholicism, which at that time (the 1960s) was still politically problematic. An additional complication which the government wanted to avoid, was that Irene's husband, Prince Carlos-Hugo of Bourbon-Parma (whom she later divorced), was a member of a deposed Spanish-Italian dynasty who controversially claimed the Spanish throne. Traditionally, Dutch monarchs have always been members of the Dutch Reformed Church although this was never constitutionally required. This tradition is embedded in the history of the Netherlands .
On 28 January 2013, the Queen announced that she would abdicate on 30 April 2013 in favour of her eldest son.
Willem-Alexander (2013–present)
The current monarch is King Willem-Alexander (born 1967), who has been on the Throne since 30 April 2013. He studied history at the University of Leiden and became actively involved in water management . His wife is Queen Máxima (née Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti), an economics major, whose father was a minister of agriculture in the dictatorial regime under General Videla in Argentina. Because of that their relationship was accompanied by fierce public debate and only officially sanctioned after quiet diplomacy, resulting in Máxima's father agreeing not to be present on their wedding day (2 February 2002). Former minister Max van der Stoel and Prime Minister Wim Kok seem to have played a crucial role in this process.
On 7 December 2003 Princess Máxima gave birth to a daughter: Princess Catharina-Amalia . On 26 June 2005 another daughter was born: Princess Alexia . On 10 April 2007 a third daughter was born, Princess Ariane . They are first, second and third in line to the Dutch throne.
His mother, Queen Beatrix abdicated the Throne on 30 April 2013. On that day, Willem-Alexander became the new King and was sworn in and inaugurated in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, in a session of the States-General .
Heir apparent
Full title
Most members of the Dutch royal family, in addition to other titles hold (or held) the princely title Prince of Orange-Nassau . The children of Prince Friso and Prince Constantijn are instead counts and countesses of Orange-Nassau. In addition to the titles King/Prince of the Netherlands and Prince of Orange-Nassau, daughters of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld hold another princely title – Princesses of Lippe-Biesterfeld. The children of Queen Beatrix and their male-line descendants, except for the children of King Willem-Alexander, also carry the appellative Honourable (Jonkheer/Jonkvrouw) in combination with the name 'Van Amsberg '.
Queen Juliana, the only child of Queen Wilhelmina and Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin , was also a Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Since the title can pass only through the male line, Queen Juliana's descendants do not carry the title of Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
The title Prince of the Netherlands is the prerogative of the most important members of the royal house (children of the monarch and of the heir apparent), which is smaller than the royal family. Members of the royal house can lose their membership when they enter into marriage without asking (and receiving) consent from Parliament.
In addition to this, the Dutch Monarch carries a number of subsidiary titles , of more historical than practical note, that have been passed down through the House of Orange-Nassau and represent the accretion of lands and influence by their ancestors:
Duke of Limburg, Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Spiegelberg, Buren, Leerdam and Culemborg, Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen, Baron of Breda, Diest, Beilstein, the town of Grave and the lands of Cuyk, IJsselstein, Cranendonk, Eindhoven and Liesveld, Hereditary Lord and Seigneur of Ameland, Lord of Borculo, Bredevoort, Lichtenvoorde, 't Loo, Geertruidenberg, Klundert, Zevenbergen, Hoge and Lage Zwaluwe, Naaldwijk, Polanen, St Maartensdijk, Soest, Baarn and Ter Eem, Willemstad, Steenbergen, Montfort, St Vith, Bütgenbach and Dasburg, Viscount of Antwerp. [21] [22]
Probably the most important of these was the Barony of Breda , which formed the core of the Nassau lands in the Netherlands (Brabant) even before they inherited the Principality of Orange in what is now southern France. This was probably followed by the Viscountship/Burgravate of Antwerp , which allowed William the Silent to control a large amount of the politics in that then very important city, followed by the Marquisate of Veere , which allowed William the Silent and his descendants to control the votes of the province of Zeeland. [23] [24] [25] [26] [27]
The royal family and the royal house
A distinction is made in the Netherlands between the royal family and the Royal House .
The royal family includes people born into the family (and legally recognised as such) or who have married into the family. However, not every member of the royal family is a member of the royal house.
By Act of Parliament, the members of the Royal House are: [28]
the monarch (King or Queen);
the former monarch (on abdication);
the members of the royal family in the line of succession to the throne who are not further removed to the monarch than the second degree of consanguinity;
Members of the royal house can lose their membership and designation as prince or princess of the Netherlands if they marry without the consent of the Dutch Parliament. This happened to Prince Friso when he married Mabel Wisse Smit . This is written down explicitly in the part of the constitution of the Netherlands that controls the Monarchy of the Netherlands. [28]
Family tree of current members
Bernardo Guillermo^
** Member of the Royal Family
^ Member of the extended royal family
Members of the royal house
Descendants of Princess Beatrix
HRH Princess Luisa Irene, The Marchioness of Castell'Arquato
HRH Princess Cecilia Maria, The Countess of Berceto
Mr Tjalling ten Cate
Miss Julia ten Cate
Miss Paola ten Cate
Miss Magali van Vollenhoven
Miss Eliane van Vollenhoven
Mr Willem van Vollenhoven
Mr Bernardo Guillermo
Mrs Eva Guillermo
Miss Isabel Guillermo
Mr Julián Guillermo
Mr Nicolás Guillermo
Mr Joaquín Guillermo
Miss Carmen Guillermo
Miss Juliana Guillermo
Mr Kai Bodhi
Mr Numa Bodhi
Miss Aida Bodhi
The Dutch royal family also makes extensive use of royal standards that are based on their coats of arms. While these are heraldic flags , they are not a person's coat of arms in banner form as the British royal family does. Some examples from the royal family's website are: [28]
The standards of the ruling king or queen:
Royal Flag of the Netherlands until 1908
Current Royal Standard of the Netherlands
The standards of the current sons of Princess Beatrix and their wives, and the Princess' husband:
Royal Standard of the Princes of the Netherlands (Sons of Queen Beatrix)
Standard of Claus von Amsberg as Royal consort of the Netherlands
Standard of Princess Máxima of the Netherlands
Standard of Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands
The standards of the sisters of Princess Beatrix and their children:
Standard of the Princesses of the Netherlands (Daughters of Queen Juliana)
Standard of the Princes of Oranje-Nassau (Sons of Princess Margriet )
The standards of former members of the royal family:
Standard of Juliana of the Netherlands as Princess
Standard of Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld as Royal consort of the Netherlands
Standard of Hendrik of Mecklenburg-Schwerin as Royal consort of the Netherlands
Standard of Queen Mother Emma of the Netherlands
Like most Royal Families, the Dutch royal family also makes use of royal monograms . Some examples from the royal family's website are: [28]
The monograms of the ruling kings or queens:
King Willem-Alexander
Queen Beatrix
Queen Juliana
Queen Anna Pavlovna
Prince Claus
Queen Máxima
Prince Constantijn
Princess Laurentien
Catharina Amalia, The Princess of Orange
See also
Zaken, Ministerie van Algemene. "I De Koning Rijksbegroting 2017" . www.rijksoverheid.nl (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
"Tweeter get sentenced for Dutch queen diss" . NY Daily News. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
"Dutchman jailed for king 'insult'" . BBC News. 14 July 2016. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
Koninkrijksrelaties, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en. "Wetboek van Strafrecht" . wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 5 September 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
^ Thewes, Guy (2006) (PDF). Les gouvernements du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg depuis 1848 (2006), p. 208
"LUXEMBURG Geschiedenis | Landenweb.nl" . www.landenweb.net. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
^ Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1997
"Budget for The King 2010" . 23 April 2008. Archived from the original on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
The King's full official titles are King of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg, Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Spiegelberg, Buren, Leerdam and Culemborg, Marquis of Veere and Vlissingen, Baron of Breda, Diest, Beilstein, the town of Grave and the lands of Cuyk, IJsselstein, Cranendonk, Eindhoven and Liesveld, Hereditary Lord and Seigneur of Ameland, Lord of Borculo, Bredevoort, Lichtenvoorde, 't Loo, Geertruidenberg, Klundert, Zevenbergen, Hoge and Lage Zwaluwe, Naaldwijk, Polanen, St Maartensdijk, Soest, Baarn and Ter Eem, Willemstad, Steenbergen, Montfort, St Vith, Bütgenbach and Dasburg, Viscount of Antwerp.
Motley, John Lothrop (1855). The Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. 2. Harper & Brothers. p. 37.
Young, Andrew (1886). A Short History of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium) . Netherlands: T. F. Unwin. p. 315. Archived from the original on 3 July 2024. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
Parker, Geoffrey (2002). The Dutch Revolt. Penguin.
Rowen, Herbert H. (1990). The Princes of Orange: The Stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge Univ. Press.
In 1582 William the Silent purchased the marquisate of Veere and Vlissingen. It had been the property of Philip II since 1567, but had fallen into arrears to the province. In 1580 the Court of Holland ordered it sold. William bought it as it gave him two more votes in the States of Zeeland. He owned the government of the two towns, and so could appoint their magistrates. He already had one as First Noble for Philip William, who had inherited Maartensdijk. This made William the predominant member of the States of Zeeland. It was a smaller version of the countship of Zeeland (& Holland) promised to William, and was a potent political base for his descendants.
Affairs, Ministry of General (18 August 2014). "Members of the Royal House" . www.royal-house.nl. Archived from the original on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
Affairs, Ministry of General (5 October 2015). "Royal family" . www.royal-house.nl. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
Constitutional references
^ (in Dutch) Wet instelling Militaire Willems-Orde Archived 9 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine , law regarding the Military William Order, Article 3
^ (in Dutch) Wet lidmaatschap koninklijk huis Archived 9 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Law on membership and titles of the Dutch royal house
External sources
van Bijsterveld, S. C.; A. K. Koekkoek; et al. (2000). A. K. Koekkoek (ed.). de Grondwet – een systematisch en artikelsgewijs commentaar [the Constitution – a systematic, article-by-article commentary] (in Dutch) (3rd ed.). W.E.J. TJEENK WILLINK. ISBN
"Catshuisoverleg is mislukt" . NOS. 21 April 2012. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
"Rutte II op weg naar bordes" . NOS. 5 November 2012. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
"Kamp verkenner in formatie" . NOS. 13 September 2012. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
"Kabinet-Rutte II beëdigd" . NOS. 5 November 2012. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Beers, A.A.L.; A.K. Koekkoek; et al. (2000). A.K.Koekkoek (ed.). de Grondwet – een systematisch en artikelsgewijs commentaar [the Constitution – a systematic, article-by-article commentary] (in Dutch) (3rd ed.). W.E.J. TJEENK WILLINK. ISBN
"Het Koninklijk Huis" . Koninklijkhuis.nl. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
External links
2. Recognised by at least one United Nations member.
3. Not recognised by any United Nations members.
Monarchy of the Netherlands
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58 | who is the king and queen of the netherlands | https://www.royal-house.nl/topics/kings-and-queens | Search within English part of Royal House of the Netherlands
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Kings and Queens
The Kingdom of the Netherlands originated in the 19th century. The first
monarch was King Willem I (1772-1843).
Batavian Republic and Kingdom of Holland
Following their military victory over the Netherlands, the French transformed the Dutch Republic into a modern unitary state, known as the Batavian Republic (1795-1806). Initial enthusiasm for the French vanished quickly due to their complete lack of respect for Dutch independence.
In 1806 the Batavian Republic became the Kingdom of Holland, under King Louis Bonaparte, Emperor Napoleon’s brother. His reign lasted until 1810, when the Netherlands was incorporated into the French Empire. Three years later the French withdrew, marking an end to the period of Napoleonic rule.
The future King Willem I (1772-1843) was the eldest son of Prince William V. In 1802 he became the ruler of the German principalities of Fulda and Corvey, which he had been given by Napoleon Bonaparte as compensation for the loss of his Dutch domains in 1795. He lost these new possessions in 1806, as punishment for his support of Prussia in a new war against Napoleon.
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58 | who is the king and queen of the netherlands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem-Alexander_of_the_Netherlands | Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
King of the Netherlands since 2013
Willem-Alexander
Spouse
Prince Carlos Enrique de Bourbon de Parme
Mr Nicolás Guillermo
Miss Juliana Guillermo
Dutch: [ˈʋɪləm aːlɛkˈsɑndər] ; Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand; born 27 April 1967) is King of the Netherlands , reigning since 30 April 2013.
Willem-Alexander was born in Utrecht during the reign of his maternal grandmother, Queen Juliana , as the eldest child of Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus . He became Prince of Orange as heir apparent upon his mother's accession on 30 April 1980. He went to public primary and secondary schools in the Netherlands, and an international sixth-form college in Wales . He served in the Royal Netherlands Navy , and studied history at Leiden University . He married Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti in 2002, and they have three daughters: Catharina-Amalia , Alexia , and Ariane . Willem-Alexander succeeded his mother as monarch upon her abdication on 30 April 2013. He is the first man to hold this position since the death of his great-great-grandfather William III in 1890, as the intervening three monarchs—his great-grandmother Wilhelmina , his grandmother Juliana and his mother Beatrix—had all been women.
Early life and education
Prince Willem-Alexander (left) at age 14 and his brother Friso in 1982
Willem-Alexander was born on 27 April 1967 at Academic Hospital Utrecht (now known as the University Medical Center Utrecht ) in Utrecht . He is the first child of Princess Beatrix (later Queen) and Prince Claus , [5] and the first grandchild of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard . He was the first male Dutch royal baby since the birth of Prince Alexander in 1851, and the first immediate male heir since Alexander's death in 1884.
He had two younger brothers: Prince Friso (1968–2013) and Prince Constantijn (b. 1969). He lived with his family at the castle Drakensteyn in the hamlet Lage Vuursche near Baarn from his birth until 1981, when they moved to the larger palace Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. His mother, Beatrix, became Queen of the Netherlands in 1980, after his grandmother Juliana abdicated. He then received the title of Prince of Orange as heir apparent to the throne of the Kingdom of the Netherlands at the age of 13. [5]
Willem-Alexander attended local state primary school Nieuwe Baarnse Elementary School in Baarn from 1973 to 1979. He went to two different state secondary schools (the Baarns Lyceum in Baarn from 1979 to 1981 and the Eerste Vrijzinnig Christelijk Lyceum in The Hague from 1981 to 1983) and the private sixth-form college United World College of the Atlantic in Wales (1983 to 1985), where he received his International Baccalaureate . [5] [9]
After his military service from 1985 to 1987, Willem-Alexander studied history at Leiden University from 1987 onwards and received his Master of Arts degree ( doctorandus ) in 1993. [10] [11] His final thesis was on the Dutch response to France's decision under President Charles de Gaulle to leave NATO 's integrated command structure. [5]
Willem-Alexander speaks English, Spanish, French, and German (his father's native language) in addition to his native Dutch. [12]
Military training and career
Willem-Alexander in the navy uniform of ensign in 1986
Between secondary school and his university education, Willem-Alexander performed military service in the Royal Netherlands Navy from August 1985 until January 1987. He received his training at the Royal Netherlands Naval College and in the frigates HNLMS Tromp and HNLMS Abraham Crijnssen , where he was an ensign . In 1988 he received additional training in the ship HNLMS Van Kinsbergen and became a lieutenant (junior grade) (wachtofficier). [13]
Before his investiture as king in 2013, Willem-Alexander was honourably discharged from the armed forces. The government declared that the head of state cannot be a serving member of the armed forces, since the government itself holds supreme command over the armed forces. As king, Willem-Alexander may choose to wear a military uniform with royal insignia , but not with his former rank insignia. [14]
Activities and social interests
Since 1985, when he became 18 years old, Willem-Alexander has been a member of the Council of State of the Netherlands . This is the highest council of the Dutch political system and is chaired by the head of state (then Queen Beatrix). [15]
Willem-Alexander is interested in water management and sports issues. He was an honorary member of the World Commission on Water for the 21st century and patron of the Global Water Partnership, a body established by the World Bank , the UN, and the Swedish Ministry of Development. He was appointed as the Chairperson of the United Nations Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation on 12 December 2006. [16]
He was a patron of the Dutch Olympic Games Committee until 1998 when he was made a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). After becoming King, he relinquished his membership and received the Gold Olympic Order at the 125th IOC Session . [17] To celebrate the 100th anniversary of the 1928 Summer Olympics held in Amsterdam, he had expressed support to bid for the 2028 Summer Olympics . [18]
He was a member of the supervisory board of De Nederlandsche Bank (the Dutch central bank), a member of the Advisory Council of ECP (the information society forum for government, business and civil society), patron of Veterans' Day and held several other patronages and posts. [19]
On 28 January 2013, Beatrix announced her intention to abdicate. On the morning of 30 April 2013 ( Koninginnedag ), Beatrix signed the instrument of abdication at the Moseszaal (Moses Hall) at the Royal Palace of Amsterdam . Later that afternoon, Willem-Alexander was inaugurated as king before a joint session of the States General in a ceremony held at the Nieuwe Kerk .
As king, Willem-Alexander has weekly meetings with the prime minister and speaks regularly with ministers and state secretaries. He also signs all new Acts of Parliament and royal decrees. He represents the kingdom at home and abroad. At the State Opening of Parliament, he delivers the Speech from the Throne, which announces the plans of the government for the parliamentary year. The Constitution requires that the king appoint, dismiss and swear in all government ministers and state secretaries. As king, he is also the President of the Council of State , an advisory body that reviews proposed legislation. In modern practice, the monarch seldom chairs council meetings. [20]
At his accession at age 46, he was Europe's youngest monarch. He is currently third-youngest after Frederik X of Denmark and Felipe VI of Spain. He is also the first male monarch of the Netherlands since the death of his great-great-grandfather William III in 1890. Willem-Alexander was one of four new sovereign monarchs in 2013 along with Pope Francis , Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani of Qatar, and King Philippe of Belgium.
Other activities
Willem-Alexander is an avid pilot and has said that if he had not been a royal, he would have liked to be an airline pilot so he could fly internationally on large-sized aircraft such as the Boeing 747 . [21] During the reign of his mother, he regularly flew the Dutch royal aircraft on trips. [22] However, in May 2017, Willem-Alexander revealed that he had served as a first officer on KLM flights for 21 years, flying KLM Cityhopper 's Fokker 70s twice a month, even after his accession to the throne. Following KLM's phased retirement of the Fokker 70, he began training to fly Boeing 737s . Willem-Alexander was rarely recognized while in the KLM uniform and wearing the KLM cap, though a few passengers recognized his voice, even though he never gave his name and only welcomed passengers on behalf of the captain and crew. [21] [23]
Using the name "W. A. van Buren ", one of the least-known titles of the House of Orange-Nassau , he participated in the 1986 Frisian Elfstedentocht , a 200-kilometre-long (120 mi) distance ice skating tour. [24] He ran the New York City Marathon under the same pseudonym in 1992. [25] Willem-Alexander completed both events.
Marriage and children
Prince Willem-Alexander and Princess Máxima kiss at the balcony of the Royal Palace of Amsterdam on their wedding day in 2002.
Name
In an attempt to strike a balance between privacy for the royal family and availability to the press, the Netherlands Government Information Service (RVD) instituted a media code on 21 June 2005 which essentially states that: [29]
Photographs of the members of the royal house while performing their duties are always permitted.
For other occasions (like holidays or vacations), the RVD will arrange a photo-op on condition that the press leave the family alone for the rest of the activity.
During a ski vacation in Argentina , several photographs were taken of the prince and his family during the private part of their holiday, including one by Associated Press staff photographer Natacha Pisarenko, in spite of the media code, and after a photo opportunity had been provided earlier. [30] The Associated Press decided to publish some of the photos, which were subsequently republished by several Dutch media. Willem-Alexander and the RVD jointly filed suit against the Associated Press on 5 August 2009, and the trial started on 14 August 2009 at the district court in Amsterdam. On 28 August 2009, the district court ruled in favour of the prince and RVD, citing that the couple has a right to privacy, that the pictures in question add nothing to any public debate, and that they are not of any particular value to society since they are not photographs of his family "at work". Associated Press was sentenced to stop further publication of the photographs, on pain of a € 1,000 fine per violation with a € 50,000 maximum. [31]
In October 2020, Willem-Alexander apologised for a family holiday trip to Greece which had taken place while his country was under partial lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic . [32] He and his family cut their trip short, and in a two-minute video he stated that it "hurts to have betrayed" people's trust. [32] Earlier in August, he and his wife were photographed with a restaurant owner during another trip to Greece, which was a violation of social distancing rules at the time. [32]
From 2003 until 2019, Willem-Alexander and his family lived in Villa Eikenhorst on the De Horsten Estate in Wassenaar . [33] After his mother abdicated and became Princess Beatrix once again, she moved to the castle of Drakensteyn , after which the King and his family moved to the newly renovated monarch's palace of Huis ten Bosch in The Hague in 2019. [34]
Willem-Alexander has a villa near Kranidi , Greece. [35]
Villa in Machangulo
Titles, styles, honours and arms
30 April 2013 – present: His Majesty The King [41]
Willem-Alexander's full title is: His Majesty King Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, etc., etc., etc. [41]
Willem-Alexander is the first Dutch king since Willem III ( d. 1890). Willem-Alexander had earlier indicated that when he became king, he would take the name Willem IV, [42] but it was announced in January 2013 that his regnal name would be Willem-Alexander. [43]
Military ranks
King Willem-Alexander in uniform with the Royal insignia
Royal Netherlands Navy – conscripted
Lieutenant at sea, third class ( Ensign ) (August 1985 – January 1987)
Lieutenant at sea, second class ( Sub-lieutenant ) (watch officer, 1988)
Royal Netherlands Navy – reserve
Lieutenant at sea, second class (senior grade) ( Lieutenant ) (1988–1995)
Lieutenant at sea, first class ( Lieutenant Commander ) (1995–1997)
Captain-lieutenant at sea ( Commander ) (1997–2001)
United Arab Emirates : Grand Cross of the Order of Union
Honorary appointment
Notes
As Monarch, Willem-Alexander uses the Greater Coat of Arms of the Realm (Grote Rijkswapen). The components of the coats of arms were updated and further regulated by Queen Wilhelmina in a royal decree of 10 July 1907 and were affirmed by Queen Juliana in a royal decree of 23 April 1980.
Crest
Issuing from a coronet Or, a pair of wings joined Sable each with an arched bend Argent charged with three leaves of the lime-tree stems upward Vert.
Torse
Escutcheon
Azure , billetty Or a lion with a coronet Or armed and langued Gules holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and bound together Or.
Supporters
Motto
Other elements
The monarch places this coat of arms on a purple mantle, with golden borders and tassels, lined with Ermine . Above the mantle is a purple pavilion again topped with the royal crown. [70] (Note: Although the official blazon states the mantle as purple it often looks like (dark) red. French and German purple contains more red and less blue than American or British purple.)
Banner
Upon his succession to the throne, Willem-Alexander adopted the (partly modified) Royal Standard of the Netherlands , which is a square orange flag, divided in four-quarters by a nassau-blue cross. All quarters show a white and blue bugle-horn, taken from the coat of arms of the Principality of Orange . In the centre of the flag is the (small) coat of arms of the Kingdom, which originates from the arms of the House of Nassau , surmounted by a royal crown and surrounded by the insignia of the Grand Cross of the Military William Order .
Symbolism
The seven arrows stand for the seven provinces of the Union of Utrecht .
Previous versions
Quarterly, 1 and 3, Azure, billetty Or a lion with a coronet or armed and langued Gules holding in his dexter paw a sword Argent hilted Or and in the sinister paw seven arrows Argent pointed and bound together Or ( royal arms of the Netherlands , i.e. that of his mother, Queen Beatrix), 2 and 4, Or, and a bugle-horn Azure, langued Gules (arms of the former Principality of Orange ), on an inescutcheon Vert, a castle proper, on a mount of the last (arms of the House of Amsberg , i.e. that of his late father, Prince Claus ).
Through his father, a member of the House of Amsberg , he is descended from families of the lower German nobility , and through his mother, from several royal German–Dutch families such as the House of Lippe , Mecklenburg-Schwerin , the House of Orange-Nassau , Waldeck and Pyrmont , and the House of Hohenzollern . He is descended from the first king of the Netherlands, William I of the Netherlands , who was also a ruler in Luxembourg and several German states, and all subsequent Dutch monarchs.
Through his mother, Willem-Alexander also descends from Paul I of Russia and thus from German princess Catherine the Great and Swedish King Gustav I . Through his father, he is also descended from several Dutch–Flemish families who left the Low Countries during Spanish rule, such as the Berenbergs . His paternal great-great-grandfather Gabriel von Amsberg, a major-general of Mecklenburg, was recognized as noble as late as 1891, the family having adopted the " von " in 1795. [71] [72]
Finally, Willem-Alexander is also a distant descendent of William the Silent , who is held to be the Father of the Nation in the Netherlands, since John William Friso , a great-great-grandson of William the Silent, is known to be a common ancestor to all current European monarchs.
Ancestors of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
Hoff, Ruud. "Leiden, 2 juli 1993" [Leiden, 2 July 1993]. ANP Historisch Archief Community. Archived from the original on 2013-12-12. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
"About UNSGAB" . United Nations Secretary-General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation. Archived from the original on 2012-07-30. Retrieved 2013-01-28.
Máxima Zorreguieta was born in Argentina on 17 May 1971.
"Queen Máxima — Youth" . Het Koninklijk Huis. 2015-01-15. Archived from the original on 2023-08-25. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
Queen Máxima was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971 as Máxima Zorreguieta.
"Willem-Alexander wil huis voor kust Mozambique" [Willem-Alexander wants a house off the coast of Mozambique]. Trouw (in Dutch). 2008-07-10. Archived from the original on 2015-01-23. Retrieved 2015-01-23.
"Boletim Oficial" [Official Bulletin]. Imprensa Nacional de Cabo Verde (in Portuguese). Vol. 1, no. 80. 2018-12-07. Archived from the original on 2022-03-27. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
"Ordensdetaljer" [Order details]. borger.dk (in Danish). Archived from the original on 2013-12-07. Retrieved 2019-11-11.
"Kuningas Willem-Alexander" [King Willem-Alexander]. Office of the President of the Republic (in Estonian). Archived from the original on 2022-04-27. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
"Real Decreto 349/2024" [Royal Decree 349/2024]. Boletín Oficial del Estado (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2024-04-02.
"Real Decreto 1141" [Royal Decree 1141] (PDF). Boletín Oficial del Estado (in Spanish). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
Tebbe, F. J. J.; Aerts, W. D. E.; Cruyningen, Arnout van; Klare, Jean, eds. (2005). Encyclopedie van het Koninklijk Huis [Encyclopædia of the Royal House] (in Dutch). Utrecht : Winkler Prins . p. 17. ISBN
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Willem-Alexander .
1st generation
3
1
title granted by Royal Decree to consort of the Queen, without the title "Prince of Orange-Nassau"
2
gave up the title "Prince of the Netherlands, but still held the title "Prince of Orange-Nassau"
3
title granted by Royal Decree to descendants of Princess Irene
4
Americas
Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Charles III
Oceania
Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu: Charles III
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands
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58 | who is the king and queen of the netherlands | https://www.royal-house.nl/members-royal-house/king-willem-alexander | Search within English part of Royal House of the Netherlands
Search
King Willem-Alexander
On 30 April 2013, King Willem-Alexander succeeded his mother as monarch. The King is married to Queen Máxima.
The royal couple have three daughters, Princess Catharina-Amalia (the Princess of Orange), Princess Alexia and Princess Ariane.
News
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59 | who was defeated in the french and indian war | https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/french-indian-war | Milestones: 1750–1775
NOTE TO READERS
“Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations” has been
retired and is no longer maintained. For more information, please
see the full notice .
French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War, 1754–63
The French and Indian War was the North American conflict in a larger imperial
war between Great Britain and France known as the Seven Years’ War. The French
and Indian War began in 1754 and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The war
provided Great Britain enormous territorial gains in North America, but disputes
over subsequent frontier policy and paying the war’s expenses led to colonial
discontent, and ultimately to the American Revolution.
Map from the French and Indian War
The French and Indian War resulted from ongoing frontier tensions in North
America as both French and British imperial officials and colonists sought to
extend each country’s sphere of influence in frontier regions. In North America,
the war pitted France, French colonists, and their Native allies against Great
Britain, the Anglo-American colonists, and the Iroquois Confederacy, which
controlled most of upstate New York and parts of northern Pennsylvania. In 1753,
prior to the outbreak of hostilities, Great Britain controlled the 13 colonies
up to the Appalachian Mountains, but beyond lay New France, a very large,
sparsely settled colony that stretched from Louisiana through the Mississippi
Valley and Great Lakes to Canada. (See Incidents Leading up to the French
and Indian War and Albany Plan )
The border between French and British possessions was not well defined, and one
disputed territory was the upper Ohio River valley. The French had constructed a
number of forts in this region in an attempt to strengthen their claim on the
territory. British colonial forces, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Washington,
attempted to expel the French in 1754, but were outnumbered and defeated by the
French. When news of Washington’s failure reached British Prime Minister Thomas
Pelham-Holles, Duke of Newcastle, he called for a quick undeclared retaliatory
strike. However, his adversaries in the Cabinet outmaneuvered him by making the
plans public, thus alerting the French Government and escalating a distant
frontier skirmish into a full-scale war.
General Edward Braddock
The war did not begin well for the British. The British Government sent General
Edward Braddock to the colonies as commander in chief of British North American
forces, but he alienated potential Indian allies and colonial leaders failed to
cooperate with him. On July 13, 1755, Braddock died after being mortally wounded
in an ambush on a failed expedition to capture Fort Duquesne in present-day
Pittsburgh. The war in North America settled into a stalemate for the next
several years, while in Europe the French scored an important naval victory and
captured the British possession of Minorca in the Mediterranean in 1756.
However, after 1757 the war began to turn in favor of Great Britain. British
forces defeated French forces in India, and in 1759 British armies invaded and
conquered Canada.
Facing defeat in North America and a tenuous position in Europe, the French
Government attempted to engage the British in peace negotiations, but British
Minister William Pitt (the elder), Secretary for Southern Affairs, sought not
only the French cession of Canada but also commercial concessions that the
French Government found unacceptable. After these negotiations failed, Spanish
King Charles III offered to come to the aid of his cousin, French King Louis XV,
and their representatives signed an alliance known as the Family Compact on
August 15, 1761. The terms of the agreement stated that Spain would declare war
on Great Britain if the war did not end before May 1, 1762. Originally intended
to pressure the British into a peace agreement, the Family Compact ultimately
reinvigorated the French will to continue the war, and caused the British
Government to declare war on Spain on January 4, 1762, after bitter infighting
among King George III’s ministers.
Despite facing such a formidable alliance, British naval strength and Spanish
ineffectiveness led to British success. British forces seized French Caribbean
islands, Spanish Cuba, and the Philippines. Fighting in Europe ended after a
failed Spanish invasion of British ally Portugal. By 1763, French and Spanish
diplomats began to seek peace. In the resulting Treaty of Paris (1763),
Great Britain secured significant territorial gains in North America, including
all French territory east of the Mississippi river, as well as Spanish Florida,
although the treaty returned Cuba to Spain.
Unfortunately for the British, the fruits of victory brought seeds of trouble
with Great Britain’s American colonies. The war had been enormously expensive,
and the British government’s attempts to impose taxes on colonists to help cover
these expenses resulted in increasing colonial resentment of British attempts to
expand imperial authority in the colonies. British attempts to limit western
expansion by colonists and inadvertent provocation of a major Indian war further
angered the British subjects living in the American colonies. These disputes
ultimately spurred colonial rebellion, which eventually developed into a
full-scale war for independence.
Table of Contents
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59 | who was defeated in the french and indian war | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War | French and Indian War
North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years' War
This article is about the conflict from 1754 to 1763. For the series of conflicts between 1688 and 1763, see French and Indian Wars .
French and Indian War [a]
The war theater
Date
28 May 1754 – 7 October 1763 (1754-05-28 – 1763-10-07) (9 years, 4 months, 1 week and 2 days)
Location
Territorialchanges
Belligerents
42,000 regulars and militia (peak strength, 1758) [2]
10,000 regulars (troupes de la terre and troupes de la marine, peak strength, 1757) [3]
Casualties and losses
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War , which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French , each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the start of the war, the French colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 settlers, compared with 2 million in the British colonies. [5] The outnumbered French particularly depended on their native allies. [6]
Two years into the war, in 1756, Great Britain declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Seven Years' War. Many view the French and Indian War as being merely the American theater of this conflict; however, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed as a singular conflict which was not associated with any European war. [7] French Canadians call it the guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest'). [8] [9]
The British colonists were supported at various times by the Iroquois , Catawba , and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy members Abenaki and Mi'kmaq , and the Algonquin , Lenape , Ojibwa , Ottawa , Shawnee , and Wyandot (Huron). [10] Fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River called the Forks of the Ohio , and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a French patrol. [11]
In 1755, six colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock , the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the main effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days later. British operations failed in the frontier areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadien scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia , and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon afterwards. Orders for the deportation were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to the king. Natives likewise were driven off the land to make way for settlers from New England. [12]
The British Pitt government fell due to disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry ; this last was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the limited forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were now engaged in the Seven Years' War in Europe. The conflict in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country. Between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture French Canada . They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759). The following year the British were victorious in the Montreal Campaign in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763) .
France also ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain, as well as French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain in compensation for Spain's loss to Great Britain of Spanish Florida (Spain had ceded Florida to Britain in exchange for the return of Havana , Cuba). France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , confirming Great Britain's position as the dominant colonial power in northern America .
Nomenclature
In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War . There had already been a King George's War in the 1740s during the reign of King George II , so British colonists named this conflict after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War. [13] This continues as the standard name for the war in the United States, although indigenous peoples fought on both sides of the conflict. It also led into the Seven Years' War overseas, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain that did not involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the United States consider them as two separate conflicts—only one of which involved the American colonies, [14] and American historians generally use the traditional name. Less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire. [13]
Belligerents during the Seven Years' War . Canadians and Europeans view the French and Indian War as a theater of the Seven Years' War, while Americans view it a separate conflict.
In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a separate name. "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian War in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760. [13]
Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Seven Years' War (Guerre de Sept Ans). [8] French Canadians also use the term "War of Conquest" (Guerre de la Conquête), since it is the war in which New France was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois , who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping point of French Canadian identity and nationhood. [15]
Background
At this time, North America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Great Britain or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily concentrated along the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-day New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia ), including Île Royale ( Cape Breton Island ). Fewer lived in New Orleans ; Biloxi, Mississippi ; Mobile, Alabama ; and small settlements in the Illinois Country , hugging the east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women. [16] Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions.
British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1 [17] with a population of about 1.5 million ranged along the Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the north to the Province of Georgia in the south. [18] Many of the older colonies' land claims extended arbitrarily far to the west, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the time when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, but the settlements were growing into the interior. The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population. Britain also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson's Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes.
Iroquois expansion, 1711. By the mid-18th century, the Iroquois Confederacy had expanded from Upstate New York to the Ohio Country .
Between the French and British colonists, large areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's War and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada , as well as much of Maine. [19] The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio Country , although Ohio also included Algonquian -speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee , as well as Iroquoian -speaking Mingos . These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were limited by them in their authority to make agreements. [20] The Iroquois Confederation initially held a stance of neutrality to ensure continued trade with both French and British. Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade. [21]
The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas , Muskogee -speaking Creeks and Choctaw , and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes. [22] When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Great Lakes region , which was not directly subject to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons , Mississaugas , Ojibwas , Winnebagos , and Potawatomi .
The British colonists were supported in the war by the Iroquois Six Nations and also by the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Country promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict. [23] [ additional citation(s) needed ]
The Cherokee , c. 1762. The Cherokee were subject to diplomatic efforts from the British and French to gain their support or neutrality in the event of a conflict.
At this time, Spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America. It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War. Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine . [24]
General James Wolfe, British commander
There were no French regular army troops stationed in America at the onset of war. New France was defended by about 3,000 troupes de la marine , companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat experience). The colonial government recruited militia support when needed. The British had few troops. Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, generally ill trained and available only for short periods, but they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars.[ citation needed ]
When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the government in London. This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.[ citation needed ]
Céloron's expedition
New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such as George Croghan . In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a military expedition through the area. Its objectives were:
Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière , Governor of New France, sent an expedition in 1749 into the Ohio Country in an attempt to assert French sovereignty.
to reaffirm to New France's Indian allies that their trading arrangements with colonists were exclusive to those authorized by New France
to confirm Indian assistance in asserting and maintaining the French claim to the territories which French explorers had claimed
to discourage any alliances between Britain and local Indian tribes
to impress the Indians with a French show of force against British colonial settler incursion, unauthorized trading expeditions, and general trespass against French claims [25]
Céloron's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (4,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went up the St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario , crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie . At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York , the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River , which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh . There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. [25] Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave. [25]
Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French. [26] He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just south of the village of Pickawillany , the home of the Miami chief known as " Old Briton ". Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to trade with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749. [27]
Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back." [26] Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the situation in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present. [28]
Negotiations
European colonies in North America, c. 1750. Disputes over territorial claims persisted after the end of King George's War in 1748.
The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle , which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The issues of conflicting territorial claims between British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed by both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes also extended into the Atlantic Ocean , where both powers wanted access to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland .[ citation needed ]
In 1749, the British government gave land to the Ohio Company of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country. [29] The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. But the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to improve their respective claims. [30] In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown. [31] He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build a strong house at the mouth of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. [32]
Escalation in Ohio Country
Governor-General of New France Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne , but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the post. [33] The continuing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade , an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe . His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders [27] and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party.
Construction of French fortifications
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Fort Le Boeuf in 1754. In the spring of 1753, the French began to build a series of forts in the Ohio Country.
In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a 2,000-man force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King's land in the Ohio Valley from the British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burial of lead plates, whereas Marin constructed and garrisoned forts. He first constructed Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie's south shore near Erie, Pennsylvania , and he had a road built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek . He then constructed a second fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania , designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven west by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his father. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed. [34]
The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things." He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.
The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York . Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British abide by their obligations[ which? ] and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the " Covenant Chain " was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown.
Virginia's response
In 1754, George Washington of the Virginia Regiment was dispatched to warn the French to leave Virginian territory.
Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim. [35] He ordered 21-year-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Company investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to leave Virginia territory in October 1753. [36] Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam as an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a company surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf. [37] [38]
Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it." [39] He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier. [40]
Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept south", [41] detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. [42]
Course of war
Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a company of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began construction of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754. [43] Governor Duquesne sent additional French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men south from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754. [44] These forces arrived at the fort on April 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small company to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne . [45]
Early engagements
Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent's retreat while he was en route. [46] Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He then learned of a French scouting party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson's dozen Mingo warriors to his own party. Washington's combined force of 52 ambushed 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France ) on the morning of May 28 in what became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen . [47] They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to gain the support of the British and to regain authority over his own people. They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships. One of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket fire. [48] Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley.
Washington with his war council during the Battle of Fort Necessity . After deliberations, it was decided to withdraw, and surrender the fort .
Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity , which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. One of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee , Delaware , and Mingo warriors—just those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence. [49]
News of the two battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the government of the Duke of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French. [50] They chose Major General Edward Braddock to lead the expedition. [51] Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Baron Dieskau in 1755. [52] The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an attempt to intercept them.
In June 1755, the British captured French naval ships sent to provide war matériel to the Acadian and Mi'kmaw militias in Nova Scotia.
In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. [53] The British harassed French shipping throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756. [54]
An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the various tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The plan that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown. Nevertheless, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the prototype for confederation during the War of Independence .
British campaigns, 1755
The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne, [55] while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara . Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Point, New York , [56] and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia. [57]
British forces under fire from the French and Indian forces at Monongahela , when the Braddock expedition failed to take Fort Duquesne .
Braddock led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington as one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen , and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and behind logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. [55] The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington. Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing the retreat—two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War .
The British government initiated a plan to increase their military capability in preparation for war following news of Braddock's defeat and the start of parliament's session in November 1755. Among the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Act 1756 , [58] the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756 [59] for the Royal American Regiment , the Navigation Act 1756 , [60] and the Continuance of Laws Act 1756 . [61] England passed the Naval Prize Act 1756 following the proclamation of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and establish privateering. [62]
The French acquired a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated by his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. As a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull , and Fort Williams, the last two located on the Oneida Carry between the Mohawk River and Wood Creek at Rome, New York . Supplies were cached at Fort Bull for use in the projected attack on Niagara.
Johnson's expedition was better organized than Shirley's, which was noticed by New France's governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil . Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac against Shirley's expected attack. Vaudreuil saw Johnson as the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River , but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The two forces finally met in the bloody Battle of Lake George between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry . The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759).
Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cutting off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton's forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers , forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing down many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise. [63] The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg , among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to expel the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy , on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean .
French victories, 1756–1757
See also: Franco-Indian alliance
Map of Quebec with the distribution of French and British
Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Point, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the city of Quebec . His plan, however, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York's Governor Sir Charles Hardy , and consequently gained little support.
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun , with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers whom France sent to North America. [54] French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession . On May 17, 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe and came to be known as the Seven Years' War .
Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in addition to his role as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an attack against the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Battle of Fort Bull , French forces destroyed the fort and large quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already short on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also continued to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning east to get away from the action.
The new British command was not in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to take any significant actions until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold action against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, as if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful attack on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed about the disposition of prisoners' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.
Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned one major operation for 1757: an attack on New France's capital of Quebec . He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg first by William Pitt, the Secretary of State responsible for the colonies. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds but was finally ready to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia , in early August. In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French coast, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet. Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry .
Montcalm attempts to stop native warriors from attacking the British. A number of British soldiers were killed after the Siege of Fort William Henry .
French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In January, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the main fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm's Indian allies attacked the British column because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may have contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to have traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the campaign and returned afterward. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists. [64]
British conquest, 1758–1760
Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, as the British blockade of the French coastline limited French shipping. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly corrupt machinations of François Bigot , the intendant of the territory . His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed by Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The disease probably spread through the crowded conditions at William Henry after the battle; [65] yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine" as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.
Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defense of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite effectively in previous years. [66] The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal military advisor.
British forces besieging the Fortress of Louisbourg. The French fortress fell in July 1758 after a 48-day siege.
Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the military planning. He embarked on a plan for the 1758 campaign that was largely developed by Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757. Pitt's plan called for three major offensive actions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.
1758
The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September–October 1758, with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Country. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley. [67] The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured after a siege. [68]
A British expedition sent to invade Canada was repulsed by the French at the Battle of Carillon in July 1758.
The third invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon , in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie's force of 18,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British called Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac , including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Jeffery Amherst , victor at Louisbourg.
The French had generally poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul , and he decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France and sent funds to Britain's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay . In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart France and elude the British blockade of the French coast.
1759–1760
After a three-month siege of Quebec City, British forces captured the city at the Plains of Abraham .
The British proceeded to wage a campaign in the northwest frontier of Canada in an effort to cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. They captured Ticonderoga and Fort Niagara , and they defeated the French at the Thousand Islands in the summer of 1759. In September 1759, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which claimed the lives of both commanders. After the battle, the French capitulated the city to the British.
In April 1760, François Gaston de Lévis led French forces to launch an attack to retake Quebec. Although he won the Battle of Sainte-Foy , Lévis' subsequent siege of Quebec ended in defeat when British ships arrived to relieve the garrison. After Lévis had retreated he was given another blow when a British naval victory at Restigouche brought the loss of French ships meant to resupply his army. In July Jeffrey Amherst then led British forces numbering around 18,000 men in a three pronged attack on Montreal . After eliminating French positions along the way all three forces met up and surrounded Montreal in September. Many Canadians deserted or surrendered their arms to British forces while the Native allies of the French sought peace and neutrality. De Lévis and the Marquis de Vaudreuil reluctantly signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8 which effectively completed the British conquest of New France.
Sporadic engagements, 1760–1763
Most of the fighting ended in America in 1760, although it continued in Europe between France and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of St. John's, Newfoundland . General Amherst heard of this surprise action and immediately dispatched troops under his nephew William Amherst , who regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762. [69] Many of the British troops who were stationed in America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Spain belatedly entered the conflict on the side of France, and a British expedition against French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton . [70]
Peace
French authorities surrendering Montreal to British forces in 1760.
Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760. Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war. [71]
General Amherst also oversaw the transfer of French fortifications to British control on the western frontier. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Natives and contributed to the outbreak of Pontiac's War in 1763, [72] in which a series of Native attacks on frontier forts occurred, such as that on Fort Miami which effectively brought a nearly half-century long period of European garrisoning at Kekionga to an end. The frontier settlements required the continued deployment of British forces, and the conflict was not fully concluded until 1766. [73]
Beginning from the 1750s and lasting until the 1760s, a smallpox outbreak devastated several Native communities throughout the American Midwest . The outbreak was brought on in part by victorious Native warriors who had fought on the side of the French bringing home prizes of war which had been infected with the disease; the Ojibwe , Odawa and Potawatomi peoples were most affected by the outbreak. An oral account from Odawa tribal leader and historian Andrew Blackbird claimed that the outbreak had "entirely depopulated and laid waste" to Waganagisi , a large Odawa settlement. [74] [75]
The war in North America, along with the global Seven Years' War, officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental North American possessions east of the Mississippi or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique , which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, along with fishing rights in the area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than a few acres of snow . The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defence of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue (though the absence of that threat caused many colonists to conclude they no longer needed British protection). Britain also had ample places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to Britain in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Britain and Spain also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations. [76]
Consequences
The resulting peace dramatically changed the political landscape of North America, with New France ceded to the British and the Spanish.
The war changed economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. France and Britain both suffered financially because of the war, with significant long-term consequences.
Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Catholic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south. The British resettled many Acadians throughout its American provinces, but many went to France and some went to New Orleans, which they expected to remain French. Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands , but these efforts were unsuccessful. The Louisiana population contributed to founding the Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien" changed to "Cadien" then to "Cajun".) [77]
King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of Canada and the First Nations . Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, [78] a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers. [79] The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians. [80]
A copy of the Quebec Act passed in 1774 which addressed a number of grievances held by French Canadians and Indians, although it angered American colonists
The Quebec Act 1774 addressed issues brought forth by Roman Catholic French Canadians from the 1763 proclamation, and it transferred the Indian Reserve into the Province of Quebec . The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system , a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution . The Quebec Act was a major concern for the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery". It is typically associated with other Intolerable Acts , legislation that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War . The Quebec Act served as the constitutional document for the province of Quebec until it was superseded by the Constitutional Act 1791 .
The Seven Years' War nearly doubled Great Britain's national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly stiff resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown's authority, and they ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War . [81] France attached comparatively little value to its American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar-producing Antilles islands which it retained. Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a good deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost a few acres of snow . [82] However, the military defeat and the financial burden of the war weakened the French monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789. [83]
The elimination of French power in America meant the disappearance of a strong ally for some Indian tribes. [83] The Ohio Country was now more available to colonial settlement due to the construction of military roads by Braddock and Forbes. [84] The Spanish takeover of the Louisiana territory was not completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to do business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were competing for land. [85] The change of control in Florida also prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of Mexico. [86]
France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American alliance against Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War , in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as French "revenge for Montcalm's death". [87]
Footnotes
^ The term Indian has been used in keeping with article name guidelines because of the historical nature of the article and the precision of the name. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era of the war, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in North America were homogeneously referred to as Indians. Use of Indian is limited throughout the article to proper nouns and references to government legislation. [1]
^ Brumwell, pp. 26–31, documents the starting sizes of the expeditions against Louisbourg, Carillon, Duquesne, and West Indies.
^ Brumwell, pp. 24–25.
^ Clodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland.
Walton, G.M.; Rockoff, H. (2010). History of the American Economy. South-Western. p. 29. ISBN
^ M. Brook Taylor, Canadian History: a Reader's Guide: Volume 1: Beginnings to Confederation (1994) pp 39–48, 72–74
: 1756–1763
^ "The Siege of Quebec: An episode of the Seven Years' War" , Canadian National Battlefields Commission, Plains of Abraham website
Hall, Richard (2016). "The Causes of the French and Indian War and the Origins of the "Braddock Plan": Rival Colonies and Their Claims to the Disputed Ohio". Atlantic Politics, Military Strategy and the French and Indian War. War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850. pp. 21–49. doi : 10.1007/978-3-319-30665-0_2 . ISBN
^ Eccles, France in America, p. 185
^ Jennings, p. xv.
^ John Wade, "British History Chronologically Arranged, 2: Comprehending a Chamfied Analysis of Events and Occurencis in Church and State ... from the First Invasions by the Romans to A.d. 1847", p.46 [1]
Cogliano, Francis D. (2008). Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History. London: Routledge. p. 32. ISBN
^ Jennings, pp. 9, 176
^ Anderson (2000), p. 23
Bleiweis, Sam (2013). "The Downfall of the Iroquios" (PDF). Emory Endeavors in World History. 5: 84–99. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
^ Jennings, p. 8
^ Fowler, p. 15.
^ Jennings, p. 15
^ Jennings, p. 18
^ Anderson (2000), p. 43
^ Fowler, p. 36.
^ Anderson (2000), p. 50
Anderson, Fred (200). Crucible of War. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 52–53. ISBN
^ Fowler, p. 52.
^ Lengel p. 52.
^ O'Meara, p. 113.
^ O'Meara, p. 163.
^ Fowler, p. 138.
^ Fowler, p. 139.
.
^ William, Wood, The Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720–1760 ( [2] Online from Project Gutenberg )
^ Anderson (2000), p. 498
^ Jennings, p. 439
^ Anderson (2000), pp. 617–632
.
Otto, Simon; Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Lewiston, New York : Edwin Mellen Press . ISBN
^ Calloway, pp. 161–164
^ Anderson (2000), p. 568
^ Anderson (2000), p. 525
^ Calloway, pp. 133–138
^ Calloway, pp. 152–156
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Eckert, Allan W . Wilderness Empire. Bantam Books, 1994, originally published 1969.
ISBN 0-553-26488-5 . Second volume in a series of historical narratives, with emphasis on Sir William Johnson. Academic historians often regard Eckert's books, which are written in the style of novels, to be unreliable, as they contain things like dialogue that is clearly fictional.
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Gipson, Lawrence H. The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757 (1948); The Great War for the Empire: The Victorious Years, 1758–1760 (1950) highly detailed narrative of the British war in North America and Europe.
Jacobs, Wilbur R. Diplomacy and Indian Gifts: Anglo-French Rivalry Along the Ohio and Northwest Frontiers, 1748–1763 (1949) excerpt
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Murrin, John M. (1973). "The French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the Counterfactual Hypothesis: Reflections on Lawrence Henry Gipson and John Shy". Reviews in American History. 1 (3): 307–318. doi : 10.2307/2701135 . JSTOR 2701135 .
Nester, William R (2000). The first global war: Britain, France, and the fate of North America, 1756–1775. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN
Nester, William R. The French and Indian War and the Conquest of New France (2015). excerpt
Parkman, Francis . Montcalm and Wolfe: The French and Indian War. Originally published 1884. New York: Da Capo, 1984.
17thcentury
French and Indian War
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Home Learn Search The French and Indian War (1754-1763): Its Consequences
The French and Indian War (1754-1763): Its Consequences
By William R. Griffith IV • Updated July 24, 2024 • October 8, 2019
The surrender of Montreal on September 8, 1760, signaled an end to all major military operations between Britain in France in North America during the French and Indian War. Although the guns had fallen silent in Canada and the British colonies, it was still yet to be determined just how or when the Seven Years’ War, still raging throughout the world, would end. What resulted from this global conflict and the French and Indian War shaped the future of North America.
By 1762, the Seven Years’ War, fought in Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines, had worn the opposing sides in the conflict down. The combatants (Britain, Prussia, and Hanover against France, Spain, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia) were ready for peace and a return to the status quo. Imperialist members of the British Parliament did not want to yield the territories gained during the war, but the other faction believed that it was necessary to return a number of France’s antebellum holdings in order to maintain a balance of power in Europe. This latter measure would not, however, include France’s North American territories and Spanish Florida.
On February 10, 1763, over two years after the fighting had ended in North America, hostilities officially ceased with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between Britain, France, and Spain. The fate of America’s future had been placed on a new trajectory, and as famously asserted by 19th century historian, Francis Parkman, “half the continent had changed hands at the scratch of a pen.” France’s North American empire had vanished.
North America after the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. New York Public Library
The treaty granted Britain Canada and all of France’s claims east of the Mississippi River. This did not, however, include New Orleans, which France was allowed to retain. British subjects were guaranteed free rights of navigation on the Mississippi as well. In Nova Scotia, Fortress Louisbourg remained in Britain’s hands. A colonial provincial expeditionary force had captured the stronghold in 1745 during King George’s War, and much to their chagrin, it was returned to the French as a provision of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle (1748). That would not be the case this time around. In the Caribbean, the islands of Saint Vincent, Dominica, Tobago, Grenada, and the Grenadines would remain in British hands. Another bug acquisition for His Majesty’s North American empire came from Spain in the form of Florida. In return, Havana was given back to the Spanish. This gave Britain total control of the Atlantic Seaboard from Newfoundland all the way down to the Mississippi Delta.
The loss of Canada, economically, did not greatly harm France. It had proved to be a money hole that cost the country more to maintain than it actually returned in profit. The sugar islands in the West Indies were much more lucrative, and to France’s pleasure, Britain returned Martinique and Guadeloupe. Although His Most Christian Majesty’s influence in North America had receded, France did retain a tiny foothold in Newfoundland for fishing. Britain allowed the French to keep its rights to cod in the Grand Banks, as well as the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the southern coast.
The inhabitants of the British colonies in North America were jubilant upon hearing the results of the Treaty of Paris. For nearly a century they had lived in fear of the French colonists and their Native American allies to the north and west. Now France’s influence on the continent had been expelled and they could hope to live out their lives in peace and autonomously without relying on Britain’s protection.
The consequences of the French and Indian War would do more to drive a wedge in between Britain and her colonists more so than any other event up to that point in history. During the Seven Years’ War, Britain’s national debt nearly doubled, and the colonies would shoulder a good portion of the burden of paying it off. In the years that followed, taxes were imposed on necessities that the colonists considered part of everyday life—tea, molasses, paper products, etc.... Though proud Englishmen, the colonists viewed themselves as partners in the British Empire, not subjects. King George III did not see it this way. These measures were met with various degrees of opposition and served as the kindling that would eventually contribute to igniting the fires of revolution.
That tinder that would eventually be lit the following decade also came in the form of the land west of the Appalachian Mountains, which had been heavily fought over during the war. As British traders moved westward over the mountains, disputes erupted between them and the Native Americans (previously allied with French) who inhabited the region. Overpriced goods did not appeal to the Native Americans, and almost immediately tensions arose. For many in the British military and the colonies, this land had been conquered and rested within His Majesty’s dominion. Therefore, the territory west of the Appalachians was not viewed as shared or Native land—it was rightfully open for British trade and settlement. The Native Americans did not respond accordingly.
19th-century painting of Pontiac by John Mix Stanley
What transpired next has gone down in history as Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763-1764) and involved members of the Seneca, Ottawa, Huron, Delaware, and Miami tribes. The various uprisings and uncoordinated attacks against British forts, outposts, and settlements in the Ohio River Valley and
along the Great Lakes that occurred, ravaged the frontier. Although a handful of forts fell, two key strongholds, Forts Detroit and Pitt, did not capitulate. In an attempt to quell the rebellion against British authority, the Proclamation of 1763 was issued. The French settlements north of New York and New England were consolidated into the colony of Quebec, and Florida was divided into two separate colonies. Any land that did not fall within the boundaries of these colonies, which would be governed by English Law, was granted to the Native Americans. Pontiac’s Rebellion eventually came to an end.
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 further alienated the British colonists. Many sought to settle the west, and even Pennsylvania and Virginia had already claimed lands in the region. The proclamation prohibited the colonies from further issuing any grants. Only representatives of the Crown could negotiate land purchases with the Native Americans. Just as France had boxed the colonies into a stretch along the east coast, now George III was doing the same.
The French and Indian War had initially been a major success for the thirteen colonies, but its consequences soured the victory. Taxes imposed to pay for a massive national debt, a constant struggle with Native Americans over borders and territories, and the prohibition of expansion to the west fueled an ever-increasing “American” identity. As the years following the French and Indian War drug on, the colonists—already 3,000 miles away from Britain—grew further and further apart from the mother country.
Further Reading:
William R. Griffith IV
William Griffith received his BA in History from Shepherd University in 2014, and MA in Military History from Norwich University in 2018.
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Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.
Also known as: Great War for the Empire
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When did the French and Indian War begin?
The French and Indian War was part of a worldwide nine years’ war that took place between 1754 and 1763. It was fought between France and Great Britain to determine control of the vast colonial territory of North America.
What was the main cause of the French and Indian War?
The French and Indian War began over the specific issue of whether the upper Ohio River valley was a part of the British Empire, and therefore open for trade and settlement by Virginians and Pennsylvanians, or part of the French Empire.
Which treaty made France surrender Canada to Britain?
According to the terms of the Treaty of Paris signed on February 10, 1763, France was to cede Canada to Great Britain and to relinquish all claims to the lands lying east of the Mississippi River, outside the environs of New Orleans.
French and Indian War, American phase of a worldwide nine years’ war (1754–63) fought between France and Great Britain . (The more-complex European phase was the Seven Years’ War [1756–63].) It determined control of the vast colonial territory of North America . Three earlier phases of this extended contest for overseas mastery included King William’s War (1689–97), Queen Anne’s War (1702–13), and King George’s War (1744–48).
Causes of the French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War began over the specific issue of whether the upper Ohio River valley was a part of the British Empire , and therefore open for trade and settlement by Virginians and Pennsylvanians, or part of the French Empire. Behind this issue loomed an infinitely larger one, however: which national culture was to dominate the heart of North America. Settlers of English extraction were in a preponderance in the coveted area, but French exploration, trade, and alliances with Native Americans predominated.
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British territorial claims rested upon explorations of the North American continent by John Cabot in the latter part of the 15th century. In the early 17th century, an English royal charter granted land within certain limits between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans to both the Virginia Company and the Plymouth Company . In 1663 the province of Carolina was created to the south of Virginia , with a sea-to-sea grant; the Carolina charter was amended two years later, and the expanded territory would come to form the colonies of North Carolina , South Carolina , and Georgia . Thus, all the lands to the south of French Canada and to the north of Spanish Florida , stretching from sea to sea, were claimed by England. In conflict with this was France’s claim to the whole of the Mississippi valley, including the Ohio Valley, based upon the explorations of René-Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle . Starting from Canada, La Salle moved through the Great Lakes and then, after descending the Mississippi River in 1682, took possession in the name of the king of France of all lands drained by the river and its tributaries.
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For about 60 years, the conflict over which country had the stronger claim to the lands in the great Mississippi basin was to remain in abeyance . The English gradually settled all along the Atlantic seaboard to the south of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , where more than a dozen colonies—including British Nova Scotia , founded in 1749—came into existence and flourished. In the course of time, the inhabitants of these colonies in the course of time pushed westward from tidewater areas to establish themselves in the Piedmont country. By the middle of the 18th century, the small cabins of Virginians were to be found even to the west of the Appalachians on the upper reaches of such waterways as the New and Holston rivers. By that period, hundreds of Pennsylvanian traders had likewise settled in the villages of Indian peoples of the upper Ohio Valley, with whom Great Britain was allied. The French, firmly in control of Canada from the early 17th century, gradually began expanding into the Great Lakes region, establishing a permanent settlement at Detroit .
Initial hostilities
A conflict between the two colonial powers over their rival North American claims was doubtless inevitable, but because their areas of trade exploitation were widely separated, that conflict might have been delayed for many years had not the governor-general of New France forced the issue. Although the French had a scant presence in the neighbourhood of the Allegheny River and the upper Ohio River where Pennsylvania traders were concentrated, in 1749 the governor-general ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron de Blainville to compel the trading houses in that region to lower the British flags that flew above them. The traders, regarded as trespassers on French lands, were ordered to retreat to the eastern slopes of the Appalachians. This directive did not have the desired effect, however, and force was applied in 1752 when the important British colonial trading centre at Pickawillany on the upper Great Miami River was destroyed. That move was followed by the capture or killing of every English-speaking trader that the French and their Indian allies could find in the upper Ohio Valley. Those actions struck directly not only at the people of Pennsylvania but also at those of Virginia.
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The government of Virginia took the position that the lands of the upper Ohio were clearly included in the colony’s 1609 charter. It argued that this grant gave Virginia a claim to the western lands that was more valid than New France’s claim, which was based upon La Salle’s much later journey down the Mississippi. In harmony with this point of view, the governor and council of Virginia had by the end of 1752 conditionally granted about 2,300 square miles (6,000 square km) of land in the Ohio Valley to settlers. As a result, almost every important Virginia family—including members of the Washington, Lee, and Randolph families—was vitally interested in the fate of the Ohio area. When news reached Williamsburg , the colonial capital, that the French were driving out English traders and building forts on the headwaters of the Allegheny in order to consolidate their positions, Lieut. Gov. Robert Dinwiddie determined to act. In October 1753 Dinwiddie dispatched young George Washington to the French Fort LeBouef (now Waterford, Pennsylvania) to warn the garrison there that it was occupying land that belonged to Virginia. After that mission failed, the Ohio Company of Virginia, which had received a special grant of upper Ohio Valley land, was encouraged to build a fort at the convergence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers (modern Pittsburgh ), with the understanding that troops from Virginia would support the undertaking.
The French, however, were too quick. Descending the Allegheny in large numbers in the spring of 1754, French troops overwhelmed the uncompleted fort before Virginia militia under Col. Joshua Fry could arrive. Upon Fry’s death in May 1754, Washington assumed command of the militia and entrenched himself at a post that came to be called Fort Necessity (now Confluence , Pennsylvania), about 40 miles (60 km) from the French position at Fort Duquesne. On May 28 Washington’s forces engaged a French scouting party, killing the commander, Coulon de Jumonville, and nine others as well as taking 20 prisoners. The French could not ignore such a provocation and descended upon Fort Necessity, besieging it on July 3. Although Washington had been reinforced with militia troops from Virginia and a company of regular British infantry from North Carolina, the combined French and Indian force outnumbered the defenders roughly two to one. Washington surrendered the fort, which was then burned by the French, and withdrew with his forces to Virginia.
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Braddock, Edward Lithograph depicting the mortally wounded Edward Braddock being carried from the field after a battle near Fort Duquesne, 1755.
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The first four years saw nothing but severe reverses for the British regulars and American colonials, primarily because of superior French land forces in the New World. Braddock was killed and his army scattered in July 1755 when the force was ambushed while approaching Fort Duquesne. In 1756 the defenders of Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario were obliged to surrender, as were the defenders of Fort William Henry near Lake Champlain in 1757. Lord Loudoun’s amphibious expedition from New York City against the great French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island ended in dismal failure that year. In July 1758 Gen. James Abercrombie attacked the French stronghold at the northern end of Lake George , Fort-Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga ). Despite outnumbering the French defenders under Gen. Louis-Joseph de Montcalm-Grozon, marquis de Montcalm , almost four to one, Abercrombie’s army was almost destroyed. Moreover, the frontier settlements in what are now central New York , central Pennsylvania, western Maryland , and western Virginia were deserted while thousands of families fled eastward in panic to escape the hostilities.
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59 | who was defeated in the french and indian war | https://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/french-and-indian-war | French and Indian War
Why Did the French and Indian War Start?
The Seven Years’ War (called the French and Indian War in the colonies) lasted from 1756 to 1763, forming a chapter in the imperial struggle between Britain and France called the Second Hundred Years’ War.
In the early 1750s, France’s expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought it into conflict with the claims of the British colonies, especially Virginia. In 1754, the French built Fort Duquesne where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers joined to form the Ohio River (in today’s Pittsburgh), making it a strategically important stronghold that the British repeatedly attacked.
During 1754 and 1755, the French won a string of victories, defeating in quick succession the young George Washington , Gen. Edward Braddock and Braddock’s successor, Governor William Shirley of Massachusetts.
In 1755, Governor Shirley, fearing that the French settlers in Nova Scotia (Acadia) would side with France in any military confrontation, expelled hundreds of them to other British colonies; many of the exiles suffered cruelly. Throughout this period, the British military effort was hampered by lack of interest at home, rivalries among the American colonies and France’s greater success in winning the support of the Indians.
In 1756 the British formally declared war (marking the official beginning of the Seven Years’ War), but their new commander in America, Lord Loudoun, faced the same problems as his predecessors and met with little success against the French and their Indian allies.
The tide turned in 1757 because William Pitt, the new British leader, saw the colonial conflicts as the key to building a vast British empire. Borrowing heavily to finance the war, he paid Prussia to fight in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for raising troops in North America.
British Victory in Canada
In July 1758, the British won their first great victory at Louisbourg, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. A month later, they took Fort Frontenac at the western end of the river.
In November 1758, General John Forbes captured Fort Duquesne for the British after the French destroyed and abandoned it, and Fort Pitt—named after William Pitt—was built on the site, giving the British a key stronghold.
The British then closed in on Quebec, where Gen. James Wolfe won a spectacular victory in the Battle of Quebec on the Plains of Abraham in September of 1759 (though both he and the French commander, the Marquis de Montcalm, were fatally wounded).
With the fall of Montreal in September 1760, the French lost their last foothold in Canada. Soon, Spain joined France against England, and for the rest of the war Britain concentrated on seizing French and Spanish territories in other parts of the world.
The 13 Colonies
The Treaty of Paris Ends the War
The French and Indian War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in February 1763. The British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands and gave Louisiana to Spain. The arrangement strengthened the American colonies significantly by removing their European rivals to the north and south and opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion.
Impact of the Seven Years’ War on the American Revolution
The British crown borrowed heavily from British and Dutch bankers to bankroll the war, doubling British national debt. King George II argued that since the French and Indian War benefited the colonists by securing their borders, they should contribute to paying down the war debt.
To defend his newly won territory from future attacks, King George II also decided to install permanent British army units in the Americas, which required additional sources of revenue.
In 1765, parliament passed the Stamp Act to help pay down the war debt and finance the British army’s presence in the Americas. It was the first internal tax directly levied on American colonists by parliament and was met with strong resistance.
It was followed by the unpopular Townshend Acts and Tea Act , which further incensed colonists who believed there should be no taxation without representation. Britain’s increasingly militaristic response to colonial unrest would ultimately lead to the American Revolution .
Fifteen years after the Treaty of Paris, French bitterness over the loss of most of their colonial empire contributed to their intervention on the side of the colonists in the Revolutionary War.
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