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Recent research funded by the Center for Produce Safety (CPS) found that Salmonella cells may be more heat resistant during poultry litter heat treatments. This can be an issue because heat treatment is used to reduce or eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. A two-year project conducted at Clemson University is examining how moisture and heat treatment can work together to inactivate Salmonella in chicken litter. Researchers are about half way through the project and are working with two large poultry litter processors to validate heat-treatment processes in an industrial setting, and are using Salmonella surrogate and indicator microorganisms that the researchers identified in the study.
The goal of the study, according to investigator Xiuping Jiang, Ph.D. of Clemson University, is to help create guidelines that include residence time, temperature and moisture levels, and tools to assist the fertilizer industry in providing more microbiological safety in their products.
More details about the study, “Validating a physically heat-treated process for poultry litter in industry settings using the avirulent Salmonella surrogates or indicator microorganisms”, are available on the CPS website.
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<urn:uuid:9256f018-0e39-4a7c-8064-37183dfb9d60>
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CC-MAIN-2019-43
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https://foodsafetytech.com/news_article/research-prevent-heat-resistant-salmonella-poultry-litter/
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| 0.91499 | 228 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Contingent upon the purpose behind the patient’s visit, doctors give analyze, request medications and keep an eye on the advancement of patients. This article talks about doctors’ obligations towards their patients.
What obligations do doctors have toward their patients?
Doctors have numerous obligations toward their patients. Their duties spread their own behavior, just as requests they provide for their associates, for example, attendants, therapeutic understudies and inhabitants.
These are a doctor’s primary obligations:
Commitment to Diagnose and Treat Patients
In lawful terms, doctors have a commitment of methods toward their patients, not a commitment of result. This implies they need to make fitting strides accessible to cause the correct conclusion, to give treatment and follow-up on their patients’ advancement.
Doctors In Dubai must put together their activities with respect to modern logical data and utilize perceived medications in the correct manner.
They should treat their patients mindfully and scrupulously.
Doctors must perceive their own points of confinement: in the event of uncertainty, they should get data from other individuals or allude patients to masters.
The obligation to treat patients incorporates the obligation to recommend the correct prescription,
enlighten patients concerning the preferences, impediments, dangers and options with respect to a proposed treatment or task, and give satisfactory follow-up to the patient inside a sensible measure of time.
For instance, after a treatment, a doctor must give the medicinal follow-up required by the patient’s condition of wellbeing, or if nothing else ensure that an associate or other expert follows up.
Obligation to Provide Information
Doctors must give their patients all the data they have to settle on free and educated choices. For instance, doctors must educate their patients regarding the accompanying:
- analysis nature, objective and earnestness of the treatment
- dangers of the treatment
- other treatment choices
The doctor’s obligation to give data likewise incorporates addressing patients’ inquiries.
The doctor’s obligation is toward the patients themselves, the general population who settle on choices for the benefit of patients, or the guardians of youngsters younger than 14.
Doctors must clarify the odds of accomplishment and the danger of disappointment of the proposed treatment, remembering the patient’s particular condition.
Doctors should likewise advise their patients about the conceivable negative impacts of a treatment. In any case, it is unimaginable for a doctor to discuss the majority of the potential dangers; doctors must educate their patients regarding the predictable dangers, at the end of the day the dangers that are well on the way to happen. Doctors should likewise educate patients concerning any uncommon hazard that could have genuine outcomes.
The degree of the obligation to give data relies upon the conditions and the patient being referred to.
For certain sorts of medications, doctors are required to give progressively finish and explicit data about the dangers. This is the situation, for instance, with absolutely trial medications just as medicines that are not gone for restoring a disease or damage, similar to certain kinds of plastic medical procedure. In these cases, doctors must educate patients regarding all conceivable and uncommon dangers.
Obligation to Make Sure the Patient Gives Free and Informed Consent
The explanation for the obligation of doctors to give data to patients is to give patients all the data they have to settle on free and educated choices with full learning regarding the actualities about the treatment and care advertised. At the point when a patient consents to treatment or care, this is called assent.
The obligation to get the assent of patients is a constant procedure. This is the reason patients must be kept educated about any new data about their conditions of wellbeing and the medications they are getting.
Obligation to Respect Confidentiality
Doctors have an obligation to regard their patients’ privacy. This is in some cases called the obligation of expert mystery.
This obligation covers both the data patients tell their doctors and any realities doctors find about their patients as a major aspect of the doctor-persistent relationship.
Proficient mystery has a place with the patient, not the doctor. Doctors In Abu Dhabi can’t uncover what their patients let them know, except if their patients postpone the secrecy of the data or if the law permits it. For instance, the Public Health Act says that specific ailments must be accounted for to general wellbeing organizations. Additionally, doctors can uncover some private data when they have significant and reasonable motivations to do as such and these reasons identify with the wellbeing or security of the patient or individuals near the patient.
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CC-MAIN-2021-43
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https://blogs.siterubix.com/what-are-the-main-duties-of-doctors-towards-patients/
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| 0.933812 | 921 | 2.671875 | 3 |
In this post the Pascal Code to implement the Anderson-Darling normality test will be discussed, along with a set of sample runs compared to the results from Minitab Express statistical software. The complete set of formulas for calculating the Anderson-Darling Test statistic for Normality and associated P-Value are :
In case statistics is confusing to you, or what’s so important about this p-value let me try give some very quick background. For a normality test we assume that data comes from a normally distributed population, and try to prove it’s from one that is not. The p-value is the probability that I would be wrong if I said the data is not from a normal distribution. So if the p-value is small ( less than 0.05) I can assume the data does not come from a normally distributed set of data.
In the previous posts the work to determine the value of the CDF is discussed, now the test statistics can be calculated, A-Squared, A-Squared Prime, and the P-value.
The code block below is the implementation of the Asquared statistic.
Red arrow – is the FOR loop to do the summation over all values (NN) in the sample
Yellow Arrow – Call to the CDF lookup in STATAD.P
Blue Arrow – calculation for this data point
Green – Arrow – finishes the calculation after then summing is complete
With the A-Squared value A-squared Prime and the P-value can be calculated, the source code is shown in the two images below:
I validated my code with four sets of data which I also ran through Minitab Express (commercial stats program from Minitab inc.) and the results are shown below. While I was testing I also looked at the descriptive stats from earlier posts:
Here are the four sets of data (as a reminder, this is my daily weight over four weeks in March 2017) shown both in Minitab express and my STATS program.
Here are the results for all four sets of data, and except for some small round differences, all looks good.
As an side, we can not prove any of the four data sets do not come from a normal population, however 7 data points is a fairly small size sample.
Next on the agenda is adding the ability to load data sets from text files and some menu options, and then at least one graph or plot to take advantage of the graphics capabilities of the Atari 800 and Kyan Pascal.
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| 0.930399 | 520 | 2.59375 | 3 |
McKay Hall at Park University
Location of Parkville, Missouri
|• Total||15.41 sq mi (39.91 km2)|
|• Land||14.79 sq mi (38.31 km2)|
|• Water||0.62 sq mi (1.61 km2)|
|Elevation||827 ft (252 m)|
|• Estimate (2012)||5,777|
|• Density||375.5/sq mi (145.0/km2)|
|Time zone||Central (CST) (UTC-6)|
|• Summer (DST)||CDT (UTC-5)|
|GNIS feature ID||0730174|
Parkville is a city in Platte County, Missouri, United States. The population was 5,554 at the 2010 census. Parkville is known for its antique shops, art galleries, and historic downtown. The city is home to Park University and English Landing Park.
Parkville is named for George S. Park who bought the steamboat landing concession on the Missouri River from David English in 1838 shortly after the Platte Purchase from the Native Americans opened the area for settlement. He served as the town's first postmaster.
In 1845, he organized the Parkville Presbyterian Church which is still one of the town's largest congregations.
In 1853, he started the Industrial Luminary, a newspaper some believed to abolitionist. Park, however, termed the newspaper pro-commerce. Park generally believed that slavery in Kansas would be bad for his business interests there.
In 1854, while leading a trip up the Kansas River, he established the town of Polistra near the mouth of the Big Blue River.
Park's newspaper was raided by a pro-slavery mob on April 14, 1855, and the printing press was thrown in the Missouri River. Park was in Polistra at the time closing a deal to turn over the town into a newly named Boston, Kansas to be run by members of the abolitionist New England Emigrant Aid Company (who in turn would rename it Manhattan). The Parkville Luminary, a newspaper based on the original Luminary, began publishing again in 2004 and is circulated every Friday. The newspaper's first issue contained unpublished letters from Park's last issue and frequently reprints Park's own editorials from the original Luminary.
In 1859, he promoted the Parkville and Grand River Railroad to build the first bridge across the Missouri River. Park lost the battle to Kansas City when the Hannibal Bridge opened in 1869 making it the dominant city in the region.
In 1875, he donated land for what would become Park University on the bluffs above the Missouri River. His former home is a prominent part of the campus, visible from the entrance and serving as the school's alumni center.
Parkville is located at According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 15.41 square miles (39.91 km2), of which, 14.79 square miles (38.31 km2) is land and 0.62 square miles (1.61 km2) is water.(39.195602, -94.683636).
As of the census of 2010, there were 5,554 people, 1,974 households, and 1,469 families residing in the city. The population density was 375.5 inhabitants per square mile (145.0/km2). There were 2,126 housing units at an average density of 143.7 per square mile (55.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 89.5% White, 4.0% African American, 0.1% Native American, 3.0% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.7% of the population.
There were 1,974 households of which 37.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.6% were married couples living together, 6.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 25.6% were non-families. 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.05.
The median age in the city was 39.1 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 12.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20% were from 25 to 44; 32.6% were from 45 to 64; and 9.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.4% male and 50.6% female.
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,059 people, 1,510 households, and 1,060 families residing in the city. The population density was 586.9 people per square mile (226.5/km²). There were 1,587 housing units at an average density of 229.5 per square mile (88.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 90.37% White, 4.71% African American, 0.52% Native American, 1.31% Asian, 0.96% Pacific Islander, 0.81% from other races, and 1.33% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.27% of the population.
There were 1,510 households out of which 37.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.1% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.8% were non-families. 23.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city the population was spread out with 26.4% under the age of 18, 12.4% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 25.2% from 45 to 64, and 6.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $68,600, and the median income for a family was $86,820. Males had a median income of $64,917 versus $31,740 for females. The per capita income for the city was $33,119. About 5.0% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.1% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.
The city is home to Park University.
- Bill Grigsby, American sportscaster and member of the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame.
- George S. Park, Texas War of Independence hero, and founder of Parkville, Park University, and Manhattan, Kansas.
In popular culture
In Mark Twain's novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Huck, Jim, "the king" and "the duke" crash a religious camp meeting in a town called Parkville, where "the king" lies to the crowd that he is an ex-pirate who was robbed and needs money to return to the Indian Ocean to convert other pirates to Christianity, for which a collection is taken from the crowd. This may actually be a fictitious town in Arkansas called Parkville, which Huck Finn describes as "a little one-horse town about three mile down the bend [of the Mississippi River].
In the Menagerie trilogy by Tui and Kari Sutherland, there was a menagerie in Parkville that was shut down due to it being exposed to the public.
- "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
- "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
- "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
- "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
- Eaton, David Wolfe (1917). How Missouri Counties, Towns and Streams Were Named. The State Historical Society of Missouri. p. 342.
- "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
- "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2014". Retrieved June 4, 2015.
- "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
- Twain, Mark, "Chapter XX: What Royalty Did to Parkville," in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1948, p. 167-170. In suits Season 2 episode 15 Normandy, Harvey and Scotty travel to Parkville to depose a women on a gender discrimination case.
- City of Parkville
- Parkville Chamber of Commerce
- The Landmark, newspaper
- The Platte County Citizen, newspaper
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| 0.954036 | 2,037 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The world is facing a new era of proliferation, sparked by the end of the Cold War and the transferring of sophisticated technologies from government to private hands. As this trade has grown, nonproliferation has often been secondary to the financial benefits of globalization.
In April 2004, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1540, of which the goal was to strengthen controls over sensitive weapons, materials, technologies, and know-how-particularly regarding proliferation to nonstate actors. Today, progress toward implementation is not entirely encouraging, as evidenced by incomplete reporting and the slow pace of national implementation plans to ensure full compliance with the resolution.
Enduring solutions to the longstanding governance needs in many regions of the world will require that recipient states experience the value of receiving assistance in connection with 1540. This report examines the record and points to opportunities for future improvement.
“The Next 100 Project,” is a collaborative effort between the Cooperative Nonproliferation Program at the Henry L. Stimson Center and the Stanley Foundation targeting sustainable implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1540. The focus of the project was to identify new sources of assistance for addressing endemic threats in the developing world, including poverty, corruption, infectious disease, and economic underdevelopment by tapping national security resources and addressing mutual concerns.
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https://www.stimson.org/2009/next-100-project-leveraging-national-security-assistance-meet-developing-world-needs/
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| 0.945679 | 258 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Approachable Fitness & Physical Therapy
What is Biomechanics?
Biomechanics is the study of living organisms and how they move in mechanical terms. In relation to people, biomechanics helps us understand why certain movements may be awkward or cause pain, or allows us to improve sports performance.
The science is divided into two areas of study: extrinsic and intrinsic biomechanics.
Extrinsic Biomechanics looks at our actual movements, measures them, then establishes the most efficient way to move for optimum sports performance.
Intrinsic Biomechanics, on the other hand, is the study of how the body is able to perform those movements. It concentrates on the bones, muscles and tendons we use and looks to ensure we have the right balance of strength and flexibility.
What do I do?
As a Biomechanics Coach I am trained in intrinsic biomechanics and will be able to perform a full-body biomechanical screen, establishing any areas of mechanical weakness in an individual.
What can you expect to happen?
In a biomechanic assessment I can screen your shoulders, spine, pelvis, knees, nerves and muscles to see if they are functioning correctly. If not, then I will be able to determine the possible causes. These can range from genetic issues through poor technique or posture problems to inadequate rehabilitation or the ergonomic set-up of your work place or sporting equipment.
Once this has been established, I will be able to prescribe an exercise programme to help eradicate your problems. I would expect that you will return periodically to be re-tested so we can evaluate progress and modify the programme accordingly.
Why consult a biomechanics coach?
- Recurrent injury. If you have a recurrent injury, I will be able to determine whether there are any biomechanical problems that may be causing it to occur repeatedly; a series of exercises would then be prescribed, to help minimise the risk of recurrence.
- Pain. If you experience pain, for example when running, sitting at a desk or working in the gym, I can establish whether that pain has a biomechanical cause. If so she can then prescribe remedial exercises to treat the pain.
- Optimal performance If you are looking to improve your performance in a particular sporting or physical task, then I will be able to prescribe tailored exercises to help you achieve your goals.
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<urn:uuid:27782089-ce7b-493e-b1ff-b195ca77a5e3>
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CC-MAIN-2018-09
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http://thestudionorfolk.co.uk/consultation/bio-mechanics.html
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en
| 0.909972 | 498 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The forerunner of office computers at Casio was the TUC (pronounced "Tuck") announced in February 1961.
This was an automatic document generating machine which enabled free programming of spreadsheets in linkage with a relay computer and typewriter. The necessary numerical values were automatically sent to the computer simply by operating the typewriter, and arithmetic was done by the computer. The results were automatically printed in the designated space in a table, and output as a document. This sort of computer was not available anywhere in the world at the time and was a revolutionary development. Various innovations were incorporated to allow the person responsible for clerical work to easily modify programs to suit the document format.
The typewriter was made by Toshiba, and the sold by Toshiba (T), Uchida Yoko (U) and Casio (C), so it was called "TUC". Price was ¥965,000.
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CC-MAIN-2024-10
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https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/office/0012.html
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| 0.981981 | 186 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Due to Covid restrictions the office is closed, if you have an urgent query please contact: [email protected]
The importance of school playground safety
Playgrounds play a great part in the development of a child, the memories in a play park are often ones that are remembered. They’re the place where we play and explore risk, socialise with others and create memories that we will treasure long into adult life — but what happens when the risk becomes all too much? Retailers of lawn top dressing and play bark, Compost Direct have provided us with some research on playground safety and some suggestions on how to improve the levels of safety in a play area. We look specifically at the accident rates before offering tips to prevent injury and safeguard children without limiting their play potential.
The current accident rate in British playgrounds
It is hard to judge the overall playground safety levels in Britain as there is little research surrounding this. However, some studies have taken place that do shine some light on the safety of our playgrounds.
One notable study is that done by Play England. They suggest that when you compare the risks involved of playing in a playground to partaking in a sport, the sport poses more harm to a child. For example, rugby has the highest non-fatal accident rate per 100,000 hours of exposure, with roughly 280 incidents. Football and hockey are the next most dangerous, with approximately 130 and 90 incidents respectively. In comparison, public playgrounds have one of the lowest non-fatal accident rates at around 5 incidents per 100,000 hours of exposure.
The Hampshire and Isle of Wight Health and Safety Advisory Group suggest that many playground accidents are due to incorrect design and layout, poor inspection and maintenance, unsuitable clothing and lack of adult supervision – amongst other reasons.
Playground safety hazards
There are some actions that can be taken by schools to reduce harmful incidents. Of course, children love exploring and being mischievous and often accidents are inevitable. Playground designers cannot be overly safety conscious when deciding how a playground should look or else the adventures and challenges that children enjoy in a play area will be eliminated. However, a well-designed playground will not raise any additional hazards for children and will encourage safe play.
When considering the layout of a park, a key thing should be that it is easily accessible by those who need it. Large groups must be able to navigate around the park, disabled children need access and emergency services must be able to reach the play zone in the case of an accident.
The materials that are used to create surfaces in the park should have been carefully evaluated and tested for safety hazards. Hard surfaces should be non-slip, especially in rain and adverse weather conditions as this is a common cause of accidents. Impact absorbing surfacing should be fitted around all apparatus to reduce injury level in the case of a fall. This could be in the form of play bark (bark chippings) or sand. Surfaces should be level too, with adequate opportunity for drainage to reduce risk of corrosion on any of the equipment. In a park, there should be plenty of seats around the play areas so that children can socialise.
What can teachers do?
The key thing that staff can do is keep a watchful eye over what is happening in the playground to ensure effective safeguarding.
Keep an eye out for older and younger children playing together. Although we don’t like to think so, this can lead to bullying or your child feeling uncomfortable when they are playing. In this situation, encourage children to play on another piece of equipment. Age-segregated areas can be beneficial for this reason – as well as accessibility reasons. Keep an eye out for any litter too which may be harmful.
Take on board suggestions for improvement around playground safety too – ask your pupils about their experiences; they might have come across something that you did not notice.
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| 0.958084 | 803 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Wetlands are one of our most depleted ecosystem types, however many groups and individuals are working together to restore and recreate them. Local wetland planting guides may be available from your regional council or DoC office.
You can learn more about wetland restoration and meet others restoring wetlands by attending our regular wetland symposia.
We also update this page with useful tools to help you restore, manage and monitor your wetlands.
Wetland Restoration Handbook
The Wetland Restoration Handbook is a beautifully illustrated detailed guide to understanding, protecting and enhancing our remaining wetlands. It’s produced for those planning to or already making a difference to improving wetlands, and is easily understood and acted on.
It has excellent colour photographs, is wire bound with wraparound cover, and includes a CD of references and websites.
A copy of the handbook is available from Manaaki Whenua Landcare Research.
Te Reo o Te Repo
The voice of the wetland “Te Reo o Te Repo” – is an online wetland handbook that highlights a range of mahi (work) undertaken by iwi (tribes) and hapū (sub-tribes) to increase the health and wellbeing of their repo (wetlands).
The handbook aims to provide best practice techniques for the enhancement and protection of cultural wetland values to share with tangata whenua throughout the country.
It will also assist local authorities, research providers, and community groups in their understanding of cultural priorities for wetland restoration
Create your own Wetland Management Plan
The Waikato Regional Council website has a handy template and completed examples so you can easily create your own management plan.
Science in the Swamp Wetland Monitoring Kit
WETMAK is a free online Wetland Monitoring and Assessment Kit developed for community groups working on wetland restoration projects in New Zealand. It includes a range of useful monitoring techniques and methods of assessing the impact of restoration work, all designed to minimise the need for expensive equipment. You can download the entire resource or focus on specific modules. Blank datasheets and report templates can be printed off or downloaded to fill in.
Download WETMAK, print out a few datasheets, pull on your gumboots, head out with friends and get measuring. Increasing understanding of your restoration work will bring huge rewards and provide useful information for future planning.
Planning to design a wetland interpretation panel?
The NWT has produced a series of cool interpretation panels for several wetland types (lowland swamp, kahikatea swamp forest, peat lake and restiad bog). They are designed for our members and community groups who wish to install interpretation panels without incurring a design cost.
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| 0.909387 | 564 | 2.875 | 3 |
An interdisciplinary team of Cornell researchers in engineering, physics and chemistry recently created the first self-assembling superconductor. The news of this development came when Science Advances published the group’s research, describing their creation of the three-dimensional gyroidal superconducting structure.
The group, led by Spencer T. Olin Professor of Engineering, Ulrich Wiesner, engaged the expertise of several Cornell faculty and researchers — including Prof. Sol Gruner and Prof. James Sethna, physics, Prof. Francis DiSalvo, chemistry and chemical biology, Bruce van Dover, chair of the materials science and engineering department and graduate students Spencer Robbins and Peter Beaucage. All are co-authors to the study.
“We had the perfect storm of collaborators,” Beaucage said.
The integrative approach to the research was particularly important in the study of this electronic material because it implements the self-assembling nature of organic block copolymers in the traditionally inorganic realm of superconductor nanostructures.
Speaking about the interdisciplinary essential collaborative nature of this development, Wiesner said that “it stimulates the imagination because it brings two areas together that typically don’t overlap.”
“For me it’s so fulfilling because I’ve been thinking about it for such a long time, almost 20 years,” Wiesner said. “The feedback’s been really, really good because it’s a little out of the box.”
Superconductors regularly attract great interest and research due to their vast potential as near self-sufficient non-dissipative conduction media. These materials allow for the conduction of electrons with very little to no resistance and thus no dissipation of energy lost to heat. Superconducting wires in a magnetic field can dismiss the need for a constant current supply and their technology is used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanners and fusion reactors.
The main drawback to superconductor technology is the necessity of operating at very low temperatures and until recently, superconducting was impossible at temperatures much higher than absolute zero. Thus, a large portion of superconductor research focuses on varying the nanostructuring and materials involved to explore the potential for improved macroscale conducting properties.
“We want to understand the materials and their properties better as we give them different structures … What happens when you start to nanostructure these materials on periodic lattices?” Wiesner said.
Wiesner first considered this idea of organic materials in three-dimensional gyroidal structures almost two decades ago, before he began working at Cornell in 1999. The porous gyroidal structure is understood as a complex cubic formation of spirals of superconducting material with 10nm sized pores dispersed throughout. Gruner advanced the concept to the use of gyroidal structures in superconductors but the team encountered a challenge in figuring out how to synthesize the structure.
After unsuccessful experimentation with other superconducting materials, Wiesner consulted Sethna as to what material could exhibit superconducting properties in this structure. Sethna, who was writing a paper on superconductors at the time, recommended Niobium Nitride, an inorganic compound that Wiesner’s group was coincidentally working with.
The process involved the use of a three-monomer chain in a triblock copolymer to form the alternating gyroidal network from direct sol-gel Niobium Oxide. While ammonia flowed over the oxide to convert it to Niobium Nitride, the sample was heated in air at 450 degrees Celsius. This heating step removed one of the two solvent-induced self-assembled gyroidal networks by evaporation.
“You can think of it like oil and water: you take chemistries that don’t mix,” Beaucage said. “[This] allows additives like nanoparticles to mix with only one of the block polymers.”
The subsequent heat treatment required more experimentation to find a balance between preserving structure by reducing processing temperatures and improving material properties by raising processing temperatures. When Robbins first heated the sample to 700 degrees then cooled to room temperature it did not exhibit superconducting properties. He then heated the same sample to 850 degrees in a second wash. Upon cooling, this sample showed superconducting properties. When heating the sample directly to 850 degrees in a single nitriding step proved unsuccessful, the group concluded that the sample must be heated twice, an unexpected requirement that the group cannot explain.
The use of organic materials and polymer self-assembly in synthesis is a revolutionary advancement in superconductor structure. Block copolymer self-assembly in superconductor formation allows for precise tunability of morphology, dimensionality and feature size at the mesoscale. Professor Wiesner calls this the “bottom-up” approach to superconductor formation.
“[The] information about final structure is encoded into primary sequence of polymers,” he explained.
The research related to the creation of this superconducting structure is momentous in light of the lack of studies into the effects of mesostructure on superconductivity. The experiment’s innovative implementation of organic materials is some of the first research into the area of organic material use in superconducting and composite structures.
This advancement opens many pathways for future research and collaboration between the inorganic superconductor and organic polymer fields and their scientific communities. The group plans to investigate the superconducting properties of this structure to determine the potential for elevated superconducting temperatures, conduction under different applied magnetic field conditions, or improved superconductivity. This specific structure prompts further lines of research such as inquiry into the double-heating requirement and the potential to increase conduction at large interfacial areas by filling the pores with a second material to make a composite superconductor.
The exciting potential of this development has been well-received by scientific communities and public audiences alike.
“We’ve been working on this for such a long time and think it’s so cool, and it’s really interesting to hear everyone else say [that] it’s such a neat idea,” Beaucage said.
The researchers are excited by the public’s enthusiastic response and are receiving increasing attention from the media, other scientists and researchers looking to collaborate, and even young kids sending in questions about the discovery.
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<urn:uuid:92f6bfba-6fe6-42d6-8adc-79b9f599d0e2>
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CC-MAIN-2021-21
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https://cornellsun.com/2016/02/09/cornell-researchers-explain-creation-of-first-self-assembling-superconductor/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243992440.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20210517180757-20210517210757-00561.warc.gz
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en
| 0.924536 | 1,337 | 3.296875 | 3 |
BIN_DATE function converts a standard form
ASCII date/time string to a binary string. The function returns a six-element integer array where:
Element 0 is the year (e.g., 1994)
Element 1 is the month (1-12)
Element 2 is the day (1-31)
Element 3 is the hour (0-23)
Element 4 is minutes (0-59)
Element 5 is seconds (0-59)
This routine is written in the IDL language. Its source code can be found in the file
subdirectory of the IDL distribution.
Result = BIN_DATE(
A string containing the date/time to convert in standard ASCII format. If this argument is omitted, the current date/time is used. Standard form is a 24 character string:
DOW MON DD HH:MM:SS YYYY
where DOW is the day of the week, MON is the month, DD is the day of month, HH:MM:SS is the time in hours, minutes, second, YYYY is the year.
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<urn:uuid:67a71b29-8d8e-48e8-8872-24b86cc3a396>
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CC-MAIN-2015-22
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http://www.astro.virginia.edu/class/oconnell/astr511/IDLresources/idl_5.1_html/idl15.htm
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-22/segments/1432207928030.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20150521113208-00187-ip-10-180-206-219.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.7274 | 232 | 3.09375 | 3 |
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) intends in coming days to launch a rover to be deployed on Mars fueled with 10.6 pounds of plutonium. If there is an explosion on launch in Florida and plutonium is released, an area as far as 62 miles from the launch pad could be impacted, NASA acknowledges. If the rocket lofting the rover falls back to Earth instead of breaking away from Earth's gravitational field to keep going into space, re-entry into the atmosphere would cause both the rocket and rover to disintegrate, potentially releasing plutonium over a huge area.
An example of a space device meant to go to Mars but likely to fall back to Earth is unfolding now. A Russian space probe, named Phobos-Grunt, launched on November 9, reached low Earth orbit, but then an engine system failed to fire to power it on to Phobos, one of two moons of Mars. The Russian space agency is trying to get the craft's onboard computer, which it believes is the source of the problem, to function properly. But prospects are dim. Reuters in an article on the situation quotes Russian space expert Vladimir Uvarov: "In my opinion Phobos-Grunt is lost." Unless a fix is made, the probe will come crashing back to Earth, probably in January.
There is concern about the 12 tons of chemical fuel onboard the Phobos-Grunt impacting the Earth. If the Mars rover, which NASA calls Curiosity, falls back to Earth with its 10.6 pounds of plutonium, it would present a far, far more serious danger.
NASA intends to launch the plutonium-powered rover on what it has named its Mars Science Laboratory mission during a window from November 25 to December 15.
In its final environmental impact statement (EIS) for the mission, NASA addresses the possibility of an accident similar to what the Phobos-Grunt is facing in what NASA designates as "Phase 4" of the launch. Plutonium could be released in such an accident, "affecting Earth surfaces" along a wide belt around the middle of the Earth.
NASA's language for this: "Phase 4 (Orbital/Escape): Accidents which occur after attaining parking orbit could result in orbital decay reentries from minutes to years after the accident affecting Earth surfaces between approximately 28-degrees north latitude and 28-degrees south latitude." NASA gives odds of 1-in-830 for the "probability of a release" of plutonium in such an accident. Between 28 degrees north and 28 degrees south covers much of South America, Africa and Australia.
The EIS says the cost of decontamination of areas affected by the plutonium would be $267 million for each square mile of farmland, $478 million for each square mile of forests and $1.5 billion for each square mile of "mixed-use urban areas." The Curiosity mission itself has a cost of $2.5 billion.
The EIS says "overall" on the mission, the likelihood of plutonium being released is 1 in 220. It puts the odds at 1 in 420 of plutonium being released in a launch accident. This could "release material into the regional area defined ... to be within ... 62 miles of the launch pad," says the EIS. The most densely populated part of that area is Orlando.
"NASA is planning a mission that could endanger not only its future but the state of Florida and beyond," declares John Stewart of Pax Christi Tampa Bay, a leader in Florida in challenging the launch. "The absurd - and maddening - aspect of this risk is that it is unnecessary," says Stewart, who is also a teacher. "The locomotion for NASA's Sojourner Mars rover, launched in 1996, and the Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers, both launched in 2003, was solar powered, with the latter two rovers performing well beyond what their engineers expected. Curiosity's locomotion could also be solar-powered. NASA admits this in its EIS, but decided to put us all at risk because plutonium-powered batteries last longer and they want to have the 'flexibility to select the most scientifically interesting location on the surface' of Mars."
Bruce Gagnon, coordinator of the Global Network Against Weapons & Nuclear Power in Space, which has been opposing NASA's nuclear missions for two decades, says, "NASA sadly appears committed to maintaining its dangerous alliance with the nuclear industry. Both entities view space as a new market for the deadly plutonium fuel. The taxpayers are being asked once again to pay for nuclear missions that could endanger the lives of all the people on the planet. Have we not learned anything from Chernobyl and Fukushima? We don't need to be launching nukes into space. It's not a gamble we can afford to take."
There have been accidents in the use of nuclear power in space. Of the 26 US space missions listed in the EIS which have used plutonium, three underwent accidents, the EIS admits. The worst occurred in 1964 and involved, it notes, the Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP)-9A plutonium system aboard a satellite that failed to achieve orbit and dropped to earth, disintegrating as it fell. The 2.1 pounds of plutonium fuel dispersed widely over Earth. The late Dr. John Gofman, professor of medical physics at the University of California at Berkeley, long linked this accident to an increase in global lung cancer. Following the SNAP-9A accident, NASA switched to solar energy on satellites. Now all satellites and the International Space Station are solar powered.
But NASA kept using plutonium as a power source on space probes, maintaining that solar energy could not be utilized beyond the orbit of Mars. But in August 2011, NASA reversed itself with the launch of its solar-powered Juno space probe to Jupiter.
In its description of the Juno mission, NASA states that even when the probe gets to Jupiter, "nearly 500 million miles from the Sun," its panels will be providing electricity.
The plutonium-fueled Curiosity mission could herald an expanded NASA space nuclear power program - not just for space probes but for nuclear propelled rockets.
During the 1950s and 1960s, NASA, working with the US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), built such rockets under a program called Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application (NERVA) and then under Projects Pluto, Rover and Poodle. Billions in 1950s/1960s dollars were spent and ground testing was done, but no nuclear rocket ever got off the ground. There were concerns about a nuclear rocket blowing up on launch or crashing back to Earth.
Charles Bolden, a former astronaut and US Marine Corps major general and President Obama's appointee to head NASA, is a big booster of nuclear propulsion for rockets. He has been pushing a design developed by a fellow ex-astronaut, Franklin Chang-Diaz, who has founded the Ad Astra Rocket Company.
With NASA turning over many space activities to private industry with the end of its shuttle program, another major private company involved is SpaceX. The web site of the journal Nature reported last year that SpaceX wants the US government to "return to developing nuclear-powered rockets pursued during the 1960s" - and specifically NERVA. "We have to do nuclear," stated Tom Markusic, director of the company's rocket development facility.
Meanwhile, there have not only been advances in solar energy as a power source in space, as demonstrated by the Juno space probe mission, but also in using nonnuclear technology to propel spacecraft. Last year, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency launched what it termed a "space yacht" called Ikaros which gets propulsion from the pressure on its large sails of ionizing particles emitted by the Sun. The sails also feature "thin-film solar cells to generate electricity and creating," said Yuichi Tsuda of the agency, "a hybrid technology of electricity and pressure."
NASA has also been pushing for establishment of a production facility for plutonium for space use to be situated at Idaho National Laboratory.
Plutonium has long been described as the most lethal radioactive substance, and the plutonium isotope used in the space nuclear program, and on the Curiosity rover, is significantly more radioactive than the type of plutonium used as fuel in nuclear weapons or built up as a waste product in nuclear power plants. It is plutonium-238, as distinct from plutonium-239. Plutonium-238 has a far shorter half-life - 87.8 years - compared to plutonium-239, with a half-life of 24,500 years. An isotope's half-life is the period in which half of its radioactivity is expended.
Dr. Arjun Makhijani, a nuclear physicist and president of The Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, explains that plutonium-238, "is about 270 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 per unit of weight." Thus, in radioactivity, the 10.6 pounds of Plutonium-238 that is to be used on Curiosity is the equivalent of 2,862 pounds of plutonium-239. The atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki used 15 pounds of plutonium-239.
The far shorter half-life of plutonium-238 compared to plutonium-239 results in it being extremely hot. This heat is translated in a radioisotope thermoelectric generator into electricity.
The pathway of greatest human health concern for plutonium is the lungs: breathing in a particle can lead to lung cancer. A millionth of a gram of plutonium can be a fatal dose. The EIS for the Mars Science Laboratory mission speaks of particles that would be "transported to and remain in the trachea, bronchi, or deep lung regions." The particles, "would continuously irradiate lung tissue."
A key issue in terms of effects is whether the plutonium remains as the marble-sized pellets fabricated for space use or is dispersed as fine particles that can be inhaled.
The EIS also describes "secondary social costs associated with the decontamination and mitigation activities," including: "Temporary or longer term relocation of residents; temporary or longer term loss of employment; destruction or quarantine of agricultural products including citrus crops; land use restrictions which could affect real estate values, tourism and recreational activities; restriction or bans on commercial fishing; and public health effects and medical care."
Pax Christi is asking people to call, email or write NASA and, says Stewart, state, "that until they can launch spacecraft without nuclear materials aboard, they should not launch at all." Also, it is calling for people to contact the White House "and tell President Obama that Curiosity should stay safely on the ground until it can be launched without threatening us and future generations."
Opponents of the launch have posted an online petition to the White House - "Cancel the Launch of the Mars Rover Curiosity by NASA Which is Powered by Dangerous Plutonium-238." They have also created a Facebook page warning people not to visit Disney theme parks in Orlando during the launch window. "Don't Do Disney brought to you by NASA," the Facebook page is titled.
Demonstrations in Florida are also planned.
The "grunt" in the space probe named Phobos-Grunt is the word for soil in Russian. The probe was to bring soil back to Earth from Phobos. Reuters has reported that "Phobos-Grunt is also carrying bacteria, plant seeds and tiny animals known as water bears, part of a US study to see if they could survive beyond the Earth's protective bubble."
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<urn:uuid:2e4440b2-a006-40a0-bded-bbdf81743ec6>
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CC-MAIN-2015-35
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http://www.truth-out.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=5150&Itemid=228
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644062782.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025422-00218-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.948623 | 2,344 | 3.765625 | 4 |
In most cases, a criminal needs to obtain personally identifiable information about an individual in order to impersonate them. They may acquire this information by:
- Stealing mail or rummaging through rubbish containing personal information (e.g. dumpster diving.)
- Retrieving information from abandoned equipment, like computer servers that have been disposed of carelessly (e.g. at public dump sites or given away without proper sanitizing.)
- Researching about the victim in government registers, internet search engines, or public records search services.
- Stealing payment or identification cards, either by pick pocketing or secretly obtaining information electronically from a compromised card reader (e.g. skimming.)
- Remotely reading information from an RFID chip on a smart card, RFID-enabled credit card, or passport.
- Eavesdropping on public transactions to obtain personal data (e.g. shoulder surfing.)
- Stealing personal information in computer databases (e.g. trojan horses, hacking)
- Sometimes databases are leaked to the public due to improper handling or malicious actions and may include identity information. (e.g. a company breach)
- Advertising bogus offers to which the victims will reply with their full name, address, resume, telephone numbers, or banking details (e.g. phishing.)
- Obtaining castings of fingers for falsifying fingerprint identification.
- Browsing social network sites (e.g. MySpace, Facebook, etc.) online for personal details that have been posted by users.
- Changing your address with the USPS or in the directory of other companies thereby diverting billing statements or other information to another location to either get current legitimate account info or to delay discovery of fraudulent accounts.
Don’t be taken advantage of - secure yourself by signing-up now! Click here to get started.
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<urn:uuid:cb4eaf7a-3900-4862-b7ae-3e6b35078ea8>
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CC-MAIN-2022-33
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https://securepublic.mycreditguard.com/how-can-it-happen-to-you/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570921.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809094531-20220809124531-00581.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.868157 | 386 | 2.53125 | 3 |
International Tiger Day, also known as Global Tiger Day, is an annual celebration to raise awareness for tiger conservation, held annually on 29 July. It was created in 2010 at the Saint Petersburg Tiger Summit. The goal of the day is to promote a global system for protecting the natural habitats of tigers and to raise public awareness and support for tiger conservation issues. On this occasion, Radio Active CR 90.4 MHz and Save Tiger First have joined hands to celebrate the day by screening a film on tiger and its habitat. The screening of the film will be followed by talks by experts and an interaction with the audience to hear about their perspectives. It is a free public event.
Contact: Marwan 9945686274 or Ashok 9880388868
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<urn:uuid:c9e977df-2e67-42dd-8fd9-e7146fb8f049>
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CC-MAIN-2021-04
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https://radio-active.in/2015/07/27/celebrating-international-tiger-day-29th-july-2015/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703531429.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20210122210653-20210123000653-00472.warc.gz
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en
| 0.958897 | 150 | 2.703125 | 3 |
About cataract surgery
Cataract surgery is a procedure to treat cataracts in your eyes. A cataract is a clouding of the lens in your eye, which can make your vision blurred or misty. You can develop cataracts in one or both of your eyes. Most people who get cataracts are over 65 but children can also get them.
A Cross section of the eye
During a cataract operation, a surgeon will remove your lens and replace it with an artificial plastic one. This will restore your vision, although you may need to wear reading glasses after cataract removal.
How can I prepare for my cataract surgery?
When you have cataract surgery, you will be seen as a day case. However, you should arrange to have someone take you home after the procedure.
You may have an assessment before your operation, in which your eyes will be measured. This will help to select an artificial lens that is suitable for you.
What happens during my cataract surgery?
Before the procedure, your doctor will talk you through the process and ask you to sign a consent form.
Your surgeon will put some drops in your eye. These will widen your pupil and relax the muscles in your eye. Next, your surgeon will put some local anaesthetic eye drops into your eye. This will numb your eye and completely block any pain.
Your surgeon will then make a tiny cut on the surface of your eye. He or she will use a special instrument to break up your lens with the cataract into tiny pieces. He or she will remove these pieces with another instrument and then put in a new artificial lens.
The procedure takes around 15 to 20 minutes, but it can sometimes take longer. Because you do not need a general anaesthetic, you will be able to leave that day.
Are there any complications or risks?
As with every procedure, there are complications associated with cataract surgery. However these are rare. Speak to your surgeon for more information.
Complications include an infection or bleeding in your eye and a tear of the lens capsule (where the lens sits). Potentially a bit of cataract may drop into the back of your eye.
The most common complication is cloudy vision, which is called posterior capsular opacification. This happens if part of the lens capsule thickens and cells grow over the back of the artificial lens. This can come on gradually months or even years after your operation.
Recovering from cataract surgery
You should be able to return to your normal activities straight away. Any pain or discomfort should go after a few days. Your hospital will give you some eye drops to reduce inflammation.
For most people who have cataract removal, their vision is improved after the operation. However, your vision may be blurred until your eye has healed. This will take around two to six weeks.
How much does cataract surgery cost?
For a guide to what you could pay for your treatment, click here.
What to do next
Once you have decided that you would like to be treated at an HCA hospital, or would like further information, here's what to do next:
- Call one of our advisors on +44 (0) 20 7079 4399 or complete our web enquiry form.
- Check with your insurance company that your policy covers your treatment, and obtain authorisation.
- Visit or call your GP to obtain a referral letter and then call us to make an appointment to visit your chosen consultant and hospital at a time to suit you.
Back to A-Z of Services and Treatments
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<urn:uuid:2b9d0f53-e019-4f83-9405-49a2ff0b9bb8>
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CC-MAIN-2016-50
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http://www.hcahealthcare.co.uk/treatments/a-z-of-services-and-treatments/cataract-surgery/
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en
| 0.954284 | 752 | 2.59375 | 3 |
I'd copied this from travour.com, just have a read on what Wesak Day means.
Wesak Day is the most important festivals of the Buddhists in Malaysia and fall in the month of May. It is celebrated to commemorate the birth, enlightenment and death of Lord Buddha because according to Buddhists, all the three events took place on the same lunar date. The celebration for the Wesak day begins much before the dawn when the Buddhists gather in Buddhist temples for worship all over Malaysia. The celebration is done with prayers, chants, offerings and giving alms. The Buddhist eat a vegetarian diet prior to the festival in order to cleanse and purify themselves. Doves and tortoises are released on the Wesak Day as a symbolic gesture of releasing the soul and giving up the past sins. Free meals are also given to the needy on the Wesak Day.
Another big celebration and holiday for Sabahan in May is Kaamatan Festival. It will be next two days so just take this opportunity to wish all Sabahan Kotobian Tadau Kaamatan.
"Oh kalau Ranau mustahil tidak bulih kasi habis. Minum minum minum.. Bulih itu kalo orang Ranau."
It's Rungus traditional costume, colorful.. ^_^
Proud to be Sabahan.
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<urn:uuid:ee211a7f-40c6-493a-bf1d-29650e3f5f3d>
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CC-MAIN-2017-51
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http://sweetwiskies.blogspot.com/2010/05/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948522343.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20171213084839-20171213104839-00560.warc.gz
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en
| 0.890021 | 283 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Pericarditis is inflammation and swelling of the covering of the heart (pericardium). The condition can occur in the days or weeks following a heart attack.
See also: Bacterial pericarditis
Alternative NamesDressler's syndrome; Post-MI pericarditis; Post-cardiac injury syndrome; Postcardiotomy pericarditis
Pericarditis may occur within 2 to 5 days after a heart attack, or it may occur as much as 11 weeks later. The condition is called Dressler's syndrome when it persists for weeks or months after a heart attack.
Pericarditis that occurs shortly after a heart attack is caused by an overactive response by the body's immune system. When the body senses blood in the pericardial sac or dead or severely damaged heart tissue (as with a heart attack), it triggers an inflammatory response. Cells from the immune system try to clean up the heart after injury, but, in some cases, the cells can attack healthy tissue by mistake.
Pain occurs when the pericardium becomes inflamed (swollen) and rubs on the heart.
You have a higher risk of pericarditis if you have had a previous heart attack, open heart surgery, or chest trauma.
- Chest pain
- May come and go (recur)
- Pain moves to the neck, shoulder, back, or abdomen
- Pain may be sharp and stabbing (pleuritic) or tight and crushing (ischemic)
- Pain may get worse when breathing and may be go away when you stand or sit up
- Splinting of ribs (bending over or holding the chest) with deep breathing
- Difficulty breathing
- Dry cough
- General ill feeling (malaise)
- Fast heart rate (tachycardia)
Exams and Tests
The health care provider will use a stethoscope to listen to the heart and lungs. There may be a rubbing sound (not be confused with a murmur), and heart sounds in general may be weak or sound far away.
Build up of fluid in the covering of the heart or space around the lungs (pleural effusion) is not common after heart attack. But, it does occur in some patients with Dressler's syndrome.
Tests may include:
- Chest x-ray
- Chest MRI
- Chest CT scan
- Cardiac markers (CK-MB and troponin may help distinguish pericarditis from a heart attack)
- Complete blood count shows increased white blood cells
- ESR (sedimentation rate) is high
The goal of treatment is to make the heart work better and reduce pain and other symptoms.
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDS) and aspirin may be used to treat inflammation of the pericardium. In extreme cases, when other medicines have failed, steroids or colchicine may be used.
In some cases, excess fluid surrounding the heart may need to be removed. This is done with a procedure calledpericardiocentesis. If complications develop, part of the pericardium may need to be removed with surgery (pericardiectomy).
The condition may come back even in those who receive treatment. However, untreated pericarditis can be life threatening.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your health care provider if symptoms of pericarditis occur following a heart attack.
Call your health care provider if pericarditis has been diagnosed and symptoms persist or recur despite treatment.
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<urn:uuid:a0b8b1c1-c7fe-402b-a59c-01c52f1fcf50>
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CC-MAIN-2023-23
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https://diseasereference.net/info/pericarditis-after-heart-attack/207670.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224653631.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20230607074914-20230607104914-00400.warc.gz
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en
| 0.880342 | 789 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Internet Safety, Digital Citizenship, and Media Literacy
Digital Citizenship & Media Literacy - Successful Practices & Recommendations
Legislation passed in 2016 required the Office of Superintendent of Public
Instruction to convene an advisory group to identify successful practices and
recommend media literacy and digital citizenship improvements statewide.
Teach & Learn
Federal law mandates that schools must educate minors about safe online
behavior — cyber bullying awareness/response and social networking. The
law requires that schools adopt and practice policy that integrates Internet
safety into curriculum. We encourage school administrators to take a look at the
high-quality Internet safety programs listed on this page.
Electronic Resources Policy
We recommend this model policy and its procedures document as a good beginning
for schools and districts that need to put protections in place related to
Internet access. Both models were developed in partnership with the Washington
State School Directors Association.
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<urn:uuid:4d6a84f2-3c60-44de-b415-4ce82b63933d>
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CC-MAIN-2018-30
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http://www.k12.wa.us/EdTech/BasicEdInternetSafetyPolicy.aspx?printable=true
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676589404.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20180716154548-20180716174548-00586.warc.gz
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en
| 0.902018 | 184 | 3.140625 | 3 |
September 1, 2012
Ants, Not DARPA, Invented the Internet?
David Szondy, Gizmag
Ask who invented the Internet and you’ll spark off an argument with everyone championed from DARPA to Nikola Tesla. However, two Stanford scientists claim that the inventor may have had six legs, antennae and a taste for disrupting picnics. Professor of biology Deborah Gordon and professor of computer science Balaji Prabhakar say that red harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex barbatus) use the same Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in foraging that the internet uses to manage data transmissions – making a sort of “Anternet.”
TAGGED: Ants, Algorithm, Internet
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<urn:uuid:52e48d2f-2816-4429-ab0e-9732651ad340>
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CC-MAIN-2014-52
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http://www.realclearscience.com/2012/09/01/ants_not_darpa_invented_the_internet_248818.html
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Methane is a potent greenhouse gas. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization revealed that animal agriculture emits 44% of the methane produced by human activity. Fermentation in the rumen, one of the four stomach chambers of livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats, generates the methane, as a result of micro-organisms that aid in the process of digestion. Animals must expel this gas to survive. A compound added to the feed of high-producing dairy cows reduces methane emissions by 30% and could have ramifications for global climate change, revealed a new study.
The 3-nitrooxypropanol, or 3NOP supplement, blocks an enzyme necessary to catalyze the last step of methane creation by the microbes in the rumen. Lead researcher Alexander Hristov, professor of dairy nutrition at Pennsylvania State University in the US, said, "Methane expulsion through burping represents a net loss of feed energy for livestock."
The cows that consumed a feed regimen supplemented by the novel methane inhibitor compound over the course of the 12-week study gained 80% more body weight than cows in a control group. Hristov said, "The spared methane energy was used partially for tissue synthesis, which led to a greater body weight gain by the inhibitor-treated cows."
The findings showed that the feed intake, fiber digestibility and milk production by cows that consumed the supplement did not decrease. Hristov said, "The 3NOP compound, developed by DSM Nutritional Products, a Dutch company that is one of the world's leading suppliers of feed additives, seems to be safe and effective. If approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and adopted by the agricultural industry, this methane inhibitor could have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions from the livestock sector."
The findings were published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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A new U.S. Army publication (pdf) invites American soldiers to ponder the role of cultural factors in shaping perception and action.
Analyze this statement: ‘The English drive on the wrong side of the road.’
In some Islamic countries women wear burkas. Who is advantaged and who is disadvantaged by this?
Why do you think major religious traditions tend to have a plain version and a more mystical version?
What do television commercials tell us about American culture?
This is not a purely theoretical exercise, but is intended to support the Army’s counterinsurgency role in Afghanistan and elsewhere.
“Soldiers must understand how vital culture is in accomplishing today’s missions,” the new publication says. “Military personnel who have a superficial or even distorted picture of a host culture make enemies for the United States. Each Soldier must be a culturally literate ambassador, aware and observant of local cultural beliefs, values, behaviors and norms.” See “Culture Cards: Afghanistan & Islamic Culture,” U.S. Army, September 2011.
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Charles F. Richter
Date of birth : 1900-04-26
Date of death : 1985-09-30
Birthplace : Hamilton, Ohio, U.S.
Nationality : American
Category : Science and Technology
Last modified : 2011-02-08
Charles F. Richter was one of the developers of the Richter Scale which is used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes.
Charles F. Richter is remembered every time an earthquake happens. With German-born seismologist Beno Gutenberg, Richter developed the scale that bears his name and measures the magnitude of earthquakes. Richter was a pioneer in seismological research at a time when data on the size and location of earthquakes were scarce. He authored two textbooks that are still used as references in the field and are regarded by many scientists as his greatest contribution, exceeding the more popular Richter scale. Devoted to his work all his life, Richter at one time had a seismograph installed in his living room, and he welcomed queries about earthquakes at all hours.
Charles Francis Richter was born on April 26, 1900, on a farm near Hamilton, Ohio, north of Cincinnati. His parents were divorced when he was very young. He grew up with his maternal grandfather, who moved the family to Los Angeles in 1909. Richter went to a preparatory school associated with the University of Southern California, where he spent his freshman year in college. He then transferred to Stanford University, where he earned an A.B. degree in physics in 1920.
Richter received his Ph.D. in theoretical physics from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in 1928. That same year he married Lillian Brand of Los Angeles, a creative writing teacher. Robert A. Millikan, a Nobel Prizewinning physicist and president of Caltech, had already offered Richter a job at the newly established Seismological Laboratory in Pasadena, then managed by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Thus Richter started applying his physics background to the study of the earth.
As a young research assistant, Richter made his name early when he began a decades-long collaboration with Beno Gutenberg, who was then the director of the laboratory. In the early 1930s the pair were one of several groups of scientists around the world who were trying to establish a standard way to measure and compare earthquakes. The seismological laboratory at Caltech was planning to issue regular reports on southern California earthquakes, so the Gutenberg-Richter study was especially important. They needed to be able to catalog several hundred quakes a year with an objective and reliable scale.
At the time, the only way to rate shocks was a scale developed in 1902 by the Italian priest and geologist Giuseppe Mercalli. The Mercalli scale classified earthquakes from 1 to 12, depending on how buildings and people responded to the tremor. A shock that set chandeliers swinging might rate as a 1 or 2 on this scale, while one that destroyed huge buildings and created panic in a crowded city might count as a 10. The obvious problem with the Mercalli scale was that it relied on subjective measures of how well a building had been constructed and how used to these sorts of crises the population was. The Mercalli scale also made it difficult to rate earthquakes that happened in remote, sparsely populated areas.
The scale developed by Richter and Gutenberg, which became known by Richter's name only, was instead an absolute measure of an earthquake's intensity. Richter used a seismograph—an instrument generally consisting of a constantly unwinding roll of paper, anchored to a fixed place, and a pendulum or magnet suspended with a marking device above the roll—to record actual earth motion during an earthquake. The scale takes into account the instrument's distance from the epicenter, or the point on the ground that is directly above the earthquake's origin. Richter chose to use the term "magnitude" to describe an earthquake's strength because of his early interest in astronomy; stargazers use the word to describe the brightness of stars. Gutenberg suggested that the scale be logarithmic, so that a quake of magnitude 7 would be ten times stronger than a 6, a hundred times stronger than a 5, and a thousand times stronger than a 4. (The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that shook San Francisco was magnitude 7.1.)
The Richter scale was published in 1935 and immediately became the standard measure of earthquake intensity. Richter did not seem concerned that Gutenberg's name was not included at first; but in later years, after Gutenberg was already dead, Richter began to insist that his colleague be recognized for expanding the scale to apply to earthquakes all over the globe, not just in southern California. Since 1935, several other magnitude scales have been developed. Depending on what data is available, different ones are used, but all are popularly known by Richter's name.
For several decades Richter and Gutenberg worked together to monitor seismic activity around the world. In the late 1930s they applied their scale to deep earthquakes, ones that originate more than 185 miles below the ground, which rank particularly high on the Richter scale—8 or greater. In 1941 they published a textbook, Seismicity of the Earth, which in its revised edition became a standard reference book in the field. They worked on locating the epicenters of all the major earthquakes and classifying them into geographical groups. All his life, however, Richter warned that seismological records only reflect what people have measured in populated areas and are not a true representative sample of what shocks have actually occurred. He long remained skeptical of some scientists' claims that they could predict earthquakes.
Richter remained at Caltech for his entire career, except for a visit to the University of Tokyo from 1959 to 1960 as a Fulbright scholar. He became involved in promoting good earthquake building codes, while at the same time discouraging the overestimation of the dangers of an earthquake in a populated area like Los Angeles. He pointed out that statistics reveal freeway driving to be much more dangerous than living in an earthquake zone. He often lectured on how loss of life and property damage were largely avoidable during an earthquake, with proper training and building codes—he opposed building anything higher than thirty stories, for example. In the early 1960s, the city of Los Angeles listened to Richter and began to remove extraneous, but potentially dangerous, ornaments and cornices from its buildings. Los Angeles suffered a major quake in February of 1971, and city officials credited Richter with saving many lives. Richter was also instrumental in establishing the Southern California Seismic Array, a network of instruments that has helped scientists track the origin and intensity of earthquakes, as well as map their frequency much more accurately. His diligent study resulted in what has been called one of the most accurate and complete catalogs of earthquake activity, the Caltech catalog of California earthquakes.
Later in his career, Richter would recall several major earthquakes. The 1933 Long Beach earthquake was one, which he felt while working late at Caltech one night. That quake caused the death of 120 people in the then sparsely populated southern California town; it cost the Depression-era equivalent of $150 million in damages. Nobel Prizewinning physicist Albert Einstein was in town for a seminar when the earthquake struck, according to a March 8, 1981 story in the San Francisco Chronicle. Einstein and a colleague of Richter's were crossing the campus at the time of the quake, so engrossed in discussion that they were oblivious to the swaying trees. Richter also remembered the three great quakes that struck in 1906, when he was a six-year-old on the Ohio farm. That year, San Francisco suffered an 8.3 quake, Colombia and Ecuador had an 8.9, and Chile had an 8.6.
In 1958 Richter published his text Elementary Seismology, which was derived from the lectures he faithfully taught to Caltech undergraduates as well as decades of earthquake study. Many scientists consider this textbook to be Richter's greatest contribution, since he never published many scientific papers in professional journals. Elementary Seismology contained descriptions of major historical earthquakes, tables and charts, and subjects ranging from the nature of earthquake motion to earthquake insurance and building construction. Richter's colleagues maintained that he put everything he knew into it. The book was used in many countries.
In the 1960s, Richter had a seismograph installed in his living room so that he could monitor quakes at any time. He draped the seismographic records—long rolls of paper covered with squiggly lines—over the backs of the living room chairs. (His wife, Richter maintained, considered the seismograph a conversation piece.) He would answer press queries at any hour of the night and never seemed tired of talking about his work. Sometimes he grew obsessive about speaking to the press; when a tremor happened during Caltech working hours, Richter made sure he would be the one answering calls—he put the lab's phone in his lap.
Richter devoted his entire life to seismology. He even learned Russian, Italian, French, Spanish, and German, as well as a little Japanese, in order to read scientific papers in their original languages. His dedication to his work was complete; in fact, he became enraged at any slight on it. For instance, at his retirement party from Caltech in 1970, some laboratory researchers sang a clever parody about the Richter scale. Richter was furious at the implication that his work could be considered a joke. During his lifetime he enjoyed a good deal of public and professional recognition, including membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a stint as president of the Seismological Society of America, but he was never elected to the National Academy of Sciences. After his retirement Richter helped start a seismic consulting firm that evaluated buildings for the government, for public utilities such as the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, and for private businesses.
Richter enjoyed listening to classical music, reading science fiction, and watching the television series Star Trek. One of his great pleasures, ever since he grew up walking in the southern California mountains, was taking long solitary hikes. He preferred to camp by himself, far away from other people. But being alone had its drawbacks; once, he encountered a curious brown bear, which he chased away by loudly singing a raunchy song. After his marriage Richter continued his solo hikes, particularly at Christmas, when he and his wife would go their separate ways for a while. At these times Lillian indulged in her interest in foreign travel. The couple had no children. A little-known fact about them, according to Richter's obituary in the Los Angeles Times, is that they were nudists. Lillian died in 1972. Richter died in Pasadena on September 30, 1985, of congestive heart failure.
View the full website biography of Charles F. Richter.
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What is traditional acupuncture?
Traditional acupuncture is a healthcare system based on ancient principles which go back nearly two thousand years. It has a very positive model of good health and function, and looks at pain and illness as signs that the body is out of balance. The overall aim of acupuncture treatment, then, is to restore the body’s equilibrium. What makes this system so uniquely suited to modern life is that physical, emotional and mental are seen as interdependent, and reflect what many people perceive as the connection between the different aspects their lives.
Based on traditional belief, acupuncturists are trained to use subtle diagnostic techniques that have been developed and refined for centuries. The focus is on the individual, not their illness, and all the symptoms are seen in relation to each other. Each patient is unique; two people with the same western diagnosis may well receive different acupuncture treatments.
Traditional acupuncturists believe that the underlying principle of treatment is that illness and pain occur when the body’s qi, or vital energy, cannot flow freely. There can be many reasons for this; emotional and physical stress, poor nutrition, infection or injury are among the most common. By inserting ultra-fine sterile needles into specific acupuncture points, a traditional acupuncturist seeks to re-establish the free flow of qi to restore balance and trigger the body’s natural healing response.
A growing body of evidence-based clinical research shows that traditional acupuncture safely treats a wide range of common health problems.
What is Tuina?
Tuina is a form of Chinese manipulative therapy often used in conjunction with acupuncture, moxibustion, fire cupping, Chinese herbalism, t’ai chi, and qigong.Tuina is a hands-on body treatment that uses Chinese taoist and martial arts principles in an effort to bring the eight principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) into balance.
The practitioner may brush, knead, roll/press, and rub the areas between each of the joints, known as the eight gates, to attempt to open the body’s defensive (wei) chi and get the energy moving in the meridians and the muscles.
The practitioner can then use range of motion, traction, and massage, with the stimulation of acupressure points. These techniques are claimed to aid in the treatment of both acute and chronic musculoskeletal conditions, as well as many non-musculoskeletal conditions. Tuina is an integral part of TCM.
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Folk Culture and Popular Culture
A Coggle Diagram about Popular Culture - Clothing Styles (Shelbi, Delaney, and Haley), Folk Culture - Food Preferences (Leo and Justin), What are the environmental impacts of Popular Culture? (Alana and Kyla), Folk Culture - Housing (Lucas, Jordan and Caleb), Popular Culture - US Popular Housing (Aaron and Ryan), Folk Culture- Impact on Environment (Seth and Connor) , Popular Culture - Food Customs (Raven and Savannna), Folk Culture - Origin and Diffusion (Gage and Blaine), Popular Culture - Electronic Diffusion (Zach and Chris) , What threatens Folk Culture? (Haley, Kyowa, and Tarylor)
sometimes turned into popular culture as people turn from "traditional" values
pop. culture sometimes take resources from folk culture communities
mostly from globalization of pop culture.
media presents new ideas and diminishes others
, Media Imperialism (Lily and Olivia), Uniform Landscapes (Bailey and Lexi) and Folk Culture - US Folk Housing (Isaac and Brooks)
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Cybercrime is the fastest growing crime in America and has created an economic crisis. Imagine the financial impact on communities when $420 billion is lost every year. Imagine the emotional impact on the millions of kids cyberbullied and lured away by online predators, or seniors drained of their retirement savings. Think about what happens to the friends, neighbors and family who do not have the money to save for education, a home or retirement. How about the impact of not having enough money to pay rent or medical bills? Then consider how many romance scam survivors are lost to suicide after losing their life savings to someone they thought loved them.
Recently, romance scams alone may have cost over a billion dollars. According to the Federal Trade Commission, “For three years running, people have reported losing more money on romance scams than on any other fraud type identified in Sentinel. In 2020, reported losses to romance scams reached a record $304 million, up about 50% from 2019.” (See Figure 1 below)
It is time to ask a difficult question: How much financial and emotional pain will it take before the U.S. starts to provide support services to the 50 million people[i] who are victims of cybercrime each year?
Why is Cybercrime Booming?
Cybercrime is exploding because it is lucrative. Bottom line, criminals are getting rich quick with little to no consequences. Fraud has always existed, but with the Internet came the ability for criminals to reach anyone, anywhere, at any time with the click of a button. The security community, law enforcement and government agencies were not prepared to react to the exponential rise in a new crime landscape.
There is a need for some understanding and patience as it relates to not having a handle on this newer threat to our communities. In all the history of crime, comparatively speaking, pure internet crime is fairly new.
The iPhone was launched in 2007, then the Android Market, now Google Play in 2008. Facebook, Instagram and Twitter have only been in existence for roughly 11 to 15 years. Criminals capitalized on these new areas of treasure quickly, and the systems that protect people and places have yet to catch up. This perfect storm of technology adoption, criminal cash winfall and lack of support resources has caused an economic crisis that needs to be brought out into the open.
Cybercrime is grossly underreported for three reasons:
1. Feelings of Shame
Most cybercrime happens with the target willingly participating. In order to be successful, this crime needs the victim to click on a link, send money to strangers, or believe something that is untrue. There is an active decision by the victim to engage; therefore, it is human nature to feel that the victim has some responsibility for what happened. Let’s contrast that with an armed robbery. If a criminal comes to a home, physically breaks a locked window and steals money with the victims at gunpoint, no one will blame the victim. This victim did not do anything to enable the criminal.
These examples are not to show proof that cybercrime is the victims’ fault, but rather to show how it can be interpreted as a different type of crime that leads to victim blaming.
2.Where to Report: Confusion Reigns
The Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) is currently run by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and started taking complaints from U.S. victims in 2003. “The mission of the Internet Crime Complaint Center is to provide the public with a reliable and convenient reporting mechanism to submit information to the Federal Bureau of Investigation concerning suspected Internet-facilitated criminal activity…”[ii] In 2020, IC3 received over 700k reports[iii] (as shown in Figure 2 below).
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has a new and improved reporting system at ReportFraud.ftc.gov. In the FAQs on their website, they give this advice to the question of ‘where else should I report?’ “Your report goes into Consumer Sentinel, a database available to federal, state, and local law enforcement across the country. But you also can file a report with your state attorney general or local consumer protection agency.”[iv]
The data collected by the FTC is shared with 3,000 law enforcement agencies in the country.[v] However, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Law enforcement in the U.S. includes over 18,000 federal, state and local agencies.”[vi] That leaves 15,000 agencies without access to the data. Now, each of those agencies has the ability to sign up for access to the data, but the dedicated team at the FTC does not have a “marketing” department meant to share resources with agencies across the country. Many useful resources the Federal Government produces need power (money) behind them to reach a broader audience.
Victims involved in Identity Theft, Social Security fraud, COVID-19 related fraud, and IRS fraud have additional phone numbers or websites to access and report complaint information. Without one agreed upon database to collect these reports from across agencies, the true impact of cybercrime and online fraud will not be captured. To address part of this issue, the Cyberspace Solarium Commission has recommended a Bureau of Cyber Statistics.[vii] This would be in addition to the current Bureau of Justice Statistics that last reported cybercrime data in 2005.[viii]
Victims of crimes in the United States are trained to call 911 starting from a very young age. Former U.S. Department of Homeland Security Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen spoke of the issue at a summit in 2018, “I occasionally still hear of companies and locals that call 911 when they believe they’ve been under a cyber-attack.”[ix]
3.The Feeling That No One Can Help
Most people understand that cybercriminals are operating from all around the world. Location challenges alone make it difficult to find and prosecute those responsible for losses. Recovering stolen money can prove even more difficult if it was sent to accounts that are closed or shared through untraceable means such as cryptocurrency or gift cards. If recovery is only defined by getting money back, it can seem futile to report or attempt to trace the funds.
What Programs Are Working?
The U.S. lags behind its international partners in addressing the issue of serving individuals and small businesses impacted by cybercrime. Israel, Australia and the UK are examples of countries that provide a one-stop solution for individuals and consumers to call and reach a human who can give them support with reporting and recovering from a cybercrime.
The nonprofit sector is coming to the table with solutions and collaborations to address critical gaps. Information sharing, reporting and recovery resources are coming out of these organizations funded by both public and private sector sources, thus proving the need for all parties to contribute and work together.
The Cyber Threat Alliance (CTA) has brought together leading security companies that have key threat indicators that were previously shared in silos. Under the leadership of Michael Daniel, the CTA works to, “…improve the cybersecurity of our global digital ecosystem by enabling near real-time, high-quality cyber threat information sharing among companies and organizations in the cybersecurity field…”[x] With over thirty-two security companies coming together daily to share threats, CTA is providing a never-before-seen window into the criminal playbooks.
The Cybercrime Support Network (CSN) was founded in 2017 to fill a large gap for victims of cybercrime. In the absence of a federally run national program, CSN created fightcybercrime.org and partnered with federal, state and local governments to share the resources with millions of people in the United States.
In addition to a website where individuals and small businesses can find help with reporting, recovery and reinforcing their security after the fact, CSN also piloted a call-center approach in six states. Utilizing the existing 211 human services referral lines run by United Way organizations, CSN trained Call Specialists to walk victims through the fightcybercrime.org site, and also on how to give guidance to the victims so they could report the crime to the FBI, FTC or other relevant agencies. Over 90% of callers reported being satisfied or very satisfied with the service (as illustrated in Figure 3 below).
CSN was awarded a $1.6M cooperative agreement by the Cybersecurity Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) to develop a State, Local, Tribal and Territorial (SLTT) Reporting and Threat Information Sharing Pilot for cyber incidents impacting consumers and SMBs. The cooperative agreement will produce a feasibility study showing the need for a national program to support individuals and small businesses and share critical information with SLTT partners.
The Identity Theft Resource Center (ITRC) was “…established To Empower And Guide Consumers, Victims, Business And Government To Minimize Risk And Mitigate The Impact Of Identity Compromise And Crime”[xi] with a live agent available to walk victims through the complex and time intensive process of restoring personal credit. The ability to talk to a person who understands the complexities of identity theft and know they are there to help at no cost is a game changer for so many suffering to put their lives back together after being impacted by cybercrime.
What is Needed Moving Forward?
Legislative solutions are needed to address multiple cyber ecosystem problems, and the Cyberspace Solarium Commission is having more success in this space than has been seen at any other time in U.S. cyber history. Twenty-six Solarium recommendations were included in the 2021 NDAA, “…representing the most comprehensive and forward-looking piece of national cybersecurity in the nation’s history.”[xii]
Thanks to the work of the Commission, the potential for more progress to address the plight of cybercrime victims is on the horizon. The Cyberspace Solarium Commission Transition Book[xiii] for the Biden Administration recommends a National Center along with federal funding for nonprofits serving cybercrime victims:
Create Support for Victims of Cybercrime
“The uptick in fraud and other malicious activity during the COVID-19 pandemic has provided an unwelcome reminder that major emergencies present opportunities for criminals to further stress overburdened public services and the American people. The Biden-Harris administration should work with Congress to create institutions that would provide relevant support to victims of cybercrime by creating a National Cybercrime Victim Assistance and Recovery Center, as well as a grants program to fund nonprofits that aid victims of cybercrime.”
Cybercrime is at an all-time high with no end in sight. Comprehensive, distinct, and public facing solutions are critical to make a dent in the economic and emotional damage experienced by everyday consumers and small businesses in the U.S. The issue needs to be spoken about as a crisis, and to be addressed with an “all of community” approach. Government, private sector and NGOs cannot solve this in silos. Education and awareness is not enough, and the time to act is yesterday.
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Accounting Forecasting Techniques and Tips for Small Businesses
There are two techniques used in accounting forecasting: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative forecasting is based on information that can’t be measured. It’s especially important when a company’s just starting out, since there’s a lack of past (historical) data. Quantitative forecasting relies on historical data that can be measured and manipulated. It is best for making short-term forecasts as past trends are more likely to reoccur in the near future than in the long term.
Read on to learn more about these techniques, which ones are best suited to your business and how they’ll help your business adapt to potential problems down the road.
- What Is Forecasting in Accounting?
- What Are the Techniques Used in Forecasting?
- What Is Qualitative Forecasting?
- What Is Quantitative Forecasting?
- What Is the Difference Between a Projection and a Forecast?
What Is Forecasting in Accounting?
Forecasting is an accounting technique that uses data to make estimates about future trends. It’s essential for any business, whether you’re starting out and writing a business plan or you’re an established corporation.
Business owners need to consider forecasts as part of most decision-making processes. Forecasts are commonly used to draw up budgets or to plan for expenses by estimating future demand for products or services.
In fact, forecasting is necessary to cope with all kinds of potential issues from variations in demand to seasonal shifts to changes in the economy, according to the Harvard Business Review. That said, it’s important to know both what forecasting can and can’t do and what techniques best suit your business at this point in time.
What Are the Techniques Used in Forecasting?
There are two types of forecasting methods: qualitative and quantitative. Each type has different uses so it’s important to pick the one that that will help you meet your goals. And understanding all the techniques available will help you select the one that will yield the most useful data for your company.
Choosing a forecasting method depends on the following factors:
- Historical data: if it’s available and/or relevant
- Accuracy desired
- Time period: short term vs. long term forecast
- Cost of forecasting vs. benefit
- Time available: do you need the forecast immediately?
Most importantly, ask yourself: what’s the purpose of this forecast? If you’re writing a business plan, you may only need a gross estimate of the size of the market. Advanced and precise forecasting techniques would be unnecessary. If you’re making a financial forecast to draw up a budget, though, you’ll need much more detailed and accurate data.
The golden rule is to choose the technique that best analyzes the data available.
If one forecasting method works for you and data is acceptably accurate, don’t try a more advanced technique. Sure, you might get even more accurate data, but the information required to run the advanced forecast may be way too expensive to get—or the information might not be available at all.
What Is Qualitative Forecasting?
Qualitative forecasting is based on information that can’t be measured. It’s especially important when a company’s just starting out, since there’s a lack of historical data. Past data may be incorporated in qualitative forecasting, or it may not. Human judgement is key and the challenge is to process this judgement in an unbiased, logical way that results in quantitative estimates.
This forecasting technique is best for long-term forecasts, to forecast new business ventures and forecasts of margins.
Qualitative methods include:
The Delphi Method
If you’re looking for a long-term forecast and don’t mind investing the time and energy, this method delivers. That said, more informal approaches are possible.
This structured approach brings together experts to answer a series of questionnaires, with results from the previous questionnaire determining the content for the next one. A facilitator is involved at each stage.
- For example, a freelance calligrapher wants feedback on branding. She probably won’t have the resources to hire a panel of experts. However, she could post on a LinkedIn group for creatives and ask solicit feedback about her logo, website etc.
To get the best quality feedback, look for online forums that require a professional credential to join and have effective administrators who keep the discussions constructive and focused. Check the credentials and work experience of anyone offering advice.
The staff member(s) with the most expertise on what’s being forecasted take on the task. They use their in-depth knowledge to make predictions.
- For example, the sales department is tasked with making a sales forecast thanks to their intimate knowledge of their customers. In a small business, the owner will likely need to step in.
This is another forecasting method that requires significant time, energy and resources. Information is collected via conversations with present and potential customers about their needs for certain services or goods. Questionnaires, surveys and analysis of variables are all required to produce accurate data. This information then needs to be analyzed while taking into account limitations like the small data set.
This method produces very accurate data for the short (less than three months) to medium term (three months to two years) as it identifies changing customer opinions.
Thankfully, small businesses don’t need to run multiple focus groups or get thousands of people to fill out their survey to effectively do market research.
- For example, a personal trainer may want a better idea of what people look for in a trainer. There are plenty of websites to mine public opinion such as Quora, Reddit and Facebook groups. For example, a trainer could jump on Reddit and analyze any number of subreddits like /r/fitness, /r/bodybuilding or /r/running to get niche (and often candid) information or post questions himself. Once he’s familiar with the group, he can even post a link to a custom survey.
What Is Quantitative Forecasting?
Quantitative forecasting relies on data that can be measured and manipulated. The data is usually from the past. Quantitative (or statistical) forecasting should use data on past sales or performance to evaluate if sales are currently increasing or decreasing or the business is flourishing or stagnating—and exactly how quickly this is happening.
This type of analysis is best for short-term forecasting as making assumptions about the future based on past performance is much more likely to be accurate in the near future.
There are two types of quantitative forecasting:
Time Series Analysis
Time series analysis requires a few years of data on either a specific product or product line in order to get a clear sense of patterns. These types of patterns indicate that they’ll keep happening into the future, or at least this is the assumption.
This method either copies forward the past data into the future without changing it or projects an average of past results. It’s possible to get even more specific with the analysis by separating out trend, cyclical and seasonal components and then forecasting each of them.
- For example, if a plumber wants to forecast profit for April, she could use a three-month moving average. If January, February, and March’s profits were $1000, $2000, and $3000 respectively, she’d add the three months’ profit up ($6000) and divide by three = $2000 profit forecast for April.
- The plumber could also use a weighted average, giving more weight to profit from more recent months, with the decimal points equalling one: $1000(.2), $2000(.3), and $3000(.5) = $2300 profit forecast for April.
These methods take into account other factors which affect your business. This more advanced technique can work farther into the future than time series analysis. It relies on having a large data set—a time series analysis plus market research.
There are a variety of causal methods but regression analysis is the primary method used to analyze cause-and-effect patterns. Regression analysis relates sales to other variables such as competition and the economy.
- For example, a gardening business may want to look at predicted weather patterns over an upcoming season to determine whether their business will be affected positively or negatively.
Regression analysis can be performed using tools such as Excel or business owners may want to invest in more sophisticated statistics software or even hire an expert to perform this task.
What Is the Difference Between a Projection and a Forecast?
The difference between a projection and a forecast is the type of assumption involved. A projection makes certain assumptions and predicts an outcome based on those assumptions. A forecast is based on historical data with the expectation this data will cause certain future events to occur.
A projection won’t tell you if something will happen, it will only tell you what will happen if certain hypothetical assumptions turn out to be true. Forecasts tell businesses what will actually happen.
- For example, a business wants to make a budget for costs. Payroll can be budgeted according to a projection (scenario: we decide to lay off two employees) or a financial forecast (payroll cost $10,000 on average over the last three quarters, so it will cost the same next quarter).
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The National Football League, via NFL Charities, is spreading money around to help fund research into sports concussions. Specifically, the League announced Tuesday that its charitable foundation has awarded almost $1 million to study concussion prevention and treatment.
“These research projects have implications far beyond football, and we are committed to playing a role in helping make sports safer,” said Commissioner Roger Goodell.
One of the recipients was the University of Alabama at Birmingham, which will examine a new compound that might minimize the effects of a concussion.
The UAB team, led by Candace Floyd, Ph.D., associate professor and director of research in the Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, and Hubert Tse, Ph.D., assistant professor in the Department of Microbiology, will study a compound known as a catalytic oxidoreductant, which may dampen the secondary effects of concussions.
In the university’s announcement, Floyd said that when a concussion occurs “the brain suffers mechanical injury at the moment of initial impact, in which brain cells are damaged by the force of the impact. This is followed by a cascade of biochemical injuries, including oxidative stress and an overly aggressive immune response to inflammation in the brain. These secondary injuries are responsible for a large amount of additional cell death.”
The researchers believe the oxidoreductant compound will interrupt that cascade, preventing oxidative stress and shutting off the aggressive and inappropriate immune response.
“A good analogy might be a small forest fire,” Floyd said. “The original concussive impact creates a small fire that by itself only causes minimal damage to the forest. But if the body’s response to that fire is inappropriate and too strong, it fans the flames and causes the fire to burn out of control. We believe our experimental compound will shut off that response, minimizing the damage while allowing the fire to burn out on its own.”
The compound was developed by Hubert Tse and collaborators at Duke University to combat rejection in organ transplantation. Floyd and her colleagues recognized that its ability to reduce the effects of oxidative stress following organ transplant might also be beneficial following injury to the nervous system. A small pilot study on spinal cord injury showed promise, leading to the current concussion study, according to the university.
“Our share of the funding, $100,000 over the next year and a half, will allow us to ascertain the validity of this very promising approach,” Floyd said.
Other recipients included two New York universities and a Manhattan hospital.
In addition, the University of New Hampshire received a grant to “study on football helmet, facemask, and shoulder pad design and implications for acute airway and cardiovascular care in medical emergencies,” while the University of Minnesota, School of Kinesiology, was awarded a grant to study the “effects of multiple sports-related concussions on neurocognition and cerebral vascular function.”
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New insights into the genesis of pyroducts of The Galápagos islands, Ecuador
There has been little research on the genesis and development of pyroducts (or lava tubes) originating from Gala´pagos volcanoes. Pyroducts are responsible for the lateral, post-eruptive transport of lava because they are highly effective as thermal insulators. After eruptions terminate, these conduits often become accessible as caves. In March 2014 the 16th International Symposium on Vulcanospeleology brought a large group of vulcanospeleological specialists to the Islands. During the meeting a number of pyroducts were visited and studied in context on the island of Santa Cruz and around Isabella’s Sierra Negra volcano in the western, most active, part of the Gala´pagos. The longest of the caves, Cueva del Cascajo, about 3 km in length, was partly surveyed and nine other caves were visited. Structural features such as thickness of roof, evidence of downcutting, presence of oxbows, secondary ceilings, lavafalls, collapses and pukas were particularly studied for evidence they reveal about developmental stages of pyroducts. The resulting data show that the pyroducts were formed by "inflation" with the primary roof consisting of uninterrupted paŻhoehoe sheets. No pyroducts were identified that developed by the crusting-over of channels. The studies strongly confirm inferences drawn from other hot-spot related islands, such as Hawai’i.
Copyright (c) 2021 ZRC-SAZU
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors guarantee that the work is their own original creation and does not infringe any statutory or common-law copyright or any proprietary right of any third party. In case of claims by third parties, authors commit their self to defend the interests of the publisher, and shall cover any potential costs.
More in: Submission chapter
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Map of Arabia quadrangle from Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data. The highest elevations are red and the lowest are blue.
The Arabia quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Arabia quadrangle is also referred to as MC-12 (Mars Chart-12).
The quadrangle contains part of the classic area of Mars known as Arabia. It also contains a part of Terra Sabaea and a small part of Meridiani Planum. It lies on the boundary between the young northern plains and the old southern highlands. The quadrangle covers the area from 315° to 360° west longitude and 0° to 30° north latitude.
The surface of the Arabia quadrangle appears to be very old because it has a high density of craters, but it is not near as high in elevation as typical old surfaces. On Mars the oldest areas contain the most craters; the oldest period is called Noachian after the quadrangle Noachis. The Arabia area contains many buttes and ridges. Some believe that during certain climate changes an ice-dust layer was deposited; later, parts were eroded to form buttes. Some outflow channels are found in Arabia, namely Naktong Vallis, Locras Valles, Indus Vallis, Scamander Vallis, and Cusus Valles.
Many places in Arabia are shaped into layers. The layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick. Recent research on these layers by scientists at California Institute of Technology (Caltech) suggest that ancient climate change on Mars caused by regular variation in the planet's tilt, or obliquity may have caused the patterns in the layers. On Earth, similar changes (astronomical forcing) of climate results in ice-age cycles.
A recent study of layers in craters in western Arabia revealed much about the history of the layers. Although the craters in this study are just outside the boundary for the Arabia quadrangle the findings would probably apply to the Arabia quadrangle as well. The thickness of each layer may average less than 4 meters in one crater, but 20 meters in another. The pattern of layers measured in Becquerel crater, suggests that each layer was formed over a period of about 100,000 years. Moreover, every 10 layers were bundled together into larger units. The 10-layer pattern is repeated at least 10 times. So every 10-layer pattern took one-million years to form.
The tilt of the Earth's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees; it is stabilized by the relatively large mass of our moon. In contrast Mars's tilt varies by tens of degrees. When the tilt (or obliquity) is low, the poles are the coldest places on the planet, while the equator is the warmest—as on Earth. This causes gases in the atmosphere, like water and carbon dioxide, to migrate pole ward, where they freeze. When the obliquity is higher, the poles receive more sunlight, causing those materials to migrate away. When carbon dioxide moves from the poles, the atmospheric pressure increases, maybe causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand. Also, with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers. This study of the thickness of layers was done using stereo topographic maps obtained by processing data from the high-resolution camera onboard NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
Recent research leads scientists to believe that some of the craters in Arabia may have held huge lakes. Cassini Crater and Tikonravov Crater probably once were full of water since their rims seem to have been breached by water. Both inflow and outflow channels have been observed on their rims. Each of these lakes would have contained more water than Earth's Lake Baikal, our largest freshwater lake by volume. The watersheds for lakes in Arabia seem to be too small to gather enough water by precipitation alone; therefore it is thought that much of their water came from groundwater.
Another group of researchers proposed groundwater with dissolved minerals came to the surface, in and later around craters, and helped to form layers by adding minerals (especially sulfate) and cementing sediments. Upon close examination, Arabia layers appear to have a slight tilt. This tilt supports formation with the action of a rising water table. A water table generally follows the topography. Since the layers slope slightly down toward the northwest, the layers may have been created by groundwater, rather than a single large sea that has been suggested.
This hypothesis is supported by a groundwater model and by sulfates discovered in a wide area. At first, by examining surface materials with Opportunity Rover, scientists discovered that groundwater had repeatedly risen and deposited sulfates. Later studies with instruments on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed that the same kinds of materials exist in a large area that included Arabia.
Certain areas of Mars show ground that has a much lighter-tone than most other areas. Much of the surface of Mars is dark because of extensive flows of the dark lave rock basalt. Studies with spectroscopes from orbit have shown that many light-toned areas contain hydrated minerals, and/or clay minerals. That means that water was once there in order to produce these substances. In short, light-toned materials are markers for the past presence of water.
Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. Sometimes craters display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface.
Some craters in Arabia are classified as pedestal craters. A pedestal crater is a crater with its ejecta sitting above the surrounding terrain and thereby forming a raised platform. They form when an impact crater ejects material which forms an erosion resistant layer, thus protecting the immediate area from erosion. As a result of this hard covering, the crater and its ejecta become elevated, as erosion removes the softer material beyond the ejecta. Some pedestals have been accurately measured to be hundreds of meters above the surrounding area. This means that hundreds of meters of material were eroded away. Pedestal craters were first observed during the Mariner missions.
Pedestal craters and layers in Tikonravev Crater in Arabia, as seen by Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) with the Mars Orbiter Camera, under the MOC Public Targeting Program. Layers may form from volcanoes, the wind, or by deposition under water. Some researchers believe this crater once held a massive lake.
Drawing shows a later idea of how some pedestal craters form. In this way of thinking, an impacting projectile goes into an ice-rich layer—but no further. Heat and wind from the impact hardens the surface against erosion. This hardening can be accomplished by the melting of ice which produces a salt/mineral solution thereby cementing the surface.
Pedestal crater within Tikonravov Crater, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program
Close view of layers along edge of pedestal crater from previous image, as seen by HiRISE under HiWish program Some dark slope streaks are visible.
Henry Crater Mound, as seen by HiRISE. The scale bar is 500 meters long
Crater in the middle of Cassini, as seen by HiRISE. Layers may have been deposited under water since it is believed that Cassini once held a giant lake.
Masursky Crater Floor, as seen by HiRISE.
HiRISE images showing discovery of a new crater with HiWish program A study of the dark areas around new craters like this revealed that dark patches fade by global atmospheric dust deposition and are more likely to occur at higher-latitude sites, lower-elevation sites, and at sites with smaller central craters. Changing back to the surrounding albedo takes on average 15 martian years.
Layers and dark slope streaks in northeastern edge of Janssen Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Note: this is an enlargement of the previous image of Janssen Crater.
Marth Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter).
Teisserenc de Bort Crater, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter).
Northern wall of Teisserenc de Bort Crater showing dark slope streaks, as seen by CTX camera (on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). Note this is an enlargement of the previous image.
One study with the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer in the Mars Express spacecraft found possible methane in three areas of Mars, one of which was in Arabia. One possible source of methane is from the metabolism of living bacteria. However, a recent study indicates that to match the observations of methane, there must be something that quickly destroys the gas, otherwise it would be spread all through the atmosphere instead of being concentrated in just a few locations. There may be something in the soil that oxidizes the gas before it has a chance to spread. If this is so, that same chemical would destroy organic compounds, thus life would be very difficult on Mars.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed deformation bands in Capen Crater, located in the Arabia quadrangle. Deformation bands are small faults with very small displacements. They often proceed large faults. They develop in porous rocks, like sandstone. They can restrict and/or change the flow of fluids like water and oil. They are common in the Colorado Plateau. Good examples form in the Entrada Sandstone in the San Rafael Swell in Utah. The bands represent failure by localized frictional sliding. The bands on Mars are a few meters wide and up to a few kilometers long. They are caused by the compression or stretching of underground layers. Erosion of overlying layers make them visible at the surface. Capen Crater was unnamed before the discovery of deformation bands. It was named for Charles Capen, who studied Mars at JPL's Table Mountain Observatory in California and at Lowell Observatory in Arizona.
Recent studies, reported in the journal Icarus, have suggested that the area underwent several phases in its formation:
- A large basin, maybe from an impact, was produced early in Martian history. It was so early that Mars still had a magnetic field generated by movements in a liquid core. Present day Arabia possesses a remnant magnetism from that ancient era.
- Sediments flowed into the basin. Water entered the basin.
- Because Tharsis, on the other side of Mars, became so massive, the area around Arabia was pushed out. As it bulged upward, there was increased erosion which exposed old layers. When portions of a planet that can be subject to erosion rise, there is greatly increased erosion; Earth's Grand Canyon became very deep because it was eroded into a high plateau.
- Over the following 4 billion years, the area was modified by various geological processes. Central peaks and ejecta shapes indicate that parts of Arabia are still water enriched.
Streaks are common on Mars. They occur on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first. They get lighter with age. Sometimes they start in a tiny spot, then spread out and go for hundreds of meters. They have been seen to travel around obstacles, like boulders. It is believed that they are avalanches of bright dust that expose a darker underlying layer. However, several ideas have been advanced to explain them. Some involve water or even the growth of organisms. Streaks appear in areas covered with dust. Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust. Fine dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything. We know a lot about this dust because the solar panels of the Mars Rovers get covered with dust, thus reducing the electrical energy. The power of the Rovers has been restored many times by the wind, in the form of dust devils, cleaning the panels and boosting the power. So, we know that dust settles from the atmosphere then returns over and over. Dust storms are frequent, especially when the spring season begins in the southern hemisphere. At that time, Mars is 40% closer to the sun. The orbit of Mars is much more elliptical then the Earth's. That is the difference between the farthest point from the sun and the closest point to the sun is very great for Mars, but only a slight amount for the Earth. Also, every few years, the entire planet is engulfed in global dust storms. When NASA's Mariner 9 craft arrived there, nothing could be seen through the dust storm. Other global dust storms have also been observed, since that time.
Research, published in January 2012 in Icarus, found that dark streaks were initiated by airblasts from meteorites traveling at supersonic speeds. The team of scientists was led by Kaylan Burleigh, an undergraduate at the University of Arizona. After counting some 65,000 dark streaks around the impact site of a group of 5 new craters, patterns emerged. The number of streaks was greatest closer to the impact site. So, the impact somehow probably caused the streaks. Also, the distribution of the streaks formed a pattern with two wings extending from the impact site. The curved wings resembled scimitars, curved knives. This pattern suggests that an interaction of airblasts from the group of meteorites shook dust loose enough to start dust avalanches that formed the many dark streaks. At first it was thought that the shaking of the ground from the impact caused the dust avalanches, but if that was the case the dark streaks would have been arranged symmetrically around the impacts, rather than being concentrated into curved shapes.
Dark slope streaks near the top of a pedestal crater, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program
Linear ridge networks
Linear ridge networks are found in various places on Mars in and around craters. Ridges often appear as mostly straight segments that intersect in a lattice-like manner. They are hundreds of meters long, tens of meters high, and several meters wide. It is thought that impacts created fractures in the surface, these fractures later acted as channels for fluids. Fluids cemented the structures. With the passage of time, surrounding material was eroded away, thereby leaving hard ridges behind. Since the ridges occur in locations with clay, these formations could serve as a marker for clay which requires water for its formation. Water here could have supported past life in these locations. Clay may also preserve fossils or other traces of past life.
Other landscape features in Arabia quadrangle
Naktong Vallis, as seen by HiRISE.
Indus Vallis, as seen by HiRISE.
Surface cracks, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program Ice-rich ground will produce cracks. Cracks will eventually get larger and larger as ice in the ground leaves due to the process of sublimation (phase transition) in the thin atmosphere of Mars.
Other Mars quadrangles
Interactive Mars map
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia_quadrangle
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549436321.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20170728022449-20170728042449-00661.warc.gz
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en
| 0.901991 | 5,351 | 3.484375 | 3 |
- Methyl propargyl ether
- Methyl 2-propynyl ether
- Prop-2-yn-1-yl methyl ether
Registry Numbers and Inventories.
16 26 36/37/39
Boiling point, °C
Vapor pressure, mmHg
187 (25 C)
0.83 g/ml (20 C)
Solubility in water
1.4098 (20 C)
Heat of vaporization
Heat of combustion
Hazards and Protection.
Keep tightly closed. Keep away from heat, sparks, and open flame. Store at 2-8 C
Wear appropriate government approved respirator, chemical-resistant gloves, safety goggles, other protective clothing.
Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Make no contact with the spilled material. ELIMINATE all ignition sources and ground all equipment. Stop leak if you can do it without risk. A vapor suppressing foam may be used to reduce vapors. Absorb or cover with dry earth, sand or other non-combustible material and transfer to containers. Use clean non-sparking tools to collect absorbed material.
Oxidizing agents, Strong acids.
Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide.
Extinguish using Carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder, or appropriate foam. Unsuitable: Water may be effective for cooling, but may not effect extinguishment. Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and protective clothing to prevent contact
HIGHLY FLAMMABLE: Will be easily ignited by heat, sparks or flames.
Vapors may form explosive mixtures with air. Vapors may travel to source of ignition and flash back. Most vapors are heavier than air. They will spread along ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks). Vapor explosion hazard indoors, outdoors or in sewers.
Fire may produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases.
Irritant. Irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin.
May cause irritation or burns.
Seek medical assistance.
Move victim to fresh air. Apply artificial respiration if victim is not breathing. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash skin with soap and water. Flush with running water for at least 20 minutes
Flush with running water for at least 20 minutes.
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<urn:uuid:83647246-a59e-4ab2-afe0-15e11e8a898f>
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CC-MAIN-2017-17
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http://www.chemicaldictionary.org/dic/3/3-Methoxy-1-propyne_561.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917122865.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031202-00363-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.749327 | 502 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Water, today a precious and strategic resource, has long been present in towns and cities in the form of rivers and canals, lakes and fountains. A presence giving rise to works of architecture and public spaces… to watermills and bridges, to reservoirs and aqueducts, to pools and fountains, to supply systems and distribution networks. Water is also intimately linked to parks and gardens, the inspiration for landscaping and an entire architecture that highlights its presence (waterfalls, grottos, ponds, etc.)
Many towns are also linked directly to the shores of seas, oceans and large lakes, giving rise to a variety of architecture associated with leisure resorts and maritime activities (quays, warehouses, dockyards and slipways).
Today, growing ecological awareness and the fight against waste has placed water back on the agenda. Towns are opening up old canals that had been filled in and, more generally, architecture and landscape projects include requirements in favour of recycling water.
The 2017 EUROPEAN PRIZE will reward architecture, urban projects, and developments closely linked to water and its uses. This could, for example, be the highlighting of existing or new constructions (mills, reservoirs, dockyards, warehouses, engineering works), the creation of new neighbourhoods or improvements in which water is a notable feature, the reopening of urban canals and improvement of quaysides and banks, or exemplary and original projects for recovering and reusing rainwater and runoff water.
A special prize will be awarded to one or several imaginative projects on the theme of "water and the landscape, architecture and the town." The scale, subject, programme and location of these projects is for each participant to decide.
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<urn:uuid:0877f49e-cef7-42cd-9831-4460c265d7e6>
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CC-MAIN-2019-35
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http://www.rotthierprize.be/index.php/en/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027320734.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20190824105853-20190824131853-00070.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.955977 | 347 | 2.921875 | 3 |
There has been a long-standing argument between microformats and the Semantic Web. Many developers, and to some degree, search engines have preferred microformats because they are easy to use and to understand. Microformats are widely deployed because of this. However, there is simply no way to combine microformats on a single page. This is the Achilles heel of microformats; sooner or later someone wishes to use more than one (or a few if they play together particularly nicely) at a time and can't do it.
RDF is harder to understand (although an experiment in Germany showed that fifth graders could easily be taught RDF. It is adults who have already learned other ways to think who have trouble.) RDF is a completely general solution to the problems that microformats solve. RDF's raison d'être is to allow for the combination of data from multiple people (e.g. developers and search engines, or multiple relational databases or as an interchange format between proprietary system). RDF can represent any type of data, and combines easily with other RDF.
The argument between microformats and RDF can thus be thought of as an argument between short-term pragmatism and long-term planning. Those who want to solve a specific problem now use microformats. Those who want to solve more general problems in the future use RDF.
The presumption in the Semantic Web community is that the best (perhaps the only) way to combine microformats is either RDF or something very much like it. Further, people have been expressing needs to combine the use of multiple microformats on Web pages for about five years.
Microsoft is aware of the Semantic Web and, in fact, was an early supporter of the RDF standards at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). They even paid for some marketing; proof may be found here.
Unfortunately for those interested in open standards, Microsoft decided that Netscape's (remember Netscape??) use of RDF in their portal was threatening, so they decided to reinvent RDF internally as a proprietary technology. Microsoft's internal version of RDF has appeared in their file system, Sharepoint and other products. That's the way this story simply must play out: Use RDF or reinvent it.
Yahoo was the first search engine to support RDFa (RDF in Web pages), followed by Google. Both supported particular vocabularies of RDFa, which is the same as saying 'microformats encoded in RDF' and therefore along the lines of my earlier comments.
The new schema.org announcement is a partnership between "Google, Bing and Yahoo" or "Google, Microsoft and Yahoo" depending where you look. Since Microsoft bought Bing and Yahoo has licensed Bing for its search services, schema.org is really between Google and Microsoft.
So, I read schema.org as an attempt (actually, a further attempt) by Microsoft to reduce the impact of RDF and Semantic Web techniques on the search business specifically and their larger business in general. Time will tell whether that will work. History suggests that it will partially work by changing the places RDF is seen as threatening to big business. Another similar area to watch will be RDF and Linked Data's threat to the Data Warehousing market (a $10 billion market in 2010). That fight will be primarily between standards and Oracle.
Michael Hausenblas at DERI released Schema.org in RDF while I was writing this. Well done to Michael and his colleagues. As Michael said, "We're sorry for the delay". Awesome.
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<urn:uuid:1ffeb53f-1e71-4993-83cc-c204aa41075a>
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CC-MAIN-2017-30
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http://prototypo.blogspot.com/2011/06/schemaorg-and-semantic-web.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549423764.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20170721082219-20170721102219-00287.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.956608 | 750 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Who says pizza can’t be healthy? It hits all the major food groups: dairy, protein, wheat and vegetables, without having to sacrifice a comfortable meal. Don’t believe us? Here are just a few health benefits that go along with eating pizza.
Unless you go to a specialty pizzeria or a food festival, you’re not likely to find many fried pizzas around. Most fried fast foods contain high levels of saturated and trans fats. This is one of the main components in fast food that makes it both addicting and destructive to your body. Going the route of eating a slice of pizza over french fries or fried chicken is the healthier option.
Highly processed foods are known for being lower in nutritional value, as they focus on an increase of fats and calories instead. However, a local pizza place, like Stan’s Pizza Joint, will serve up pizzas that are loaded with fresh ingredients that haven’t spent weeks or months in a freezer.
If you’re trying to increase your vegetable intake, then load up your pizza with nutrition-packed high fibre greens that are sure to help you reach your daily requirements. Tomatoes for example, the main ingredient in most pizza recipes, contain Lycopene. This is a powerful antioxidant that’s been linked to lowering the levels of certain cancers.
Tomatoes also help in improving heart and blood vessels, strengthen bones and repair skin. Cooked tomatoes are even better, as they’re easier for the body to absorb and contain higher levels of Lycopene.
Whatever beneficial effect specific vegetables have on the human body will, in turn, benefit you with each one you add to your pizza. The vitamin C in onions can help to regulate blood sugar and blood pressure. Mushrooms contain potassium, necessary to keep your central nervous system functional. The vitamin E and monounsaturated fat in olives helps to prevent cell damage and increase good cholesterol. The list goes on, but the point is that a pizza is only as healthy as the ingredients you put into it.
Both cheese and tomato sauce are good sources of calcium, especially when combined on a pizza. On average, one slice cut from a 14-inch pizza can contain up to 220 mg of calcium. Since the average person needs about 1,000 mg of calcium per day, just down five slices of pizza and you’re good to go! Adding other calcium-rich foods like spinach, broccoli or seafood will increase your intake even more. As calcium is needed to help strengthen your bones and keep your nerves and muscles functioning well, you might consider this option if you need a bit of help in those departments.
At Stan’s Pizza Joint, located in Burnaby, BC, we serve only the finest and freshest ingredients for our customers. We are best known for our homemade customized pizza and pasta dishes. With great service and even better prices, stop by any day of the week and we’ll soothe your food cravings.
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<urn:uuid:482d6c4d-750a-4002-abd8-ee31956d2a51>
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CC-MAIN-2020-45
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https://stanspizzajoint.com/what-are-the-health-benefits-of-pizza/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107863364.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20201019145901-20201019175901-00260.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.935555 | 615 | 2.625 | 3 |
Remember, remember the 5th of November – but do you remember what you can and cannot burn on Guy Fawkes night?
We all love creating bonfires every year on 5th November, but when burning waste and materials, it’s crucial to know the effects it can have on the environment. For example, treated wood, rubber and plastics can cause pollution and harm our environment.
We’ve come up with 5 key points to remember when creating bonfires:
- 1: Create your bonfire in a secure location.
Often, people will dump illegal waste on other people’s bonfires, therefore it’s important to prevent unauthorised access to your bonfire. Be aware of who’s wanted and who’s not.
- 2: Know where your bonfire material has come from.
Make sure that you know where your bonfire has come from, and if anyone else is bringing materials make sure that they are aware as well.
- 3: Know what materials you CAN and CAN’T burn.
Items you can’t burn include:
- Treated wood,
- Tyres and,
- General household rubbish.
- 4: Don’t build the bonfire any earlier than it needs to be built.
Animals may build homes within bonfires that are built early – as a result when you light your bonfire they are most likely be killed. You shouldn’t build bonfires any earlier than they need to be built to prevent this from happening. If you plan to use a pile of wood for your bonfire, check it thoroughly before use as Dormice hide and nest within these piles.
- 5: Make yourself aware of the consequences for illegally managing waste.
By understanding the consequences of illegally managing waste you’ll realise how serious it really is. Offenders face a fine of up to £50,000! Stop notices that prevent events from happening can be issued by the Environment Agency if they suspect illegal waste is being burnt.
- 6: Keep an eye out for any suspicious activities!
The gov.uk website has requested that “If anyone sees any suspicious activities they should contact us on 0800 807060 or report it anonymously to Crimestoppers.”
Suspicious activities can include people you don’t recognise adding to your bonfire and people looking in your bonfire.
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<urn:uuid:f3f103a3-b024-4339-8648-91d765304e4c>
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CC-MAIN-2022-33
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https://www.riskbriefing.co.uk/6-tips-know-shouldnt-burnt-bonfire-night/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571959.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20220813142020-20220813172020-00478.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.919858 | 513 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Posted on March 8, 2018, by Starlett Massey
In recent years, the focus on gender equality in the workplace has increased. The awareness is taking place across governments and industries globally, and the issue has been brought to the forefront through movements, studies, and conversations about gender gaps in the labor force. This includes the legal profession, and now, the conversation is impacted further by the effect the pandemic has had on the workplace, families, and women.
A positive development has been underway in recent years in the legal field with regard to job equality. The number of women lawyers has increased over the past 10 years to approximately 37% of total lawyers, up about six percentage points from ten years ago, according to the American Bar Association (ABA). The number of women enrolled in law school is also increasing. In fact, since 2016, women have outnumbered men in law schools.
The ABA tracks statistics for law students and lawyers. By the numbers, there is a positive trend with more women entering law, but when you investigate further, you see that more needs to be done. While there are more women lawyers, the percentage of women promoted to partner remains low compared to men.
Studies indicate that only about a quarter of women are partners and even fewer minority women become partners. The ABA’s Commission on Women in the Profession aims to educate, advocate for, and promote women in law. Many large firms also have women’s initiatives to promote the advancement and retention of women in law.
The conclusion — women are gaining but still have a long road ahead. Unfortunately, more women than men also leave the legal profession during their careers.
Surveys on why women lawyers leave the legal field have found the reasons are similar to why women leave other professions. The ABA reports three main reasons:
Women face more pressure to maintain a work-life balance when they have a family. A higher percentage of women are responsible for performing and arranging childcare than men. Women lawyers also cite the burnout and stress of work-life imbalance as challenges leading to their exit from the profession.
Other women face sexual harassment and discrimination. Sexual harassment in the legal field is vastly under-reported, and it is difficult to provide data on this topic. However, most women attorneys will report that the majority of their female colleagues have suffered sexual harassment in the performance of their jobs. Sexual discrimination is similarly difficult to track based upon the studies presently in existence. However, it too is rife in the legal profession and can be in the form of missed opportunities as they are passed over for career-elevating projects, which leads to being passed over for promotions. Remuneration can be discouraging as ABA findings show male partners continue to make more money at a faster rate than women partners. Women who are also minorities are displaced by a lack of workplace equality, diversity, and inclusion, and the added pressure of systemic gendered racism.
When COVID-19 concerns in the U.S. increased in March of 2020, job losses began to mount, resulting in millions of jobs lost. When schools and daycare centers closed or transitioned to virtual environments, women were more likely to be the family member responsible for caring for the children. According to a report by The Century Foundation and Center for American, mothers leaving the labor force or reducing work hours to assume caretaking responsibilities amounts to $64.5 billion per year in lost wages and economic activity.
As the pandemic threat declines, vaccinations increase, and the economy recovers, women are becoming employed again, but the report finds that it is not at the same rate as men. For the women who were able to keep their jobs, telecommuting created obstacles. Women lawyers, for example, felt their professional relationships suffered because they lost the opportunity to meet in person with clients, colleagues, and networks. They juggled technology issues and virtual client meetings while also helping children learn from home or dealing with the lessened availability of childcare.
Women are making progress in the legal field, and they are gaining elsewhere, too. Women are making notable advancements, for example, in the medical, accounting, and certified financial planning professions. The more awareness, support, and attention organizations like the ABA and firms place on advancing and retaining women in the legal profession, the more progress everyone will make.
Looking for a real estate, business law, or corporate law attorney? Need better value and results? There is an alternative to the traditional law firm.
Discover the difference — Massey Law Group.
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<urn:uuid:2818a947-66f6-4f7f-9e0a-16999732f29c>
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CC-MAIN-2022-49
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https://www.masseylawgrouppa.com/are-women-lawyers-making-strides-for-equality-in-the-legal-profession/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710926.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20221203075717-20221203105717-00122.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.975574 | 921 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Three Canadian editors were fired due to a social media backlash because they dared to defend white authors who created characters from minority or indigenous backgrounds. The essay went on to say, ”Critics of cultural appropriation insist they are opposed not to engagement but to racism.” They want to make sure that marginalized cultures speak for themselves.
Granted, Western history has taught us that the people in power do not always treat nor write about minorities justly. Over time, civil disobedience and deliberate consciousness raising has lead to more just societies. The great Civil Rights Movement of the fifties and sixties greatly inspired by the leadership and sacrifice of Martin Luther King and many others, black and white, who suffered beatings and jail for equal treatment under the law for all citizens helped to make the United States a country with equal opportunity for all. Singing, “We Shall Overcome” encouraged those who fought. The song did not make the change. People did.
Sometimes literature, music and the visual arts help to solidify and preserve more just societies. These aspects of culture cross ethnic boundaries reaching up and down, side to side. This phenomenon is not unique to any one culture or ethnic group. Historically, every tribe, nation or country recognized and appreciated the contributions of the other. Sometimes they adapt or adopt pieces of music, art or literature. “Silent Night” is sung in every native language in the world. William Shakespeare’s works have been translated into every major language. Super titles make it possible for opera audiences to listen to great music written in the original language, but read and understood by audiences everywhere.
Having lived through and participated in the Civil Rights movement in this country, I remind all educated young African Americans to review “EYES on the PRIZE”. Ask your grand parents to tell you about “the good old days”. They put their lives on the line for desegregation and equality under the law. Do not isolate yourselves. Contribute what your education gave you to make humankind more humane; use your creative talents, as Henry Wadsworth Longfellow said, “… to strengthen and support the rest.” We all need each other.
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<urn:uuid:d9ff6954-1a1d-4256-8384-4073ff9cb6c9>
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CC-MAIN-2017-51
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https://theresemarlin.wordpress.com/2017/06/16/people-need-people/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948599549.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20171218005540-20171218031540-00595.warc.gz
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en
| 0.952435 | 449 | 3.640625 | 4 |
by Prasad Ganti
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi stated boldly on August 15, 2018 that India will have one of its citizens in space by August 15, 2022 when India celebrates its 75th independence day. Sounds very much like President Kennedy’s declaration way back in 1961 of landing an American on the moon before the end of the decade. After a string of Indian space achievements over the last few decades, it sounds very plausible for this goal to be met. Just like American manned moon landing in 1969.
If achieved, India will be the fourth country in the world to do so, behind US, Russia and China. Understandably, other space achievers like Japan, Israel or European Union have not sent people into space. Not because of any failures. But it needs some extension of the non-human space missions and technologies to get there. The thinking is that automated space missions or the usage of robots can help in studying space. No need to risk human lives. Along with the bragging rights, manned space flight does result in development of technologies which can help a developing nation like India. Humans can still add value in space, which robots and automation may not be able to accomplish unaided.
There are more risks involved in a manned space flight than an unmanned one. The possibility of a loss of an unmanned space vehicle is only a financial risk. But the loss of human lives under the glaring headlights of the international media can attract a lot of flak. The first complexity of a manned space flight is the requirement of a life support system aboard the spacecraft. Living quarters, maintenance of an environment with pressured breathing air, drinking water, and food. Since only limited quantities of air and water can be carried into space, there is a need to recycle these elements. At present time, food is not recycled or grown in large quantities in space.
Some of the components and technologies do exist and some are in development. The crew module, which is shaped like a cone with its pointed top chopped off, is attached to a cylindrical shaped service module which contains the equipment for supplying air and water and the recyclers. The air consists of oxygen and nitrogen. The carbon dioxide is scrubbed using lithium absorbers, to remove the lethal gas from the environment.
The launch vehicle called GSLV Mark III (Geostationary Space Launch Vehicle) is already in use. The service module will be jettisoned before the crew module re-enters the earth’s atmosphere. The protection of the space capsule with heat absorbing tiles during the fiery re-entry and the subsequent slowing down using a parachute and the splashdown into the water has been tested before.
The emergency crew ejection system is being built and tested. In case of a disaster during the launch, the system ejects the crew to safety. The training of the crew to use the equipment and to live in the weightlessness of the space for a week, will be conducted in other countries.
The spacecraft itself would be called “Gaganyaan” which means a sky vehicle. And astronauts to be christened as “Vyomanauts” where “Vyoma” means space in Sanskrit. I also heard the term “Gaganauts”.
A billion dollar price tag for a week long human space odyssey may not sound much. But this goal is not set in the atmosphere of a cold war with unlimited budgets. It is set by a developing country where poverty still exists and prioritizing space over eliminating hunger does attract serious questions. Justifiably so. But it will be a giant technological leap for India. Paving the way for future plans like setting up a laboratory or a workshop in space or a base on the moon. Only sky is the limit.
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<urn:uuid:3f681dd3-7441-45cb-856f-01863abf4fed>
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CC-MAIN-2020-45
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https://princetonastronomy.com/2018/12/03/indias-space-ambitions/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107898499.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20201028103215-20201028133215-00605.warc.gz
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en
| 0.937574 | 773 | 3.625 | 4 |
- BC Games
Studying the science of farming
by Adrian MacNair
A bounty of bursting blueberries and red raspberries were plucked in earnest from the displays by visitors at the Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre open house on Saturday.
The displays of the Fraser Valley's luscious fruit is the product of 126 years of scientific research into perfecting farming techniques in the mild and moist climate so famous for producing B.C.'s fruits and veggies.
Hundreds of people pored over the laboratories, greenhouses, and fields that make up the 310 hectares of one of Canada's 19 research centres dedicated to agriculture and food production.
In one display, visitors were encouraged to look through powerful microscopes at the parasites that afflict fruit crops, with a biologist on hand to explain how farmers deal with the pests.
Tom Forge, a root system microbiologist, said these parasites attach themselves to the roots of raspberries, reducing the yield in each subsequent year until the entire crop has to be removed and replanted.
Although in the past farmers have relied on chemical warfare to deal with these issues, scientists here are looking at alter-natives.
"One of the things we're research-ing other than fumigants is using different manures, composts, and organic soils," he said.
That research is part of the Integrated Pest Management program, which is bundled with soil, water, and air quality management into Environmental Health, a national science program within Agri-Food Canada.
A second national science program Agassiz tackles is Sustainable Production Systems, which looks at developing systems of crops (such as the varieties of blueberries and raspberries on display) and livestock production that are environmentally sustainable.
The entire scientific branch here can be classified as peri-urban agriculture — essentially studying the impact of outlying urban areas on farming — according to Dr. Sankaran KrishnaRaj, director of operations since April 2011.
KrishnaRaj said the centre focuses on research important to growers associations — whether it be chemical, physical or biological — to compete in a global marketplace.
This year KrishnaRaj decided to coincide its open house with another food event, the Slow Food Agassiz Cycle Tour, in which cyclists visit a 25-kilometre circuit of local farms.
"It attracts not only the common people interested in the slow food cycle tour but also how the production of food works," he said, adding some people are surprised at the size and scope of the centre.
"Sometimes when they see us they are surprised we've been here 125 years and they didn't even know it."
Agassiz's research centre was one of five original Dominion Experimental Farms established in Canada in 1886, which began by experimenting with varieties of cereal grains, corn, root crops and potatoes.
Some of the most popular wheat growing techniques and 40 per cent of the raspberry varieties found on supermarket shelves were developed in Agassiz, said KrishnaRaj.
There are 22 research professionals and 21 technicians working on site, many on the cutting edge of agri-food research. Dr. Dave Gillespie won the 2011 Gold Harvest Award from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada for his breakthroughs in biological control agents.
As well as laboratories, greenhouses, and field crops, the centre hosts a poultry research facility, feedmill, insect rearing rooms, arboretum, a weather station that's been in operation since 1889, and a heritage barn from 1893.
For more information on Agassiz's Agri-Food research centre, visit www.agr.gc.ca.
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CC-MAIN-2014-15
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http://www.agassizharrisonobserver.com/news/164771676.html
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en
| 0.946966 | 744 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Summer will soon be over and before you know it, it’s time for early alarm clocks and to get the children onto that school bus. After weeks of fun, kids may have difficulty making the back-to-school transition especially with their sleep schedule. It doesn’t happen overnight and you can expect them to complain. But the earlier you get them into the routine of going to bed earlier, the better they’ll be ready for school. Here are some ways to help you get the kids back on track on healthy sleeping habits.
- Allow two weeks or more before the first day of school for change. Objective is to gradually get your child to fall asleep earlier so that waking up earlier in the morning comes more naturally. You can choose a start date and slowly adjust their sleeping schedule by increments. For example, if your child is used to staying up until 10 PM during the summer and needs to get back to 8 PM, you’d want to have him go to bed an hour earlier every night for a few days. Then try inching bedtime for another half an hour earlier for a few more days until they’re finally going to bed at the same as the regular school schedule.
- Limit screen time. Discourage television, video game and other electronic distractions at least half an hour before bedtime. Electronic amusements can stimulate the brain which makes sleeping difficult. Also, the glow from the screen, or the blue light can affect production of melatonin or the so-called “sleep hormone”.
- Practice “quiet time”. Before bedtime, have a relaxing routine to allow your child to unwind, which can include a bath, or a bed-time story. Also, try to have your child wind down his evening activities so that there’s ample time for him to fall asleep.
- Get back to healthy eating. Summer likely means sugary snacks, which isn’t very conducive to sleep. Cut back on the sugar, big meals, caffeine and sodas that may be stealing their sleep. Take a good look at what they’re eating and make changes in their diet. For instance, avoid any caffeinated drinks six hours before bedtime as this makes sleeping difficult. You can also start integrating healthier items into their snacks and meals.
- Redo their room. Take a look at your child’s bedroom and see if it promotes a good night sleep. Is it calm and peaceful? Is it too warm or too cold? How you design their sleeping environment plays a big part in sleep hygiene. Your child’s room should also be clean and free of clutter. Experts agree that mess and disorganization not only distracts your kid (“I wasn’t able to put away my toys!”) but also triggers a more excitatory sensory input, slowing their transition to sleep.
- Dark is best. Create a sleeping environment for your child that is dark and peaceful. The absence of light sends a critical signal to the body that it is time to rest. Most children might want to have some light in their bedroom at night because of fears of the dark or to make their way more comfortable to the bathroom, then it’s best to use a nightlight with a red bulb. Red light that has been shown less disruptive to sleep than others.
- Set a good example and be consistent. When it comes to your kids, role-modeling is everything. Be the role model and establish good sleeping habits. Reinforce it with all members of the family and once you start changing your bedtime routine, don’t skip days. Stick with it until your kids are used to the change.
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Playing relaxing video games can make people happier and kinder, according to two new studies conducted by researchers at Ohio State University (OSU).
“The results were clear: relaxing video games made people kinder and less aggressive,” states Brad Bushman, professor of communication and psychology at OSU and co-author of the studies.
What the results revealed was that players of relaxing games game their opponents more money and demonstrated more pro-social behavior than players of violent or even neutral video games. Further, relaxing game players indicated they felt more happiness, joy, love and other positive emotions that those playing violent games.
“Relaxing video games put people in a good mood,” Bushman explains. “And when people are in a good mood, they are more inclined to help others and that’s better for everyone.”
Many previous studies have explored the effects of violent video games. Bushman himself has conducted studies demonstrating the negative effects of violent video games, particularly on teens and young people. These are the first studies exploring the impact of relaxing video games.
“Until recently, we couldn’t tell if relaxing video games improved people’s moods, because such games didn’t exist,” Bushman noted. “most video games try to rev people up rather than calm them done. But there’s a new genre of games available that provide a calming experience.”
One of those new genre of games is Nintendo’s Endless Ocean Blue World which is available for the Wii and Nintendo DSi console systems.
“In Endless Ocean: Blue World, we created an extraordinarily vast ocean and incorporated lost of events, ” explains Hotoshi Yamagami, Producer, Endless Ocean Blue World. “For that reason, we gave [players] a story as a guide. We wanted to make it so that, as they progress through the story, they’ll gain hints to various secrets that lurk in the sea before they’re even aware of it. Then, they’ll be able to enjoy an even deeper story, a ‘ques’, and collect things and raise things and advance wherever their fancy takes them, and as they do it, they’ll naturally enjoy everything this ocean has to offer.”
Bushman conducted the studies with Jodi Whitaker, a doctoral student in communication at Ohio State and the lead author of the study. The study, which incorporates two field studies, appears online in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science and will be published in a future print edition.
“With all the evidence about the dangers of violent video games, it’s good to know that game players can choose games that will provide a positive experience,” said Bushman.
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The killing of a healthy giraffe at Copenhagen’s zoo this week illustrates the ethical dilemmas within breeding programmes.
The story [February 2014] attracted international interest. Requests to save Marius were considered and rejected.
The zoo found that its breeding programme had produced too many giraffe births. Marius, a two year old healthy male was judged less genetically valuable than others. Breeding from Marius would have put the gene pool at risk through in breeding. So Marius was culled. His fate was to become post-Mortem a specimen for scientific research and a food source for carnivores at the zoo.
Protests followed. Animal interest groups argued the broader issue. Zoos, for all their claims of being in the animal conservation business, were deeply unethical. Marius was treated as an undesirable end product of its business processes.
Stine Jensen, from Denmark’s Organisation Against the Suffering of Animals, said the situation should not have occurred. ” I can’t believe it. We offered to save his life. Zoos need to change the way they do business.”
Robert Krijuff Director of a Dutch wildlife park said “It just shows that the zoo is in fact not the ethical institution that it wants to portray itself as being, because here you have a waste product – that being Marius. Here we have a zoo which thinks that putting this giraffe down instead of thinking of alternatives is the best option.”
Not so, the zoo retorted through a spokesperson.
Bengt Holst, scientific director at the Danish zoo, defended Marius’s destruction, saying that giraffes had to be selected to ensure the best genes were passed down to ensure the animal’s long-term survival.
He told the BBC it was a responsible practice on the part of zoos to manage their animal populations to ensure they remained healthy, with some 20-30 animals put down at Copenhagen Zoo in a typical year.
“Giraffes today breed very well, and when they do you have to choose and make sure the ones you keep are the ones with the best genes,” Mr Holst told the BBC.
He said all zoos had been considered and there was no place for Marius – including at Yorkshire where, he said, any space should be reserved for a genetically more important giraffe. The campaign to save him, he said, had gone “much too far”.
The story has alerted the media to the dilemma of caring for animals in conservation endeavors. Within days of the demise of Marius, six lions were culled in an English zoo ‘for safety reasons’.
Life is messy
The broad issue is that of keeping animals in captivity in the interests of preserving their species existence. The selfish gene is not a silent gene. Yet there are other motives of a more commercial consideration in play. Just as in the health ‘industry’ the institutions deal with a mix of commercial, personal and professional interests.
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Native Americans left out of economic recovery, as alwaysJune 11 2012
Up until the past few weeks, there had been a lot of hoopla about a blossoming economic recovery. Job creation for the early part of the year had been averaging 200,000 a month. (Keep in mind, though, that responsible economists maintain that 345,000 jobs per month are needed for at least two years to get back to even five percent unemployment - and the latest numbers for May show only 69,000 jobs created.)
Indian America, looking at the historical record, would have found little reason to rejoice at the so-called "good economic news." Why? Because historically, economic recovery, as a national news pundit recently said, "is growth for white America, but there will still be three times the unemployment rate for blacks and Hispanics."
But that statistic can look good, considering that the Native American unemployment rate would be 10x greater than the white jobless rate. Indeed, as is well known in Native circles, on reservations across the nation the unemployment for Native Americans routinely ranges from 80-90 percent - and this has been the economic situation for generations. For urban Native Americans, the jobless rate averages around 48 percent. In general, Indian Country is in a permanent depression even when the national economy is on the upswing.
But once again it seems the economy was just having another false start, as in the last couple of years, and now appears at the edge of falling off the economic cliff. I cannot but take wry satisfaction in a failing recovery, a recovery that bypasses Native American misery.
The above quoted statistics of Native unemployment are years old because reservations in particular and urban Native Americans in general, incredibly, have been purposely excluded from government employment data since 2005. To cite a not atypical example, South Dakota has nine reservations, with unemployment ranging from a "low" of 12 percent on one smaller reservation to 89 percent on the largest reservation. These figures were last compiled in 2005. South Dakota's overall unemployment rate is 4.7 percent, exclusive of reservations.
Native American joblessness is so high, it is off the charts. It is so staggering and is not compiled because to do so would be an additional stunning moral indictment of U.S. government treatment of Native Americans.
The last absurd excuse given by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for not collecting American Indian employment data was that there was no money in the government budget for such compilation.
This government attitude is highlighted by the fact that as far back as 1990, in statistical tables from the U.S. Bureau of Census that contained information on American Indians, African Americans, Asian Americans and others, the category "American Indian unemployed" contained, instead of numbers, the letters MD=Missing Data. No other population had such a classification. Again, this was a shocking, clumsy attempt to hide astronomical unemployment.
The position of the Obama administration to combat joblessness in American Indian communities and others of color is that an economic recovery will uplift all the jobless; a strong, robust economy will translate into jobs for all. This simply will not work due to the institutional racism endemic in American society. The very disturbing question is who always gets the lion's share of the jobs even when the economy is on the upswing? Whites have always received a disproportionate share of jobs.
To cite an example of who does not get the jobs: In early March, the mainstream media was touting apparent job gains, but noted that Latinos were being bypassed. The national jobless rate dropped to about 8.1 percent, but the Latino unemployment rate remained at 10.6 percent. The white jobless rate dropped to 7.9 percent. Incredibly, the media posed the question: Why the disparity? - and remarked that economists and labor experts also weren't sure.
More absurdity: the 'experts' subsequently stated they simply didn't know. Whites have always gotten the lion's share of employment. Without massive employment programs for communities of color, this will continue. After all, white Americans have for over 200 years had their own special "jobs programs" - racism. Communities of color, in particular those of Native Americans, need affirmative action jobs programs; otherwise, "economic recovery" will do little to remedy Native American joblessness.
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Published in War is a Crime
Over the last two years, more than half of the states have enacted legislation aimed at protecting the privacy of high school students. A Student Privacy Pledge has attracted the support of 200 companies in the business of providing online services to students in America's classrooms. The White House, too, has proposed a Student Digital Privacy Act, modeled after California's stringent Student Online Personal Information Protection Act, (SOPIPA), that was passed in 2014 and went into effect in 2016.
Meanwhile, the military, the nation's most egregious violator of student privacy rights, gets a pass.
Several elements are common to most of these laws, according to Jules Polonetsky and Brenda Leong of the Future of Privacy Forum. They summarize the new laws regulating school-based digital data collectors:
[Data collectors] are barred from selling student information, delivering targeted advertising to students, or changing privacy policies without notice and choice. They must use data for authorized educational uses only, support requirements for parental access to data, and delete data when required.
If a school promotes an online product and requires or encourages students to use it, then it has responsibility for making sure the tool complies with many of these new privacy laws.
Like yearbook and ring companies that sell student information to the highest bidder, DOD recruiters and civilian employees routinely pass sensitive information about underage students to the Joint Advertising and Marketing Research Systems (JAMRS), a DOD program. JAMRS subcontracts the massive, Orwellian database of approximately 30 million youth, ages 16-25, to the data goliath Equifax.
On a scale that dwarfs corporate competitors, the DOD delivers targeted advertising to students. It changes privacy policies without notice or choice to consumers. (The recent changes to USMEPCOM Regulation 601-4 concerning the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, ASVAB, provide an example.) The military does not use the data it collects for educational purposes, and it works against providing for parental consent or access to data. Furthermore, the military retains data collected on students long after laws demand their destruction.
While proposing the Student Digital Privacy Act last year, President Obama forcefully declared, "data collected on students in the classroom should only be used for educational purposes -- to teach our children, not to market to our children." However, the president's proposal leaves the DOD alone.
The framework of the President's proposal is taken from the California law:
Operators may not collect information that is descriptive of a student or otherwise identifies a student, including, but not limited to, information in the student's educational record or email, first and last name, home address, telephone number, email address, or other information that allows physical or online contact. discipline records, test results, special education data, juvenile dependency records, grades, evaluations, criminal records, medical records, health records, social security number, biometric information, disabilities, socioeconomic information, food purchases, political affiliations, religious information, text messages, documents, student identifiers, search activity, photos, voice recordings, or geolocation information.
The DOD collects most of this through the ASVAB enlistment test alone. More than a thousand schools require students to take the test. Overall, 650,000 high school kids take the test in 12,000 schools.
Minnesota, New Jersey, Colorado, New Mexico, and Mississippi, allow students to take the ASVAB as an alternative end-of-year assessment. Kentucky and Missouri encourage students to take the ASVAB to be considered "Career Ready." These policies provide a treasure trove of unregulated data for the Pentagon, all without parental consent. On the other end of the spectrum, Hawaii, Maryland, and New Hampshire do not allow results from the ASVAB to be used for recruiting purposes.
Federal law says military recruiters may request the names, addresses, and numbers of students for direct marketing purposes, an act prohibited in all the new privacy laws. The law, however, allows parents to request that their child's name not be forwarded to the Pentagon. Maryland is the only state that has a law requiring an "opt-out" form to be placed on the mandatory emergency contact card, leading most parents to remove their child's information from lists being sent to recruiters. The new data privacy laws fail to address this obvious invasion of privacy in the 49 states that are reluctant to check this military overreach.
The military has multiple avenues of data flowing into its databases. High school guidance offices and career centers encourage students to visit the websites of each of the military branches, reserves, and Guard units. They all collect volumes of personally identifiable data. Schools also promote the following websites, and they often provide instruction in navigating a host of military or military-supported sites like: www.todaysmilitary.com, www.ecybermission.com, www.march2success.com, www.armystrongstories.com, www.military.com, www.asvabprogram.com , www.march2success.com , and www.myfuture.com .
Unwary students are prompted to click on military links to Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter where newly formed units of recruiters in recruiting companies across the country spend countless hours trolling these sources to assemble a virtual portrait of children before first contact.
(Note: You can view every article as one long page if you sign up as an Advocate Member, or higher).
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In a democracy ‘Fascism’ can be fought by insistence on ‘Rule of law’ and by music and humour
In this third and concluding part of her essay on Fascism, Sonali Ranade discusses how Fascism can be resisted in a democracy
Fascism is a self-perpetuating pathology that feeds on itself. Once it gains power in a democracy, it so disrupts and defeats the checks and balances that are essential to keep power in check, that it crushes all dissent, making any opposition to its ideology impossible. In time the only competition for power comes from within the fascists; and here demagoguery ensures that power eventually goes to the most extreme in the group, until the ugliest wins.
The first two parts of the essay can be read here:
This implies that, as fascism takes hold in a democracy, the pathology cannot be reversed. On the other hand, right wing populism, which is fascism adapted to an electoral democracy, remains dependent on periodic elections, to legitimise its rule. Howsoever, attenuated, this reliance for legitimacy on popular support of people, opens up some space for forces within such a democracy to rein in and defeat fascism. Whereupon, fascism either graduates to a totalitarian regimen based on a personality cult, or reverts to some sort of electoral democracy, where space for contestation between fascists and democrats exists.
We have seen such attenuated democracies play out in Latin America. It is therefore well worth our while to examine how these work, and how regimes change under such a system, to understand how fascism can be defeated before it graduates to totalitarianism.
WHY FASCISM AND HOW IT WORKS
Let us begin with a recap of the argument so far from parts I & II:
- The philosophical basis of fascism lies in its basic anthropological assumption that man is intrinsically evil. The only way to keep this evil in check is constant supervision, and a continuous application of force where necessary.
This is in direct contrast to the liberal assumption that man is not evil by nature. Rather he is a rational being, in pursuit of self-interest, and can be deterred from evil by the self-realisation, that his evil would invite similar evil from others, making all worse off than before.
2. A person’s identity is determined and defined by making a distinction between his friends and enemies, on the basis of a political antagonism, strong enough to motivate him to kill his enemies or be killed by them. This antagonism is defined by a group collectively, and binds everybody. The friend is a public friend, and the enemy is a public enemy. There is nothing in between. An enemy is never a friend. The two categories are mutually exclusive.
The liberal position in contrast puts the individual at the center of the polity, free from any collectively defined, and publicly binding, friend-enemy binary. Instead, the individual is free to choose her associations and friends. There is no public enemy. Her obligations to society are defined by law. Once these are met, her freedom is guaranteed by a state, subject only to the freedom of other individuals.
3. The prevailing political imperative, creates an enemy, who has an external, and an internal dimension. In case the enemy is also internally present in significant numbers, his or her suppression and marginalisation takes priority over all else. The internal enemy is an existential threat. There can be peace with him/her, but no inclusion. He must be isolated and confined in a panopticon to ensure peace.
4. The antagonism that defines the friend-enemy paradigm need not be constant. A new antagonism can be adopted to create another combination of friend and enemy. Thus, fascists can seamlessly switch from hatred of say Muslims one day, to hatred of Dalits next. However, only one antagonism prevails at a time, in order not to confuse the polity, and to keep its energy focused.
5. The marginalisation of the enemy proceeds along all dimensions, personal, social, economic and political. Every stratagem that serves to mark the enemy, confine him into a panopticon, deny him resources and limit his access to power, is justified and brought into use.
This does not entail legislative changes unless absolutely necessary. Fascism is operationalised by low-level muscle, & militias or “senas”, who dutifully interpret and operationalise dog whistles from the top leadership.
The whole apparatus is immersed in a 24/7 continuously running propaganda script, and defines the enemy, paints him negatively, magnifies the threat he poses, and justifies every action against him as the highest good for a patriotic citizen.
CULTURE OF CEASELESS PROPAGANDA
“The practice of untouchability, cruel as it was- the broom tied to the waist, the pot hung around the neck- was the performative, ritualistic end of the practice of caste. The real violence of the caste was the denial of entitlement: to land, to wealth, to knowledge, to equal opportunity.”
― Arundhati Roy, Annihilation of Caste
Our own history offers numerous examples of such immersive scripts used to marginalise the defeated and the broken - like Dalits, mentioned by Roy in the above quote. The point to note is that this propaganda script is so immersive and pervasive that it becomes part of the culture.
The purpose of such marginalisation of the internal enemy is to deny him resources for growth as Arundhati Roy so eloquently explains. Denial of lebensraum is accomplished by restricting access to education, jobs, mates, living spaces, land; or whatever can be denied, including liberty, as in Assam.
If that sounds outlandish, consider the Hathras rape or the Shah Bano cases to see how foot soldiers of the fascist forces close ranks among upper castes or Hindus, over atrocities to protect their own, or to contain damage, and are able to progressively pull in resources of the State, when necessary. All this happens at ground level, while the top leadership connives and keeps mum, confining itself to inane pro forma statements for public consumption at best.
This point is crucial. Coercion under fascism is privatised and violence is no longer a state monopoly. Lower-level foot soldiers - private ‘senas’ under various names - actually, and visibly, share state’s monopoly over coercive violence, and use it to effectively bend other citizens to their will, in blatant violation of the law.
Nevertheless, the State actively connives and colludes with such extra-legal privatised violence, through fascist control over police and the administration. A private citizen is simply crushed and bludgeoned into submission by such a combination of fascist forces arrayed against him. The net effect is, that the State can go on claiming the fiction of rule of law at some macro level aggregate, while the reality at ground level is that personal liberty of dissenting individuals simply doesn’t exist.
As another example of such privatised violence, consider how counter-mobilisation by dissenting individuals is squelched.
Here we have two singers from Ghazipur, UP, doing nothing more than composing and singing songs such as “Ek the Hitler, Ek the Jhootler”, nothing incendiary, to make Dalits aware of the web of injustice in which they find themselves snared. Many of them are so wretchedly ensnared that they are not even conscious of how the system works against them. However, the fascist foot-soldiers - all upper caste men - combine to destroy the singers’ home, and to send them into hiding, and while shutting down their enterprise. All this happens while the law and the media look on. The cops do nothing to prevent such incidents.
While the State doesn’t budge to protect free speech, an example is made of the singers, and every other dissenter learns what happens to those who don’t fall in line. This is how fascism actually works: low level, extra-legal violence, used selectively against dissenters, by private militias empowered by active patronage from the top. Any plan to fight fascism must take into account such privatised violence by the fascists.
This then is the actual anatomy of the fascist state - its privatised capacity for violence against dissent, empowered by the state’s connivance, and active collusion where necessary.
In passing, we may note here that BJP/RSS have long had this capacity for privatised violence from RSS’ inception in 1925. In fact, the organisation was born with the object of creating such a capacity for the Hindu Maha Sabha. However, it never had the backing of the state for its various private ‘senas’. But now RSS/BJP are effectively, and visibly the state. In riots, we have seen militia members of such organisations actually patrol streets along with the police, using firearms. So, the private militias now are but an extension of the State; though outside the legal constraints that apply to such forces.
WHAT IS FASCISM’S GOAL?
As we saw in Part II of this essay, this coercive apparatus is extensively deployed against individuals, as well as political opponents, to squelch opposition, in order to maintain an unjust and unequal society, which otherwise could not exist due to counter-mobilisation by those oppressed.
Furthermore, the need for creating and maintaining an unequal society flows from the imperative of trying to maintain an exalted and elevated status for elites in an economy, where the overall cake is stagnant, or not growing as required.
Elites compare their living standards with those of elites in other advanced nations, and not in relation to the average earnings of a domestic citizen. So, if the President of the United States of America has two Boeing Jumbo jets for travel, and an office-cum-residence in the center of Washington DC, so must our local Big Chief.
This comparative opulence sets standards from top to bottom. But given the overall paucity of resources, such opulence at the top can only come from depriving those at the bottom. So, the fascists create a whole national level apparatus for mulching the powerless at the bottom of the social and economic pyramid, to maintain the opulence of those at the top, and sell this oppressive apparatus as “nationalism” and “patriotism” for the greater glory of the state, behind whose facade, they hide their own greed and extravagance.
No fascist model, whether like those in the many countries of Latin America, or South African Apartheid, or that of Germany under Hitler, has been any different. The most obvious and blatant example of using fascism to maintain an unequal society was Apartheid in South Africa. We know how it was done using an extensive police state to squelch dissent, and curb resistance from those oppressed. We know how that created economic stagnation, and made it worse, as the oppression killed all enterprise. At the end, the whole apparatus had to be dismantled, but not before a long night of murder and mayhem that lasted some 50 years.
In our own case, just maintaining the inequality, and injustice, intrinsic to the caste system, has debilitated our society for thousands of years; opening it to various invasions for which we paid a heavy price. Today our civilisational state, the sacred land of Vedas, lies in nine separate pieces, all riddled with irreconcilable mutual antagonisms. And yet, here we are repeating the same mistakes of trying to contain the natural aspirations of those at the bottom of the pyramid, with an oppressive fascist model of governance. Who can accuse us of having learned anything from our 2500 years of history?
THREE THINGS THAT SUSTAIN FASCISM
Our brief review of the actual mechanics with which a fascist state tries to oppress those at the bottom of the pyramid, and contain their natural aspirations for equal opportunity and progress, shows the model has three essential processes that need to be disrupted in order to fight back fascism in an electoral democracy.
First, consider the propaganda script that keeps those already converted to the fascist cause, loyal to it. This propaganda often appears nonsensical, even trivial, to those not aware of its vital purpose.
For example, we all know the nonsense about super-natural powers attributed to cow-dung etc. Yet the Sanghis persist with it. Why?
The reason is that RSS has a core constituency of believers who actually subscribe to such superstitions. Their faith must be validated. And the main purpose of such propaganda is to validate the nonsense by using the authority of the state, backed up by dubious “scientific research” sponsored by the State. This not only keeps the faithful in utter bliss, but also provides validation and purpose to the bone-headed muscle-men, that make up the ubiquitous militias that enforce the fascist writ, through sharing state’s monopoly over violence.
FIGHTING FASCISM WITH HUMOUR
The case for fighting this kind of propaganda is often relegated to the dustbin. The propaganda’s utter nonsensical value, the sheer disbelief regarding its rational utility makes us ignore it as unworthy of contestation.
This is a myth we need to fight because this part of the fascist apparatus is a vital cog in the overall machinery. It is easy to debunk, the case for debunking it with humour, mockery and irony is very strong, and one can be very persuasive. The fascist hate comedians take up this vital task. We need to encourage more comedians, give them better and more persuasive platforms, and protect them from privatised fascist muscle. Where the law itself jumps in, such comedians must be defended against persecution.
This is absolutely vital. Not because it will cause the faithful to lose faith; not even because it will prevent new recruits from joining the ranks of fascists; but because this helps dispel the general doom and gloom, and atmosphere of fear and hopelessness that fascists generate, to cow down people, and to make them incapable of resistance even in thought. Nothing deflates the con of a fascists more than robust mockery in public.
As long as the man on the street knows there are many others on the street like him who know the fascist propaganda is bunk, it empowers him to resist bullies. In fact, humour, mockery, ballads and songs are the key weapons to deploy against fascism because they empower and raise the morale of the oppressed. Fascists use visible violence to depress the morale of the oppressed. Humour counters this by not only building morale, but by rendering use of violence by fascist counter-productive. Humour is an overlooked weapon in the armoury of liberals against fascism.
Next only to maintaining morale, in the face of constant attrition by reason, rule of law is the biggest hurdle that fascists face in enforcing their writ through private militias.
The problems that fascists face are formidable. The foot-soldiers are of low quality, questionable commitment, and are either mercenaries or criminals who live by predation on others. No doubt they are led at higher levels by more ideologically committed and better educated leaders, but these too tend to be predatory in attitudes, and mercenary in outlook. Purely ideologically driven leadership, who understand the farce fascism is but still support it in public for power, come in only at the party’s senior levels - say district leaders and above.
That being so, it becomes very important to protect such goons from the law enforcement authorities, especially when the latter cannot be suborned. Fascists therefore spend considerable time, energy and resources in insulating their foot-soldiers from the vagaries of the law.
RULE OF LAW AND RULE BY LAW
This is a vulnerability that can be exploited by law-abiding citizens by insisting on rule of law. While a vigilant press helps in such cases, the fact is the press is poorly equipped to understand and highlight issues, especially at ground level, where public opinion directly impacts the families of various players, making them uniquely susceptible to pressure of public opinion. If your daughter is going to face a social boycott at school, for what you do as cop, you are doubly careful in what you say and do.
For this you need enormous amount of money, and a battery of lawyers and activists, who are willing to spend time fighting court cases and providing factual material to press & others regarding fascist atrocities.
Fascists have tried their utmost to squeeze funding of such activists, be they Teesta Setalvad or independent activists in the field.
We need to restore funding for such activities in a decentralised manner, but with verifiable audit trails. The best way to do so would be to crowd fund a central corpus, in a trust managed by an impeccable group of eminent liberals, and public intellectuals.
This fund can then be made available to local chapters of such a body, organised and constituted in every state where they are needed. The funds can be used to pay for lawyers and other legal expenses in defending comedians, other victims, or making sure than goons are properly prosecuted. The fund can also be used for legal intervention in matters of public interest in courts.
The key here is crowd-funding at regular intervals, local leadership, and manning at state/district levels, through a committed cadre of legal professionals prepared to fight deserving cases pro bono.
The fascists have a very limited number of high-quality lumpen leaders, and these are used repeatedly to organise their “campaigns,” legal or not. These people need to be documented, their case histories maintained in a central data base, and their activities monitored by activists. Given proper information, the activities of such leaders should be disrupted by every legal device available, including litigation in multiple courts across cases.
The devil is in the detail. While we have no dearth of people who sound off against fascism, what is needed is dedicated people willing to get down with detail and effective execution. Rule of law is actually waging a war by legal means against fascists at every level from Thana to the SC. Crowd funding is key. So is the selection of the panel to head the trust and manage its affairs. We shouldn’t rule out multiple trusts once one gets going.
CRAFTING A MORE POWERFUL NARATIVE
The biggest challenge that fascists face is in reconciling the lofty rhetoric of national glory that they assiduously create and cultivate, with actual performance on the ground, that people can see and experience.
Fascists spend considerable resources and effort in designing their rhetoric of greater national glory in terms where they cannot be pinned down to metrics. Their claims are usually tall, and are made without a context that enables reasoned comparison. Every effort is made to keep the rhetoric emotive to bypass reason.
Fascist rhetoric is a very carefully constructed emotive cocktail, not easy to disrupt unless you know the key to its disruption. For the most part present day politicians have still not found the language to disrupt such a narrative. But it is not that difficult if you approach the problem logically avoiding the emotive traps.
First of all, fascists can never deliver on actual performance. Their very ideology limits individual initiative, enterprise and risk taking. Their rhetoric must reward collectives, and the nation for success, not individuals who actually innovate and change, in order to induce change around them. The lack of political & economic freedoms spells doom for creativity and innovation, limiting growth. This is especially true in a knowledge driven economy that now obtains.
There is still a residual notion in India that a state can create global champions by concentrating resources on two or three favoured tycoons to enable them to scale up. This largely comes from a misunderstanding of the Japanese, South Korean and the Chinese models of growth.
Be it the Chaebols, the MITI promoted Toyotas or the Deng backed entrepreneurs like Jack Ma, the States there did not choose champions like Modi has done. Instead, it threw all of them into the international pool, asking them to compete with global players. The winners in this competition were then backed by state capital to grow internationally in order to scale up, while keeping key design & technology at home in order to create high value jobs and maintain control.
Modi has chosen his cronies using some unknown alchemy, and decided to favour them in the domestic market, while protecting them from overseas competition through high tariff walls. That is the exact reverse of the Chaebol process, where the State backs champions who prove their competitiveness in the international arena first, albeit at a modest scale, and are then helped to scale up and grow.
Secondly, while knowledge economy is the future, and our technology companies have already proved they are internationally competitive over a 30-year cycle, Modi has chosen brick and motor, smoke-stack industries to back at home, rather than the knowledge economy. Not only that, Modi is taxing the most competitive parts of the economy - the technology exporters who are internationally competitive - and giving away these resources to sunset smoke stacks in power, airports, roads, refineries, and telecoms. This is the reverse of what one should be doing.
But then these wrong choices flow out of the ruling elites desire to preserve privilege, rather than venture out and earn more. So quite naturally, they are less bothered about being internationally competitive, and more concerned with establishing local dominance through monopolies.
Given this brief overview on fascist compulsion to follow a sub-optimal growth strategy, the gulf between lofty rhetoric and actual performance can only widen with time.
However, to exploit this Achilles’ heel of fascists, you need a deft idiom that is both emotive, but also compels thought on the part of those hooked emotively. The diminishing rate of economic growth has a number of drastic fallouts at lower levels of the social and income pyramids that is squeezed in two ways.
Firstly, the aggregate growth is lower, creating fewer jobs and other income generating opportunities, for those at the bottom. The second is a more than proportionate reduction in such opportunities for the weak, as the bulk of the benefit from any growth are appropriated by those at the top of the pyramid. Recall fascism exists only to facilitate such transfer of wealth and privilege from the bottom half of the pyramid to the upper half.
This fallout can be concretised into two or more specific factors of which I will consider only two.
Firstly, job opportunities at the lowest level of the pyramid shrink rapidly. The effect at the margin is like the visible parched land at the edges of a lake in summer. The margins show the shrinkage with vivid clarity, and this creates huge emotional turmoil at lower levels of the income pyramid. For a sensitive politician, this is something fairy easy to channel as a mass movement because those who experience joblessness for a prolonged period of time will not listen to the empty rhetoric of national glory.
The second most emotive fallout of shrinking opportunities at the bottom is impact on the future of children. As education gets rationed at the bottom, job opportunities shrink, and capital with the lower middle class gets eroded; even as cost of education spirals up, and anxiety about the future of children grows exponentially.
Children’s future drives parental energy; more so in India where they are the social security of aged parents. In furtherance of the fascist project, the future of children of those in the lower half of the income pyramid has to shrink. This then becomes the second prong of the counter-struggle against fascism. Mind, the motivation for this also stems from a direct experience with shrinking opportunities, and is therefore immune to the fascist greater national glory rhetoric.
Combine these two, and you have one of the most potent, emotionally driven, platforms to counter fascists. However, this should not be made an all-out leftist program because leftist ideas are intellectually bankrupt when it comes to growing the national cake, rather than sharing it equitably.
So, you need to take these two factors and combine it with a similar slogan to that of fascists but with a twist: which is why can’t we compete globally?
What do we innately lack that we should be afraid of global competition? The reason is crony capitalism, and a clever politician can make mincemeat out of the fascist’s penchant for crony capitalism; their bread and butter.
In the quest for global competitiveness, you capture the fascist greater national glory argument and rhetoric; and turn it against them in light of poor performance caused via globally uncompetitive firms created by crony capitalist. Thus, you hang the fascist on their own petard.
NEW IDIOM IN NEW CONTEXT
So that’s the formula in brief:
- We are not doing well, there are no jobs, the future of our children is bleak, we must change.
- Our performance is weak because nepotism, preference to privilege and crony capitalism militate against true merit.
- Let us build a better, globally competitive India, that is merit driven and where the poor have equal opportunity, starting from schools, to college, to jobs and starting a business.
By building on such a narrative, backed by active field work, fascism can still be defeated, both in terms of ideology, and facts on ground.
Those are three axes along which the fascist malignancy must be fought:
- RIDICULE & MOCK THEIR FAKERY
- INSIST ON DEFENDING RULE OF LAW & RULE BY LAW
- CREATE AN ALTERNATIVE, “GREATER, MORE GLORIOUS INDIA” WHERE THE CHAMPIONS ARE GLOBALLY COMPETITIVE FIRMS IN KNOWLEDGE BASED INDUSTRIES AND NOT SMOKESTACKS SET UP BY CRONY CAPITALISTS IN SUNSET INDUSTRIES
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What's the difference between Actual Tons and Grain Equivalents?
Both Actual Tons and Grain Equivalents are expressed in Metric Tons. The measurement in Actual Tons corresponds to the registered Metric Tons of food delivered. Cereal-derived commodities can also be measured in grain equivalents, which is the Metric Tons of grains necessary to produce the given amount of cereal-derived commodity. Grain Equivalents of the commodities derived from cereals come from their MT weight converted in GE by using a conversion factor specific per each commodity. For example, the tonnage of wheat flour is multiplied by 1.37 to derive the grain equivalent tonnage.
I find commodities that seem to be included within other commodities, are they?
The items Cereal and Non cereal are the only commodity aggregates. No other item in the list of commodities includes any others. This is due to the data entry process: commodities delivered are registered according to the highest available degree of detail. For example, “Dried fruits” does not include “Dried fruits dates” or “Dried fruits raisins”.
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In recent years, various forms of alternative dispute resolution have gained popularity. ADR is widely seen as a less costly way of resolving disputes than going to court.
Good ADR programs provide a less adversarial forum for resolving disputes than litigation. Examples include:
- Open-door policy: Employees can present their problems to their own or any supervisor for resolution. For this to work properly, supervisors must be trained in how to handle their complaints.
- Ombudsman: Disputes are submitted to a neutral third party following an in-house investigation.
- Peer review: Disputes are submitted to a panel of co-workers trained in ADR techniques. The panel discusses the problem and suggests creative, nonpunitive resolutions.
- Mediation: Disputes are submitted to a neutral mediator for nonbinding resolution. The mediator’s goal is to move the two parties closer together and work toward a resolution. The mediator may sugge...(register to read more)
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Uses of American Beech:
Largest amounts of beech go into flooring, furniture, handles, veneer, woodenware, containers, cooperage, and laundry appliances. When treated, it is suitable for railway ties.
Beech varies in color from nearly white sapwood to reddish-brown heartwood in some trees. Sometimes there is no clear line of demarcation between heartwood and sapwood. Sapwood may be from 3 to 5 inches thick. The wood has little figure and is of close, uniform texture. It has no characteristic taste or odor.
Only one species of beech, American beech, is native to the United States. It grows in the eastern one-third of the United States and adjacent Canadian provinces.
The wood of beech is classified as heavy (44lbs./cu.ft), hard, strong, high in resistance to shock, and highly suitable for steam bending. Beech shrinks substantially and therefore requires careful drying. It machines smoothly, is an excellent wood for turning, wears well, and is rather easily treated with preservatives. Easy to stain, paint or bleach.
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Last December, when physician Victor Heitor Gomes became health director for Rafard, a municipality 150 km northwest of São Paulo, he knew he had a challenge ahead.
The only clinic in the town of 9,000 had been through hard times: heavy rains in mid-November caused part of a meeting room wall to collapse and a month later more rain flooded parts of the building, including the surgery room and common areas.
The problems forced the clinic to relocate some services to other rooms - and repairing the meter-long hole in the meeting room wall had to be put on hold because of ongoing rain in the Brazilian summer.
Harsher rains and increasingly scorching temperatures have made life tough for doctors in other ways as well, Gomes said.
"They're changing the seasonality of certain diseases. You don't expect to see dengue in the winter, but it's getting more common now," he said.
Extreme weather, like the floods that ravaged the Maria Tereza Apprilante Gimenez Basic Healthcare Unit in Rafard, are increasingly a threat throughout the region as climate change takes hold - and are creating an additional burden for health workers struggling to battle the coronavirus pandemic.
According to the Pan American Health Organization, almost 70% of the 18,000 hospitals in Latin America and the Caribbean are located in areas highly vulnerable to floods, major earthquakes or hurricanes.
Inundation is the most common threat. Nearly 550 floods hit the region in the two decades between 2000 and 2019, affecting over 40 million people and causing almost $26 billion in damages, according to a 2020 report from the U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA).
Brazil is the most flood-prone country in Latin America, the report said.
The storms that hit Rafard are a worry as well for nearby São Paulo, the largest city in Brazil and in South America.
Concrete-filled urban areas act as "heat islands" that absorb and then slowly release the sun's heat, making them hotter than surrounding rural areas.
In cities like São Paulo, that extra heat combines with humidity arriving from the nearby Atlantic Ocean to create heavier rain, said Tércio Ambrizzi, an atmospheric scientist at the University of São Paulo.
"The heat lifts and condenses the humidity, making it rain," often more intensely than might happen elsewhere, said the scientist, who co-authored a 2020 study on changing rain patterns in metropolitan São Paulo between 1930 and 2019.
Using data from the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology, researchers found that heavy rain is becoming more concentrated in shorter periods, while dry spells stretch longer.
The changes have been particularly noticeable over the last decade, they said.
In 2014, Sao Paulo's hottest summer in seven decades, water reservoirs for the city dropped below 20% capacity, in the city's biggest water crisis on record and a serious threat for healthcare facilities.
Extremely heavy rainfall events - the kind that can trigger disasters - similarly nearly doubled in the last decade compared to 1971-1980, researchers found.
The extremes are most apparent in Brazil's southern and southeast regions, and are a particular problem for heavily populated cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre, which are highly vulnerable to floods and landslides in part because of poor urban planning, Ambrizzi said.
Eduardo Trani, Sao Paulo state's environment sub-secretary, said his office is aware of the challenges.
A 2009 law passed by the state established policy to curb greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate threats, including an effort to map climate risks in all the state's 645 municipalities.
Almost 250 have been completed so far.
"The mapping is fine-grained to the scale of neighborhoods, so that local city halls can study precautionary measures to take against floods and landslides," Trani said.
What the results so far have found is that basic healthcare units, particularly in the São Paulo metro area, often lie in flood-prone areas or are surrounded by them.
That can be addressed in part by infrastructure changes, such as building floodwalls around hospitals and relocating vulnerable ventilation, heating and air-conditioning systems to higher ground, resilience experts say.
Having backup power sources - including solar panels or other renewable energy - also can keep hospitals functioning when broader power systems go down in extreme weather.
Mariana Silva, a infrastructure and sustainable finance specialist at the Inter-American Development Bank, said building resilience also is a matter of planning for decades ahead.
"If a hospital is to be built in a place which is highly prone to disasters, we must ask ourselves what can we change in its engineering. You'd be surprised how small changes can make a project resilient," she said.
Shifting designs can add to costs - but ignoring the risks will cost more, she said.
"Making those changes costs extra money - but now Latin American governments know climate change is not a matter of 'if' but 'when'," she said.
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1. Visitor’s Center—Constructed in 2013, this building is dedicated to the memory of Al Leighton. The Visitor’s Center houses the Grady Machine Shop from the home of Chester Grady in Belfast, Maine. The Visitor’s Center is also the home of our Lombard Log Hauler—the only known licensed steam-powered log hauler running today!
2. Museum Store—Purchase a special item from local artists. Snacks, water, and bug spray available!
3. The Shingle Mill—Watch how shingles were made!
4. 1920’s Saw Mill Complex—The rotary sawmill and shingle mill were built by Hackett and Witham, donated by the Ray Harvile Family.
5. Covered Bridge—Bridges were not covered to protect the traveler, but rather to protect the timbers and planking of the bridge itself and to keep water out of thejoints. Covered bridges were also believed to have the effect of tricking horses and oxen into thinking they were entering a barn, which kept them from panicking at the sight of rushing water. Our bridge is patterned after Ithiel Town’s “lattice truss” developed in 1819. His bridges, made from short lengths of cross-timber, achieved tremendous bearing power. Key adventages of this design were its strength, mechanical simplicity, and the fact that it could be built from any timber of relatively small size.
6. Caretaker’s Cabin—Private residence and independent off grid home for the caretaker.
7. Grounds of Civil War Encampment— During our annual events, Living History Days, Civil War reenactors visit!
8. 1790’s Flag—The original Stars and Stripes was amended to 15 stars when Vermont and Kentucky joined the Union.
9. Water Hand Pump—Quench your thirst with our working water pump!
10. Smokehouses—The first commercial alewife historic cold-smokehouse replica of an 1840’s smokehouse. Visit during our Bradley Alewife Festival and try some smoked snacks!
11. Settler’s Cabin—The first concerns of settlers was shelter, and an entire family would live in this size dwelling.
12. Trapper’s Cabin—Trapping began with native peoples out of necessity, and turned into a source of trade and profit. Trappers cabins were erected as “short term shelters”, in various locations along a trapper’s route (or “line” or “circuit”). They provided shelter from the night and weather, a pallet (“cot” or platform) on which to sleep off the floor or ground, and usually a rudimentary “hearth” on which to build a small fire for heat and light cooking (such as making coffee). They were used only sporadically during the trapping season, and occupants may also have included trappers other than the owner.
13. Fishway—This type of ladder is called a pool and weir system. Alewives were believed to be present prior to European settlement. Come see the alewives run during our annual festival in May!
14. Mill Dam—This site was chosen because of the narrow ledge and small drop to provide the mill with power.
15. Batteau—A batteau (plural “batteaux”) is a wooden riverboat used to move people and supplies down river during log drives. Batteaux had flat bottoms, flared sides, and long, narrow bows and sterns. This design provided drivers a stable platform to work from, and allowed a batteau to be precisely maneuvered in challenging whitewater. Most commonly, six men operated a batteau. Four men rowed, and the bowman and the sternsman guided the batteau. The sternsman was normally the crew foreman.
Batteaux were the “utility trucks” of the Eighteenth Century, and allowed travel and the transport of goods into areas where no roads existed. General George Washington and his troops crossed the Delaware River in Batteaux , and the ill-fated Arnold Expedition, led by General Benedict Arnold, used batteaux to move their troops and supplies up the Kennebec River on the way to Quebec.
16. Garden—Traditional gardens were planted with seeds Early Settler’s brought with them. We plant a Three Sisters garden: squash, beans, and corn.
17. Early Settler’s House—This house was built using what is known as the “post and beam” type of architecture. It is characterized by wooden supports being cut to to precisely fit with other wooden supports. Once in place, these interlocking beams are then linked with a wooden peg. Relatively few nails are used in this style, which was important because settlers did not have easy access to nails. The wooden floor, paned windows, and separate sleeping area upstairs, are improvements from the living conditions found in a log cabin. Much of the household’s time was spent making or repairing clothing, and sewing and textile production were major activities for females, young and older.
18. Nature Trail—Trail Head. Follow the Blue Dots down Mrs. White’s Trail (White Trail) for a 45-minute hike.
19. Hovel—A hovel is a temporary barn used to house oxen or horses while lumber workers operated in the woods. In Maine, most hovels were build of logs, and roofed with shakes. While draft animals were the chief tenants of hovels, people would sometimes stay in them as well. Some settlers lived in their hovels until they were able to build a cabin.
20. The Blacksmith Shop—The smithy was the heart of many logging villages used to create and repaired tools needed for living. Join us for classes throughout the year!
21. Bean Hole Beans—Our beans made by our Bean Master cook in hot coals underground for 24 hours. Try them at our events!
22. Water-powered Sawmill—Water powered saw-mills were the heart of many Maine towns from the 1700’s until the present. The saw mill at Leonard’s Mills consists of five elements:
23. Mill Pond & Sluice Way —One of the most important features of the water mill, water retained in the pond represents the potential energy for the mill. Then the water travels down the sluice, turning the gears as the water flows, an integral part to power the mill.
24. Saw Pit —A technique practiced since ancient times, this method relies on two people with one at the top and one in the pit, sawing up and down.
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IRTA-CReSA will perform Zika virus surveillance in Tiger mosquitoes
IRTA-CReSA (Animal Health Research Centre) is responsible for conducting viral surveillance on the Tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) of different viruses transmitted by mosquitoes by commission of the Department of Health of the Generalitat of Catalunya. Since 2014, IRTA-CReSA carries out the diagnosis of Chikungunya virus in Aedes albopictus. In 2015, this surveillance expanded to Dengue virus. And this year the necessary tools to detect the Zika virus are also being implemented. This service is framed within the “Protocol for surveillance and control of mosquito-borne arbovirosis in Catalunya” which is coordinated by the Public Health Agency of Catalunya.
The monitoring of virus in mosquitoes is based on the detection of the virus in specimens of tiger mosquitoes captured in entomological inspections carried out in the vicinity of the area of residence of viremic patients, i.e. people in which the virus has been detected in their bloodstream. The aim of this surveillance scheme is the early detection of the virus in the mosquito population to allow enabling control measures to prevent potential transmission of the virus through mosquito bites.
In countries where the Zika virus epidemic has been present (especially in Central and South America), the mosquito responsible for the transmission is the Aedes aegypti, a type of mosquito that does not exist in Spain but it is of the same genus as the tiger mosquito, which is present in Catalunya since 2004 and has already spread throughout the Spanish Mediterranean basin. The few studies that have been performed suggest that the tiger mosquito could transmit the Zika virus, as it can also transmit Dengue and Chikungunya viruses.
Therefore, the task of the IRTA-CReSA consists in controlling whether in the areas where cases of infection in people are detected, the tiger mosquitoes captured might contain Zika virus. If so, the Health Department will be able to take the corresponding preventive measures. At the present time of year, low temperatures make the tiger mosquito unactive. Mosquito surveillance program will begin in the most active season of the mosquitoes, i.e. in the spring, and will conclude, generally, as in recent years, in the fall.
For further information please contact:
Dra. Núria Busquets i Sandra Talavera, Arbovirus and arthropode vectors line (ARTROPOVIR) researchers from the Exotic Diseases Subprogram in IRTA-CReSA.
Dr. Xavier Abad, IRTA-CReSA BSL2/BSL3 Laboratoy Manager – Biosafety Officer.
Dr Joaquim Segalés, IRTA-CReSA Director.
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Growth of malignant cells beginning in the teeth, lips, oral tissue, front two thirds of the tongue, roof of the mouth, gums, or the floor of the mouth; may spread throughout the bodyPrevalance: Uncommon (between 8,000-9,000 new cases per year)Ages Affected: 40+ years (95% of cases)
- Slow healing lip or mouth sores
- Loose teeth with no apparent cause
- Lumps or growths inside the mouth
- Pain or difficulty when swallowing
- Ear or mouth pain
- Persistent sore throat
- Colored patches inside the mouth for over two weeks
- Clinical trials (experimental treatment)
- Targeted therapy
- Good dental hygiene
- Lifestyle changes
Understanding and preventing cancer has become a top priority in the health world. Oral cancer is no exception to this rule and may be more common than you may think.
Though this particular type of cancer is often overlooked, learning the signs, treatments, and prevention of oral cancer can be a real lifesaver.
In this article, we’ll cover everything oral cancer related, from cutting down on risk factors to living a rich life after treatment.
- What is mouth (oral) cancer?
- Symptoms and Diagnosis of Oral Cancer
- Identifying Oral Cancer and Pre-Cancer (with Pictures)
- Stages of Mouth Cancer
- 10 Treatments for Oral Cancer (Conventional & Natural)
- Mouth Cancer Causes and Risk Factors
- Complications and Related Conditions
- Mouth Reconstruction and Rehabilitation
- How to Prevent Oral Cancer
- Dental Visits, Self-Exams, and Screening
- Support for Living with Oral Cancer
- Key Takeaways: Oral Cancer
What is mouth (oral) cancer?
Cancer is a growth of malignant (abnormal) cells which may spread throughout the body.
Oral cancer can span across a wide number of the mouth’s working parts. This disease can affect:
- Lining tissue of lips and cheeks
- The front two thirds of the tongue
- Roof of the mouth (both hard palate and soft palate)
- Floor of the mouth underneath the tongue
Oral cancer is a disease of the genes; it disrupts normal cell division, creating malignant tumors that invade nearby tissue.
Environmental factors can affect how these genes express themselves and trigger the onset of cancer through a process called “epigenetics”.
While each case of cancer has a different set of conditions, the end result is the same. Cancer’s unwanted cell growth can spread also rapidly to other parts of the body, known as metastasis or “mets”.
Mouth cancer usually presents in the squamous cells—the flat cells lining your lips, oral cavity, and tongue. A white or red patch on the mouth or lips can be an indicator of oral cancer if it lasts longer than a few weeks.
A good rule of thumb: lesions that resolve within two weeks are typically non-cancerous.
Squamous cell carcinoma refers to a cancer of these flat cells, and accounts for up to 90% of oral cancer cases. This usually appears as head and neck cancer, according to the American Cancer Society.
However, despite the single name, these cancerous spots can have a myriad of appearances. Precancerous or squamous cell carcinomas can take on many colors, so read on for tips on identifying carcinomas.
Symptoms and Diagnosis of Oral Cancer
How do oral cancer signs appear, and what should you do if you notice them?
Though there are several different patterns that indicate developing tumors, the answer of what to do next is clear. Call your dentist if you have any of the following symptoms of oral cancer:
- Lip or mouth sores that aren’t healing
- Loose teeth with no apparent cause
- Lumps or growths inside the mouth
- Pain or difficulty when swallowing
- Ear or mouth pain
- Persistent sore throat
- Colored patches inside the mouth that last more than two weeks
Diagnosing Oral Cancer
Diagnosing oral cancer will involve a physical exam with a doctor or dentist to inspect for lumps, growths, and other issues in the mouth, tonsils, or lips.
If a suspicious area is found, they may biopsy the area by removing some of the tissue to send to a lab. There, it can be tested for cancerous or precancerous cells.
If the biopsy reveals the presence of these malignant cells, further testing may be needed. This can involve imaging tests, like an x-ray or CT scan, or an endoscopy.
An endoscopy involves using a very small, flexible camera in the throat, or oropharynx, to see if the cancer has spread. This rules out throat cancers, also called oropharyngeal cancers.
Because dental health care professionals are more familiar with diagnosing oral cancerous lesions, they may detect early signs of oral cancer before you notice them. This is why twice yearly checkups with teeth cleanings at the dentist are so important.
One Harvard study suggests a potential link between multiple oral sexual partners (typically, more than 20) and higher rates of oral cancer caused by the human papilloma virus (HPV).
Because HPV-related oral cancer isn’t easy to spot, signs must be found with a procedure called an endoscopy. If you’ve had a large number of oral sexual partners, it’s a good idea to talk to your dentist about an endoscopy to rule out HPV in the throat or at the base of your tongue.
Don’t wait to make this appointment, no matter how daunting the idea of an exam is—early detection doubles your chances of successful cancer treatment in oral cavity cancer.
Identifying Oral Cancer and Pre-Cancer (with Pictures)
Colored patches in the mouth can be the most noticeable sign that something is amiss. While these aren’t definitive proof of cancer, call your dentist if any of these occur and lasts more than two weeks.
Below, I cover the ways oral cancer may look when it presents as patches in the mouth.
A Mixture of Red and White
A mixture of red and white patches in your mouth is referred to as a erythroleukoplakia. While they may not cause any discomfort, that doesn’t rule out the possibility of cancer cells.
If they’re visible and last more than two weeks, you should see your dentist.
Red Patches Alone
Erythroplakia, or a velvet-textured red patch, are usually precancerous. Since 75% to 90% of these are cancerous, it’s important to see your dentist right away.
These red patches can also occur under the tongue, and can be inspected by gently looking underneath after cleaning your hands thoroughly.
WARNING: Graphic Image (Click to Show)
White Patches Alone
Leukoplakia, or keratosis, is a white or grayish patch in the mouth or lips. These can develop after exposure to carcinogens, irritants like broken teeth or dentures, or tobacco use. Chewing on the lips or lining of the mouth can also cause leukoplakia.
These white patches may not be cancerous, but they do indicate that the tissue could become problematic. Their appearance may also change over time, hardening and becoming difficult to remove. Leukoplakia typically grow slowly over weeks or months.
WARNING: Graphic Image (Click to Show)
Stages of Mouth Cancer
Mouth cancer, and in fact all cancers, are classified in four stages, as outlined by the National Cancer Institute. This practice of cancer staging is crucial for assessing the treatment needed and the severity of the case.
- Stage 1: the tumor, patch, or lesion is two centimeters or less in diameter. The cancer has not spread to nearby lymph nodes.
- Stage 2: the tumor is a larger size, measuring over two centimeters but under four. The cancer still has not spread to the lymph nodes.
- Stage 3: two conditions can cause this classification. Either the tumor is larger than four centimeters, or is smaller but has spread to one lymph node. Disease hasn’t spread to further parts of the body.
- Stage 4: the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, nearby tissues, or more than one lymph node.
The National Institute of Health has found that more than half of cancer cases have spread by the time they are detected, so consult your dentist as soon as you can to avoid much more invasive treatment.
10 Treatments for Oral Cancer (Conventional & Natural)
Surgery is the most traditional treatment option for patients with oral cavity cancer. Up to 56% of these cases can be resolved with surgery alone, though the severity of the stage will determine what treatment options are available.
There are three types of surgery common in oral cancer treatment:
- Removing the tumor: Your surgeon may simply need to cut away the cancerous area and a small amount of tissue around it. This is generally an option for early stage cases. Later stage oral cancer generally requires a larger area removed, which may include areas of the jawbone or tongue.
- Removing cancer that has spread: If your oral cancer has spread into throat cancer as well, a more involved surgery will be necessary. A neck dissection and lymph node removal can prevent the cancer invading further into the body. This can also help doctors observe what treatment may be necessary following the surgery.
- Mouth reconstruction surgery: Surgery may be needed to reconstruct the mouth after removing cancer. This can include dental implants to replace lost teeth, transplanted tissue or bone, and rebuilding the lower lip. This reconstructive surgery prevents future difficulty chewing or speaking.
2. Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-powered beams of energy to kill cancer cells. This is most commonly seen as a precautionary treatment after surgery, or as a standalone treatment in extremely low-risk cases.
Each situation is different, but this cancer care generally is administered for anywhere between two and eight weeks.
Chemotherapy is an oral or intravenous (IV) mixture of drugs used to kill cancer. These drugs can be used alone or combined with other cancer treatments, and are often used in conjunction with radiation therapy.
Common side effects of chemotherapy include hair loss, vomiting, and nausea.
4. Clinical Trials
Your doctor or dentist may be able to recommend you to clinical trials for new drugs or cancer treatments that you qualify for. Your health care professionals will be able to determine what is a good fit for your oral cancer situation.
Want to see studies currently recruiting? Check out this custom search at ClinicalTrials.gov.
Keep in mind, these are experimental therapies with an unknown record of success. It’s critical to talk to your health care provider(s) at length before enrolling in a trial.
5. Targeted Therapy
Targeted therapy generally refers to prescription drugs designed to attach themselves to cancer cells. This can stop them from dividing and spreading, halting the invasion of cancer.
Targeted therapy can be used together with chemotherapy and radiation, or on its own.
Immunotherapy leverages your body’s natural cancer-fighting process: the immune system. When cancer strikes, it can sneak by the immune system by producing certain proteins.
However, immunotherapy interferes with this defense mechanism, allowing your body to fight off cancer. This cancer care is a common recommendation primarily for those who are not responding well to standard treatment.
Nutrition is an important aspect of your cancer treatment. Many patients with oral cancer experience weight loss, perhaps due to nausea after chemotherapy or difficulty chewing.
Your body needs certain nutrients to fight off this disease and the side effects you may be experiencing.
In general, a diet to support your body’s immune system and fight against cancer follows these guidelines:
- Eliminate processed foods like processed meats, packaged foods, and fast food.
- Avoid anything burnt or fried, which may contain acrylamide (a known carcinogen).
- Stay away from added and processed sugars.
- Eat a highly alkaline diet full of vegetables, antioxidant-rich fruits, and high-fiber nuts and seeds.
- Get organic, grass-fed meats instead of non-organic.
- Replace vegetable oils with healthier fats like butter, ghee, olive oil, and avocado oil.
- Eat plenty of wild-caught, organic fish.
- Drink inflammation-busting teas.
While this kind of a diet is not proven to reverse cancer, it will support your body’s immunity and reduce chronic inflammation that can accelerate disease.
Consult with your health care provider and a nutritionist or dietician about what type of diet works best for you as you combat oral cancer.
Your body often does a great job at eliminating toxins you’re exposed to throughout daily life. Some of these include EMFs from electronic devices, ingredients in certain health and beauty products, chemicals in household cleaners, mercury from amalgam fillings, and plastics chemicals.
By altering your diet as I described above, you can help support your body’s normal detoxification processes.
To eliminate these toxins from your life, check out the EWG’s Healthy Living app. They conduct safety ratings on hundreds of thousands of products to show you what’s least and most toxic.
9. Good Dental Hygiene
You can boost your body’s ability to conquer cancer by practicing good oral health.
Keeping your mouth moist can aid your salivary glands in preventing decay, and keeping your teeth and gums clean can prevent further dental woes after treatment.
A prescription fluoride toothpaste or, even better, a high-strength hydroxyapatite toothpaste can also help in dealing with the sensitivity experienced by many patients undergoing chemo and/or radiation.
Lifestyle changes can boost the efficacy of cancer treatments and assist patients in coping with fatigue from battling oral cancer.
Walking for 30 minutes a day has been shown to help patients return to daily life after cancer fatigue.
Massage therapy can reduce pain and anxiety in individuals with cancer.
Finally, relaxation such as journaling, art, or meditation can reduce the stress that comes with a cancer diagnosis and subsequent treatment.
Mouth Cancer Causes and Risk Factors
Many different factors can increase the likelihood of oral cancer, when genetic changes cause cells to mutate, grow, and spread into tumors.
While there’s no single, identifiable cause of oral cancer, several risk factors make it far more likely to occur. These include:
- Tobacco use. Any kind of tobacco, from smoking cigarettes to chewing tobacco, increases your odds of contracting oral cancer.
- Heavy drinking. Consistent and substantial alcohol use also heightens the likelihood of oral cancer. The CDC defines this as more than eight drinks a week for women, and more than 15 for men.
- Too much sun. While this may not be an obvious cause, excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays can cause cancer of the lip.
- Human papillomavirus. HPV is responsible for up to 90% of oral cancer cases in recent years. Check out my in-depth look at this topic.
- A weakened immune system. When the body’s defense system is down, it’s easier for disease of any kind to make progress.
Unfortunately, some of the treatments for cancer can cause complications, especially within the mouth.
Radiation and chemotherapy can cause bleeding, infection, pain, and mucositis. Radiation can also damage salivary glands and create dry mouth, or do damage to the neck and jaw muscles, referred to as trismus. Bone damage in the oral cavity may also occur.
Oral cancer is accompanied by an increased risk for other cancers, including stomach, liver, colon, thyroid, and esophagus cancers. Lung cancer is also a concern, especially if the oral cancer is smoking-related.
Finally, depression and anxiety are more likely among cancer patients.
Mouth Reconstruction and Rehabilitation
Mouth reconstruction is possible for oral cancer patients who have lost part of their tongue, teeth, oral cavity, or jawbone. This is referred to as oral reconstructive surgery.
Often skin, muscle, or bone is borrowed from other parts of the body to recreate a healthy mouth. Dental implants are also available if teeth have been lost during cancer treatment, and artificial palates can be built in special cases.
Even nerves can be transplanted if needed, allowing for proper speech and swallowing. No matter what transplants are needed, the doctors will borrow what they need carefully. Bone, tissue, muscle, or nerves are taken from areas where their absence will not be noticeable.
Rehabilitation after mouth reconstruction can be extensive, and your physical therapists and doctors will help determine the best treatment for you. This team will partner with you as you recover, and it’s not uncommon to attend 20-25 rehabilitative appointments in your first year.
Speech pathologists are also available in necessary cases, as are occupational therapists and rehabilitation counselors. Though oral cancer can be a painful experience, you are not alone.
How to Prevent Oral Cancer
One extremely effective way to prevent oral cancer is by quitting—yes, you read that correctly. Saying goodbye to alcohol use and tobacco not only benefits your general health, but decreases your odds of oral cancer.
If you do continue to drink alcohol, stick to one drink a day for men over 65 and women of any age, or two drinks for men 65 and younger.
Avoid all forms of smoking, and avoid the smokeless tobacco that can prime your cells for lip cancer.
Protecting your face, and especially lips, from sun exposure is another form of prevention. Try a large-brimmed hat, and use a chapstick with SPF every single day.
Eat fruits and vegetables and load up on antioxidants, which help detoxify your body from potential cancer triggers.
Dental Visits, Self-Exams, and Screening
Oral cancer prevention gives you one more reason to stop avoiding your dentist! Your regular dental checkups every six months can help your dentist catch oral cancer even before you do. If you have one or more of the risk factors for oral cancer, inform your dentist and ask for an oral cancer screening.
During this procedure, your dentist can check for tumors, lesions, and patches that may cause concern. If needed, the dentist will order additional tests to investigate the possibility of cancer.
Remember, 90% of oral cancer has spread before it’s detected, so don’t be afraid to mention your concerns to your dentist. Though there is no available data on oral cancer screenings saving lives, awareness is important.
You can also perform self-exams at own, though they are never a substitute for a medical professional’s work. Use a light to examine for patches on the gums and roof and sides of the mouth. Don’t forget to use clean hands to check under the tongue.
If you have a suspicious lump, sore spot, or patch for more than two weeks, investigate and book a dental appointment.
Support for Living with Oral Cancer
There are support groups available to connect with fellow patients and receive encouragement and strength that comes with community. This can be particularly important as it’s been established that anxiety and depression are common conditions for those fighting oral cancer.
SPOHNC is a nonprofit with over 125 groups around the country for those with oral, head, or neck cancer. Click here to find a group.
Can’t get out of the house? The Mouth Cancer Foundation hosts this online chat board that’s been providing support since 2003.
Finally, be sure to loop in people close to you as you deal with your diagnosis. Bringing them to appointments can help you remember information and quell fear, and the emotional and social support is important to your general health.
Q: What is the survival (mortality) rate of mouth cancer?
Unfortunately, once it has spread in stages three or four, that figure drops to 39%.
Q: How fast does oral cancer spread?
Key Takeaways: Oral Cancer
- Oral cancer is caused when cells begin to multiply and form lesions and tumors anywhere in the oral cavity. These can affect lips, tonsils, gums, the mouth’s lining, and the floor or roof of the mouth.
- Symptoms of oral cancer include any of the following that lasts more than two weeks: ear, mouth, or swallowing pains, lip and mouth sores, discolored patches, unexplained loose teeth, and sore throat.
- Oral cancer severity is gauged by the classic four stage system, but most cases of oral cancer aren’t caught until later stages.
- Treatment for oral cancer is usually traditional methods like surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. However, lifestyle changes and maintaining good oral hygiene can also help treatment outcomes.
- Heavy drinking, tobacco use, sun exposure, and HPV are the greatest risk factors for lip and mouth cancer. Avoiding these can prevent the incidence of this disease.
- If the above risk factors apply to you, it’s important to maintain twice yearly dental visits and discuss an oral cancer screening with your dentist.
- A rich network of support and rehabilitation is available for patients conquering oral cancer.
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- Sugerman, P. B., & Shillitoe, E. J. (1997). The high risk human papillomaviruses and oral cancer: evidence for and against a causal relationship. Oral Diseases, 3(3), 130-147.
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- Brierley, J., Gospodarowicz, M., & O’Sullivan, B. (2016). The principles of cancer staging. ecancermedicalscience, 10. Abstract: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215238/
- Martin, H., Del Valle, B., Ehrlich, H., & Cahan, W. G. (1951). Neck dissection. Cancer, 4(3), 441-499. Abstract: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/1097-0142(195105)4:3%3C441::AID-CNCR2820040303%3E3.0.CO;2-O
- Goldenberg, D., Mackley, H., Koch, W., Bann, D. V., Schaefer, E. W., & Hollenbeak, C. S. (2014). Age and stage as determinants of treatment for oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers in the elderly. Oral oncology, 50(10), 976-982. Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4355916/
- Jaffray, D. A., & Gospodarowicz, M. K. (2015). Radiation therapy for cancer. Cancer: Disease Control Priorities; The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 239. Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK343621/
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- Johnson, N. (2001). Tobacco use and oral cancer: a global perspective. Journal of dental education, 65(4), 328-339. Abstract: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11336118
- Sciubba, J. J. (2001). Oral cancer. American journal of clinical dermatology, 2(4), 239-251. Abstract: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11705251
- Kim, S. M. (2016). Human papilloma virus in oral cancer. Journal of the Korean Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons, 42(6), 327-336. Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206237/
- Lee, C. C., Ho, H. C., Su, Y. C., Chen, P. C., Yu, C. H., & Yang, C. C. (2016). Comparison of different comorbidity measures for oral cancer patients with surgical intervention: a longitudinal study from a single cancer center. Auris Nasus Larynx, 43(3), 322-329. Abstract: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26642942
- Chaturvedi, S. K. (2012). Psychiatric oncology: Cancer in mind. Indian journal of psychiatry, 54(2), 111. Full text: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440904/
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Everyone knows that going to the gym can help improve your fitness and general health. But did you know it can also improve your academic performance? Now that we’ve got your interest, how can you incorporate a healthy routine to your already busy study schedule? Here’s how we can help you.
So where’s the evidence?
Studies at the University of British Columbia have shown that patients who exercised more i.e. did more aerobic exercise, the kind that makes your heart thump and you sweat profusely, had larger brain sizes. The hippocampus (the area that encourages verbal memory and learning) was seen to grow larger with more exercise. However, weightlifting didn’t have an effect on brain size.
Additionally, Heidi Godman from Harvard University also writes that regular aerobic exercise helps to reduce insulin resistance, reduce inflammations, encourages chemical releases in the brain and growth of new cells. The International Journal of Workplace Health Management recently conducted a study that showed people who exercised during the day were 23% more productive at work than when they didn’t exercise.
Exercise also helps students with one of their bad habits- sleep. It helps the body go into a regular biological routine of sleep after exercise. In turn this can help your mood– exercise can help release serotonin, the ‘happy’ hormone, and reduce stress and anxiety.
So how can you take advantage of these health benefits?
We all know what to do- get off the sofa and start exercising! In the study from the University of British Columbia, some of the participants took a brisk walk for an hour, twice a week. So around 120 minutes a week. If you feel you can’t quite reach that in your first week, perhaps try doing it progressively. Start with a few minutes on your first day, then add on a few minutes after.
If walking isn’t your cup of tea, then try swimming, or anything else that can help you break out in a light sweat. Household chores like cleaning, walking up and down stairs.
If you like the idea of self-defense classes, that would also work. Many towns have a karate dojo or other form of martial art class and are around an hour long and held several times a week, depending on your level of capability. Many universities and high schools offer these self-defense classes at a student rate so it’s not very expensive at all.
Exercise has been proven repeatedly to help boost your brain power, improve productivity and concentration. Secondary effects of regular aerobic exercise are less stress, anxiety and better sleep patterns. All these elements will help you succeed more at your studies. You can take advantage of these health benefits by walking twice a week, jogging, swimming, taking up exercise classes or martial arts or any form of exercise for a few hours.
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ShmFIFO library provides an easy-to-use interface to shared memory for programs where one process needs to send blocks of data to other processes.
It was developed because pipe(2) and mkfifo(3) have a very small buffer size (4k) and are unsuitable for many applications. Shmfifo allows you to put a block of data in shared memory, get the oldest block of data from shared memory.
ShmFIFO library also has the feature to share one instance of a private data structure among all processes which use the library.
How to use shmfifo
Before using, shared memory should be created. After creating shared memory, process which wants to use it, should attach to memory. Then it can put and get blocks to FIFO. After process is finished working with FIFO, it calls shfifo_detach. When no processes will use FIFO, shared memory should be deallocated.
Usally, lifecycle of shmfifo-based program is following:
[both] shmfifo_put, shmfifo_get (many times)
[parent] wait(2) or waitpid(2)
shmfifo comes with test.c program, which is good sample of how to write programs with shmfifo. It forks into 2 processes, parent generated variable-length blocks, writes checksum into each block and put it into FIFO. Child gets blocks from fifo, check if checksum is valid (it's always valid if there is no bug in program) and prints debug info. after large number of blocks gets transferred, both processes are exit.
Additionally, shmfifo allows processes to share one private structure. test.c uses this structure to store counter, which is increased each time when parent cannot put block to FIFO because it's already full and has to wait until child will get block. If small amount of memory allocated for FIFO, then parent will wait more often.
test.c is sample test program which is builts into 'test' binary. You can run it to test if library is working
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FIFTY YEARS AGO TODAY, MODern Cuba was born after a corrupt, dictatorial lackey of the United States known as General Fulgencio Batista was defeated by a small guerilla army led by Fidel Castro, his brother Raul, the legendary revolutionary, Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara, and a few others.
This came about after a long war of attrition against a spineless and demoralised Cuban army which culminated in what in history has come to be known as the Cuban Revolution.
From that date - January 1, 1959 - the small island situated some distance from the toe of the North American sub-continent, has been a source of constant irritation to the mighty US, the sole remaining global super power.
How this came to be is a long story. But suffice it to say that today, diplomatic and trade relations between these two unequal countries has become a geopolitical anachronism that requires urgent rectification, for it serves no one’s interest.
For those of us who may not be familiar with the history of the Cold War, it may come as a surprise that the US should even bother about poor Cuba.
BUT THE FACT IS, BESIDES CHINA and a few other forgettable nation-states, Cuba remains the only unabashedly communist country in the world, which may explain why the bastion of capitalism may feel uncomfortable with its proximity.
Two events in history may help to explain why there remains such deep unease and what in many Third World countries may look like petty vindictiveness – the Bay of Pigs fiasco in which Castro’s army defeated a CIA-backed “army” of invasion and thus gave the US a bloody nose, and a subsequent missile crisis which nearly plunged the world into a nuclear catastrophe.
The Bay of Pigs disaster has been attributed to President John F. Kennedy’s administration, but in reality, plans to invade Cuba by former Batista loyalists were hatched in 1960, during the waning months of President Dwight Eisenhower’s administration. The aim was to overthrow Castro, and this for two reasons.
First, Castro had gradually nationalised all the businesses and other assets, including land and huge sugar plantations owned by US nationals in Cuba. It is estimated that at one time, Americans owned at least 60 per cent of Cuba’s national wealth.
The second reason is less flattering to Castro: The revolution had eaten its children, and the purge against supposed Batista loyalists was both bloody and indiscriminate. As a result, thousands of Cubans fled to the US and settled in Florida from where they continuously fomented acts of sabotage against the island.
In time, these exiles were to become a major political force, which explains why today, no major political party, and no serious presidential contender, can ignore their vote, or that of Latinos in general.
November’s presidential election in the US is a case in point. President-elect Barack Obama would not have won the crucial Florida without the support of Cuban-Americans who have always voted Republican. This political clout may explain why there has been no rational US policy on Cuba in the last four decades.
The Cuban missile crisis of 1962 is certainly a more plausible justification for America’s distrust of the Island and its leaders. That year, Castro was convinced the US was planning to invade it, and he began a massive military build-up, aided by the Soviet Union.
Matters came to a head when a US reconnaissance plane photographed Soviet personnel building intermediate range missile sites on the island.
The standoff between Kennedy and Soviet leader Krushchev was the most dangerous moment during the entire Cold War period. Eventually, the Soviets were forced to back down, thus averting an ugly nuclear confrontation.
Nevertheless, the US reaction was, and has always been, disproportionate to the provocation, for the Americans have been bent on a course of economic strangulation of an already poor neighbour which has never accepted that it is living in an ideological time-warp.
The fact that the US has never considered lifting the economic embargo on Cuba imposed 50 years ago does not make much sense to those not living in the hemisphere. The litany of these “blockade” measures is long and, seemingly, enduring.
They include a ban on all trade with Cuba, as well as any financial transactions in the island by US citizens. Americans may not travel or spend money in Cuba, while Cuban government officials are prohibited from visiting the US.
Even foreign-based subsidiaries of US companies are not allowed to trade with Cuba, and Cuban-Americans may not remit money to their relatives in the island.
THESE SANCTIONS MAY APPEAR LIKE the action of a giant taking up a huge club to subdue a midget, but with the swelling Latino vote being a huge influence on American domestic politics, it is unlikely that anything will change much.
But there is light at the end of the tunnel. With the retirement of Fidel Castro and ascension to power of his brother Raul, some measures of liberalisation in Cuba are now visible, which may please the ideological diehards in the US.
Secondly, the election as president of Barack Obama, a man who traces his roots to a Third World country, may help normalise the situation.
The argument that can be made is simple. If the US can restore diplomatic relationship with China, which has never hinted at giving up communism, and if maintaining ties with its erstwhile arch-foe, Russia, is normal, there can be no earthly reason why the US should continue with this ridiculous economic embargo against Cuba.
Mr Ngwiri is the opinion editor, Daily Nation
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Skip to Main Content
After an Emergency (Recover)
A hurricane can turn a familiar road into an unfamiliar and dangerous one very quickly. Review the following diving safety tips to make sure you remain safe during inclement weather:
Constantly scan for pedestrians who can quickly lose their footing.
Do not drive through standing water. You will not know the depth of the water nor will you know the condition of the road under the water.
Drive with car lights on and slow down.
Know where you are going and give yourself ample time to get there.
Maintain a safe distance from the car in front of you.
Match your speed to road conditions. Cars can quickly become uncontrollable when driving on damaged, debris-choked roads.
Not all damaged or destroyed road signs have been replaced; be prepared to yield to a pedestrian or another driver or to stop unexpectedly.
Obey all “road closed” signs. Just because you can't see road damage does not mean it is safe.
Traffic patterns may be shifted in work zones; obey posted work zone speed limits at all times. Be aware of equipment and workers.
Treat any intersection with non-working traffic signals as an “all-way” stop. Be prepared to stop at every intersection.
Visibility may be limited. Increased traffic on congested roadways and large trucks can obstruct your line of sight.
If you have additional questions concerning driving safety following a natural disaster or emergency situation, please contact the Office of Emergency Management at (203) 854-0238.
Food Safety & Guidelines
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We get questions, comments, and even shareposts written about the symptom of itchy eyelids. In response, I wrote an article about some of the non-cancerous reasons for this symptom including allergies, pink eye, and blepharitis. In most cases, the cause for itchy or irritated eyelids is going to be some sort of benign skin condition or medical disorder. Yet in some cases, skin changes of the eyelid may be more concerning as it is possible to develop skin cancer of the eyelid. In this post we are going to tell you the warning signs of eyelid skin cancer and some tips for preventing this type of skin cancer from developing.
The Skin Cancer Foundation reports that the eyelids are one of the most common skin sites for nonmelanoma skin cancers and up to 95% of eyelid skin cancers are either basil cell or squamous cell carcinomas. Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of eyelid cancer and usually affects the lower lid. Complications from eyelid cancer can include tissue damage to adjacent ocular structures and even blindness if left untreated. Early diagnosis is vital to preventing damage to the skin tissues surrounding the eye. Treatment with Mohs micrographic surgery has shown to have the best success rates for minimizing the recurrence of eyelid skin cancer.
What are the warning signs of eyelid skin cancer?
• Doctor David R. Jordan, who writes for InSight, a quarterly report for eye care health care professionals, writes that any bump on the eyelid region that is changing in appearance should be looked at by a doctor. Flaking, crusting, itching, and bleeding are warning signs of possible skin cancer.
• The American Society of Clinical Oncology reports that any change in the appearance of the eyelid skin, a swelling or thickening of the eyelid, an ulceration that does not heal, or a spreading colored mass on the eyelid may indicate skin cancer. They also report that some people with eyelid cancer may not show any of these symptoms.
• The Skin Cancer Foundation states that the signs of eyelid skin cancer can be highly variable. The cancer may present with a scar-like appearance or texture. There may be a tumor, ulceration or sore, altered appearance, a red spot or ingrown eyelashes.
Since the symptoms of eyelid cancer can vary greatly for each individual, it is all the more important to see your doctor if you are experiencing any type of unexplained skin changes. My motto has always been: When in doubt get it checked out!
How to prevent eyelid skin cancer
Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is the main cause for all types of skin cancer including skin cancer of the eyelids. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that the sun’s rays can cause not only eyelid skin cancer but can also cause other eye damage such as cataracts. It is therefore wise to take preventive action to protect your eyes from the sun. Here are some tips to help.
• The Skin Cancer Foundation recommends using a broad spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of 15 or more to the eyelid regions as well as all exposed areas of the body. Some people worry that swimming or sweating my cause the sunscreen to run into the eyes and irritate them. In this case you may want to use a moisturizer or eye cream with a sun protection factor of 15 or higher. Such creams are less likely to run into your eyes.
• Wear wraparound sunglasses that block 99-100 percent of UV-A and UV-B rays.
• Wear a wide brimmed hat to block the sun’s rays from your face and eyes.
The important thing to remember is that skin cancer is both preventable and treatable. Discuss your skin cancer risks with your doctor. Make sure to get a yearly skin exam with a dermatologist who can assess any skin changes to make sure they are not skin cancer. And if you find a new growth or skin change which worries you, get it checked out. It is always better to be safe than sorry.
For more skin cancer prevention tips please refer to the following SkinCancerConnection articles:
Published On: January 28, 2011
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Sick Building Syndrome and Legionnaires' Disease
|Courtesy of John Andrews|
In rare instances, sick buildings can be deadly. Perhaps the best example is the outbreak of a previously unknown bacteria that caused an epidemic of pneumonia at a convention at a hotel in Philadelphia in 1976. Over 200 people became ill, and 34 died. Several similar episodes have since occurred worldwide, with similar results.
The disease was found to be caused by bacteria that grow in pools of warm water that can be found in certain types of large air-conditioning systems. Besides introducing the hazard, the building’s ventilation system effectively spread it everywhere. Regulations have changed, with more stringent cleaning and hygiene requirements for large scale air-conditioning systems.
This is an extreme case, but illustrates how buildings can sometimes fail in their primary objective of keeping people safe and comfortable. Fortunately, the consequences are rarely so spectacular and deadly.
Legionnaires’ disease takes its name from the Philadelphia outbreak, which occurred at a convention of the American Legion. The members were typically older men, who were more susceptible to infection, which increased the severity of the toll.
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Understanding Amlodipine: What is it and How Does it Work?
As a mother-to-be, I know how important it is to be cautious about the medications we take during pregnancy. One such medication is Amlodipine, a commonly prescribed drug for treating high blood pressure and chest pain. But what exactly is Amlodipine, and how does it work?
Amlodipine belongs to a class of drugs called calcium channel blockers. It works by relaxing the blood vessels, allowing for better blood flow and reducing the workload on the heart. This helps lower blood pressure and relieve symptoms of chest pain. Although it is an effective treatment for these conditions, it's crucial to consider its safety during pregnancy.
Is Amlodipine Safe for Pregnant Women?
As an expecting mother, your first concern is always the safety of your baby. You might be wondering if Amlodipine is safe to take during pregnancy. The answer to this question is not entirely straightforward, as the safety of Amlodipine during pregnancy is still not well-established.
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Amlodipine is classified as a Category C drug for pregnant women. This means that there are no adequate and well-controlled studies in humans, and the potential benefits may warrant the use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks. In animal studies, Amlodipine has been shown to cause harm to the fetus, but it's important to note that animal studies do not always predict human response accurately.
Discussing Amlodipine with Your Healthcare Provider
If you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant, it's essential to discuss your medication options with your healthcare provider. They can help you weigh the potential benefits and risks of taking Amlodipine during your pregnancy.
Your healthcare provider may prefer to prescribe an alternative medication that is considered safer for pregnant women, such as methyldopa or labetalol. However, if they believe that Amlodipine is the best option for managing your specific condition, they will closely monitor both you and your baby throughout the pregnancy.
Managing High Blood Pressure During Pregnancy
High blood pressure during pregnancy can lead to complications for both the mother and the baby. It's essential to manage your blood pressure effectively to ensure a healthy pregnancy. If your healthcare provider has determined that Amlodipine is not the best option for you, there are other ways to manage your high blood pressure during pregnancy.
Some lifestyle changes that can help lower blood pressure include maintaining a healthy diet, engaging in regular physical activity, limiting salt intake, and avoiding alcohol and tobacco. Additionally, your healthcare provider may recommend other medications that are considered safer for use during pregnancy.
Amlodipine and Breastfeeding: What You Need to Know
Another concern for new mothers is the safety of medications while breastfeeding. It is currently not well-established whether Amlodipine passes into breast milk and how it may affect the nursing baby. Therefore, it is important to discuss this with your healthcare provider if you plan to breastfeed.
Your healthcare provider may suggest an alternative medication that is considered safe to take while breastfeeding or closely monitor you and your baby if Amlodipine is deemed necessary. Keep in mind that it's essential to maintain open communication with your healthcare provider to ensure the best possible outcome for both you and your baby.
Conclusion: Navigating Medication Safety During Pregnancy
As an expecting mother, it's natural to be concerned about the safety of medications like Amlodipine during pregnancy. Although the safety of Amlodipine in pregnant women is not well-established, your healthcare provider can help you make the best decision for your specific situation. Remember to be proactive in discussing your medication options and stay informed about the potential risks and benefits of each medication.
By working closely with your healthcare provider and making healthy lifestyle choices, you can manage your high blood pressure effectively and ensure a safe and healthy pregnancy for both you and your baby.
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Polar Bears Will Just Adapt to Land, Right?
Posted February 9, 2013
Polar bears use arctic sea ice as a platform to hunt their favorite food, seals. Unfortunately, climatic warming is rapidly melting the ice. Without it, scientists warn, polar bears will not survive.
But why worry? Polar bears evolved from omnivorous, land-dwelling brown bears, right? In fact, modern polar bears have been observed eating berries, seaweed, moss, grass, roots, sedges, eggs, shellfish, crabs, fish, rodents, birds, caribou and muskoxen, just like their brown cousins. So if the sea ice melts, polar bears will simply re-adapt to living on land, right?
The first problem is time. When polar bears split from brown bears hundreds of thousands of years ago (or longer), it took them at least 10,000 - 30,000 years to evolve into the big, white, ice-dwelling creatures we know today. Even if they could “re-evolve” so quickly back into terrestrial bears, it would be far too slow a pace to keep up with today’s warming trend. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that within the next century, global average surface air temperatures will increase 1.8 – 4.0 degrees Celsius—higher than anything polar bears have experienced in at least the last several hundred thousand years (the Eemian interglacial, which occurred about 125,000 years ago, was about 1 - 2 degrees Celsius warmer than today; the Holocene Climate Optimum (or “Hypsithermal”), which occurred about 6,000 years ago, was about 1-1.5 degrees Celsius warmer than today).
As a result of these unprecedented (in recent geologic history) temperatures, within just the next 100 years (or sooner), summers in the Arctic could be ice-free. This is a profound development, because there is no evidence that the Arctic has been seasonally free of ice in at least the last 800,000 years. Polar bears, whose populations have declined and genetically bottle-necked during natural periods of climate warming in the past, seem to have always been able to persist because of some availability of year-round sea ice.
Which brings us to the second, related problem. Polar bears are highly specialized, both physically and physiologically, for a world of sea, ice, and meat: shorter, stockier claws to better grip prey and ice; smaller, more jagged molars and larger, sharper canines, better serving an almost exclusively carnivorous diet; all-white coats to provide camouflage while stalking prey; larger, thicker bodies to increase the ratio of surface area to body mass, helping the bears conserve energy and body heat; and a more elongated body, skull and nose to enhance streamlining and better enable the bears to thrust their heads through snow and ice into seal denning lairs and breathing holes.
These adaptations, however, become serious impediments in a warmer, terrestrial environment. The bears lack the longer, more dexterous claws needed to uproot plants, rake up berries, or dig up insects or rodents. Their teeth are unsuited to grinding vegetation. Against the greens and browns of the tundra, their white color suddenly exposes, rather than conceals them. Perhaps most fatally, their large size causes them to overheat quickly, preventing them from chasing prey for more than a few seconds, and making it difficult to consume enough calories to meet their energy needs.
Thus, although polar bears have been observed eating terrestrial food sources, scientists such as Dr. Ian Stirling, professor of wildlife biology at the University of Alberta, have concluded that these foods are unsustainable and cannot meet the calorie needs of such big bears in such a cold climate. As he explains in his book “Polar Bears: The Natural History of a Threatened Species:”
The polar bear took tens of thousands of years to evolve from a terrestrial bear into the ultimate ice bear. That process cannot be reversed in a few generations, during which time the polar bear would once again become a terrestrial bear and revert to a diet of berries, other vegetation, and bird eggs. . . . In many cases, the energy expended while searching for berries or chasing prey such as flightless geese during their molt exceeds the caloric return, even if the bears are successful. . . . In fact, it is particularly telling that the smallest black and brown bears in the world are found in the arctic tundra adjacent to the coast of northern Labrador and the Beaufort Sea, respectively, precisely because the terrestrial food resources available to them in those areas are so meager.
Ultimately, whether polar bears can adapt to land may be irrelevant. Polar bears are defined by the sea ice ecosystem they inhabit. Without it, polar bears will cease being polar bears. Even if they could somehow manage to persist on land, they would quickly encounter and hybridize with their brown neighbors (as they have already begun to do), and the iconic, white sea bear we recognize so readily today would disappear. For all practical purposes, the species would be lost.
Fortunately, NRDC and others are working hard to prevent that from happening, by combatting climate change, protecting polar bear habitat, and working with the international community to ban the global trade in polar bear parts. Through these efforts, we hope to curb rising temperatures, decelerate the loss of sea ice, and buy these emblematic bears as much time as we can.
Will polar bears adapt to land? Let’s do everything we can to make sure we never have to find out.
Comments are closed for this post.
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As World War I was coming to a close, several countries vied for territory also claimed by the emerging Yugoslav state (or, as it was then called, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes). The ethnic boundaries were anything but clearly defined, and that resulted in a number of conflicting territorial claims and counterclaims.
Enter Rudolf Maister. A professional soldier, he had served loyally in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I, attaining the rank of major. Yet, he had been transferred from the Lower Styrian city of Maribor to Graz during the war because he, an ethnic Slovenian, was unpopular with Maribor’s German population.
Soon, he would find himself in direct conflict with Maribor’s Germans. As the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, Maribor’s city council, dominated by ethnic Germans, declared that Maribor was to join the new, rump German Austria. Maister refused to recognize the decision and took control of all military units in the city. He declared Maribor to be a part of the new South Slavic state and handed the administration over to the Slovenian National Council, which in turn gave Maister the rank of general and the mission to defend the surrounding territory.
The German population responded by creating a militia known as “Schutzwehr.” Maister recognized the militia as a threat and ordered a mobilization of the Slovenian population, even though the authorities in Ljubljana were opposed. He created a unit that became the first Slovenian military force in history and disarmed the “Schutzwehr” militia.
Maister gained control of the territory surrounding Maribor and even parts of Carinthia. He wanted to go even further, but he did not get the support from the authorities in Ljubljana and eventually signed a ceasefire.
Because of political circumstances, Maister failed in his bid to annex all of the Slovenian-populated territory in Carinthia, but his skills as a soldier and commander ensured that Lower Styria, known as Štajerska in Slovenian, became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, and is now an integral part of Slovenia.
In northwestern Slovenia at the same time, another man was determined to protect the border from foreign claims. Karel Šefman led a unit of local volunteers from the Upper Sava Valley against the Italian army and foiled Italy’s plans to annex almost all of the Julian Alps, including the industrial town of Jesenice, Bled, and Bohinj, in an attempt to obtain the crucial Bohinj Rail Line.
The historic achievements of Maister’s and Šefman’s units were largely forgotten after World War II, when the Communist authorities preferred to focus on heroes from the more recent war. Since Slovenia’s independence, the battles for Slovenia’s northern border have received more recognition. Among other memorials dedicated to Maister, visitors who arrive to Ljubljana by rail can now see his equestrian statue directly across from the central train station.
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We’ve all had days where the heat makes us a little cranky. It’s too hot to move and all you want to do is hop in a cold shower. But the impacts of heat can go much deeper than just your mood. Susan Clayton, PhD, a professor of psychology and environmental studies and psychology department chair at the College of Wooster, explains that heat can have a huge impact on your mental health.
“There are significant increases in mental health problems associated with high temperatures and that includes psychiatric hospitalizations and suicide levels—really serious, serious increases,” says Dr. Clayton. “And there’s a lot of evidence that people’s mood is not as good. Their ratings of happiness are lower. If you ask them about things designed to get sort of general well-being, those ratings are lower as in warmer temperatures.”
Dr. Clayton says science hasn’t fully figured out the strong relationship between heat and mental health.
“Some of the possible mechanisms are that we know that that heat can decrease social interactions,” says Dr. Clayton. “People are not as nice to each other, they tend to be more aggressive. So of course that might have an impact on your mental health if people are not being as nice to you.” Additionally, the physical impacts of heat like dehydration, confusion, and heat exhaustion can impact your mental health. “If you’re not feeling as well you might be crankier,” she says. “Also, heat can interfere with your sleep and lack of sleep can definitely lower your well-being level as well as kind of encourage mental health problems.”
Typically, research defines “too hot” as higher than average temperatures. Even in places that are naturally hotter people respond negatively when it’s hotter than usual.
“The effect of hot temperatures on suicide seems to be just as high in Mexico as it is in the U.S. despite the fact that average temperatures are higher in Mexico,” says Dr. Clayton. “There’s seems to be a maybe a certain degree of heat that you just don’t really adapt to.”
While spending days inside without an air conditioner during a heatwave will likely have a negative impact on your mental health, you can also feel the effects after an hour-long walk.
“There are some impacts that can set in pretty quickly depending on hot it is,” says Dr. Clayton. “You would expect the impacts to get worse as the heat lasts longer, but we don’t have very good data about that.”
Some people, like the elderly and those who are already experiencing mental health problems, may be more susceptible to the mental health impacts of heat. “Some of the medications you might take for mental health problems actually interfere with your ability to regulate your own body temperature,” says Dr. Clayton. Children may also be at a higher risk because their psychological systems for regulating temperature might not be fully developed. “This is why you have to yell at your children to come inside if it’s too cold.” And no matter how accustomed they are to it, people who work outside are more susceptible. There are physical limits to what your body can take,” says Dr. Clayton. “And so if you’re having to work outside during really hot and unpleasant conditions you’re going to be more vulnerable to those conditions.”
You’ll want to find ways to stay cool by staying hydrated and avoiding exercise outside when it’s too hot, for example. Because of the impacts of heat on health, some cities like New York have dedicated cooling centers for those without air conditioning. But Dr. Clayton says the work shouldn’t stop there.
“This is something cities need to be thinking about given that it’s going to get hotter and hotter. I was reading a piece about Phoenix, which is apparently the hottest city in the U.S., and they are thinking about not just cooling centers but designs that can reduce temperatures like just providing more green spaces because trees and foliage will tend to reduce the heat and providing more shade. That’s a longer-term solution.”
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Here is a thermally conductive rubber that can be used to develop advanced wearables and robot muscles. Thubber not only has metal-like thermal conductivity but also elasticity similar to a soft tissue. It can stretch over six times its initial length.
The key ingredient in “thubber” is a suspension of non-toxic, liquid metal microdroplets. The liquid state allows the metal to deform with the surrounding rubber at room temperature. When the rubber is pre-stretched, the droplets form elongated pathways that are efficient for heat travel. Despite the amount of metal, the material is also electrically insulating.
explained researchers at Carnegie Mellon University. The robotic fish in the above video has a thubber tail to switch without using motors or gears. Promising, don’t you think?
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Unintelligible speech is a descriptive term used subjectively by the listener. It can be due to a few minor consonant or vowel errors, oral-structural differences, oral-motor weakness, dysarthria or apraxia of speech.
However, another casual factor to unintelligible speech, which even many professionals miss, is that of the faulty perception of language. Children who have difficulty processing and comprehending spoken language, particularly children who exhibit autism spectrum disorders, may exhibit jargon (sometime called “gibberish,” or unintelligible speech).
It is important to uncover whether a child has an unusual capacity to memorize dialogue, which doesn’t necessarily hold any meaning for them and are reiterating it the way they perceive it, without attaching meaning. In this case, the more emphasis there is upon improving processing and comprehension skills, the more improvement will be seen in increased intelligibility. Whereas, unintelligible speech rooted in the fine-motor coordination aspect of talking would require motor-speech or verbal motor work.
Children may have both perceptual and motor-speech difficulties. If there are any questions regarding whether the child comprehends spoken language, attention should be given to comprehension and not necessarily motor-speech output.
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Now, more than ever, women in the US are participating in the labor force in full-time, year-round positions. This was not always the case. Changes in the economy (namely, the decline of men’s wages), an increase in single-mothers, and education and job opportunities and cultural shifts created by feminist movement politics from the 1960s and 1970s have fueled the increase in women’s labor force participation. Dual-earner homes are much more common than the breadwinner-homemaker model popularized in the 1950s, in which women stayed home and did unpaid labor (such as laundry, cooking, childcare, cleaning) while men participated in the paid labor force in jobs that would earn them enough money to support a spouse and children. It turns out this popular American fantasy, often spoken of in political “family values” rhetoric, was only ever a reality for some white, middle-class people, and, for most contemporary households, is now completely out of reach.
Though men and women are participating in the labor force, higher education, and paid work in near-equal numbers, a wage gap between men and women workers remains. On average, women workers make 77% of what men make. This gap persists even when controlling for educational differences, full-time work versus part-time work, and year-round versus seasonal occupational statuses. Thus, women with similar educational backgrounds who work the same number of hours per year as their male counterparts are making 23% less than similarly situated men. So, how can this gap be explained? Researchers put forth four possible explanations of the gender wage gap: 1) discrimination; 2) occupational segregation; 3) devalued work; and 4) inherent work-family conflicts.
Most people believe discrimination in hiring is a thing of the past. Since the 1964 Civil Rights Act passed it has been illegal to discriminate in hiring based on race or gender. However, although companies can no longer say “men only” in their hiring advertisements, they can make efforts to recruit men, such as circulating job ads in men’s social networks and choosing men to interview from the applicant pool. The same companies can also have non-accommodating family-leave provisions that may discourage women, who they assume are disproportionately more likely to be primary caregivers, from applying. In addition, discrimination cases are very difficult to prosecute legally since no government agency monitors general trends and practices, and so individuals must complain about and prove specific instances of discrimination in specific job settings. Hiring discrimination in particular is extremely difficult to prove in a courtroom, and can thus persist largely unchecked. In addition, even when they are hired, women working in male-dominated fields often run into a glass ceiling, in that they face difficulties in being promoted to higher-level positions in the organization. One example of the glass ceiling and gender discrimination is the class action lawsuit between Wal-Mart and its female managerial staff. Although Wal-Mart has hired some women in managerial positions across the country, they also have informal policies, at the national level, of promoting men faster and paying them at a different wage scale. While only six women at Wal-Mart initiated the suit, the number of women that would be affected in this case numbered over 1.5 million. Wal-Mart fought this legal battle over the course of ten years (2001-2011). The case was finally decided in June 2011 when the US Supreme Court sided with the defendant, Wal-Mart, citing the difficulty of considering all women workers in Wal-Mart’s retail empire as a coherent “class.” They agreed that discrimination against individuals was present, but the fact that it could not be proven that women, as a class, were discriminated against by the Wal-Mart corporation kept them from being found guilty (Wal-Mart Stores Inc. v. Dukes, et al., 2011). Although Wal-Mart did nothing to curb its male managers who were clearly and consistently hiring and promoting men over women, this neglect was not enough to convict Wal-Mart of class-action discrimination. In this example, it becomes apparent that while gender discrimination is illegal it can still happen in patterned and widespread ways. Additionally, there are a series of factors that make it hard to prosecute gender discrimination.
Occupational segregation describes a split labor market in which one group is far more likely to do certain types of work than other groups. Gendered occupational sex segregation describes situations in which women are more likely to do certain jobs and men others. The jobs women are more likely to work in have been dubbed “pink-collar” jobs. While “white collar” describes well-paying managerial work and “blue collar” describes manual labor predominantly done by men with a full range of income levels depending on skill, “pink collar” describes mostly low-wage, female-dominated positions that involve services and, often, emotional labor. The term emotional labor, developed by sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild (1983), is used to describe work in which, as part of their job, employees must control and manage their emotions. For instance, a waitress risks being fired by confronting rude and harassing customers with anger; she must both control her own emotions and help to quell the emotions of angry customers in order to keep her job. Any service-based work that involves interacting with customers (from psychiatrists to food service cashiers) also involves emotional labor. The top three “pink-collar” occupations dominated by women workers—secretaries, teachers, and nurses—all involve exceptional amounts of emotional labor.
Feminized work, or work thought to be “women’s work” is not only underpaid, it is also socially undervalued, or taken to be worth less than work thought to be “men’s work.” Care work is an area of the service economy that is feminized, involves intense emotional labor, and is consistently undervalued. Caretakers of children and the elderly are predominantly women. Economist Nancy Folbre (2001) has argued that care work is undervalued both because women are more likely to do it and because it is considered to be natural for women to know how to care. Women have traditionally done care work in the home, raising children and caring for sick and dying relatives, usually for free. Perhaps this is because women bear children and are stereotyped as naturally more emotionally sensitive than men.
Some feel it is wrong to ever pay for these services and that they should be done altruistically even by non-family members. Women are stereotyped as having natural caring instincts, and, if these instincts come naturally, there is no reason to pay well (or pay at all) for this work. In reality, care work requires learned skills like any other type of work. What is interesting is that when men participate in this work, and other pink-collar jobs, they actually tend to be paid better and to advance to higher-level positions faster than comparable women. This phenomenon, in contrast to the glass ceiling, is known as the glass escalator (Williams, 1992). However, Adia Harvey Wingfield (2009) has applied an intersectional analysis to the glass escalator concept and found that men of color do not benefit from this system to the extent that white men do.
Finally, the fourth explanation for the gender wage gap has to do with the conflict between work and family that women are more likely to have to negotiate than men. For instance, women are much more likely to interrupt their career trajectories to take time off to care for children. This is not an inherent consequence of childbearing. Many countries offer women (and sometimes men) workers paid leave time and the ability to return to their jobs with the same salaries and benefits as when they left them. In contrast, the strongest legal policy protecting people’s jobs in the case of extended leave to care for the sick or elderly, or take personal time for pregnancy and childcare in the United States is the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) of 1996. Under this act, most employers are obligated to allow their workers to take up to twelve weeks of unpaid leave. Unfortunately, few people can afford to be away from their jobs for so long without a paycheck and this policy remains underutilized. Additionally, only about half of the US work force is eligible for leave under FMLA, because the act only applies to workers who are employed by companies that have more than 50 employees. On top of that, many employers are unaware of this act or do not inform their workers that they can take this time off. Thus, women are more likely to quit full-time jobs and take on part-time jobs while their children are young. Quitting and rejoining the labor force typically means starting at the bottom in terms of pay and status at a new company, and this negatively impacts women’s overall earnings even when they return to full-time work.
- Much of the material in this chapter was adapted from a classroom guest lecture by Dale Melcher, given on October 26, 2009. ↵
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September 12, 2012
Contact: Dana Mortensen, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 267-426-6092 or [email protected]
A national study conducted by researchers at The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) shows increased use of powerful antipsychotic drugs to treat publicly insured children over the last decade. The study, published today in the journal Health Services Research, found a 62 percent increase in the number of Medicaid-enrolled children ages 3 to 18 taking antipsychotics, reaching a total of 354,000 children by 2007.
Increased antipsychotic use was observed across a wide range of mental health diagnoses, and was particularly high for children with ADHD or conduct disorder, although the FDA has not approved the drugs to treat these conditions in children. In total, 65 percent of children prescribed antipsychotics in 2007 were using the drugs “off-label,” or without FDA safety and efficacy data to support their use to treat young patients. The CHOP study is the second released this month that focuses on the use of antipsychotic drug use in children and is largest of its kind, representing 35 percent of children in the country.
“Given the significant proportion of off-label use of antipsychotics in children, it is reassuring that these drugs have been recognized as a priority for pediatric research by the National Institutes of Health,” said David M. Rubin, MD, MSCE, a senior author of the study, attending pediatrician, and co-director of CHOP’s PolicyLab. “If a child is prescribed an antipsychotic, it’s important for doctors to inform parents and caregivers if the drug is being prescribed off-label, of potential side effects, and of counseling therapies that might be offered as an alternative to medication.”
The frequent off-label use of antipsychotics has raised concern among many healthcare providers, especially in light of evidence linking antipsychotics with an increased risk of serious metabolic side effects in children, including weight gain and diabetes.
The researchers note that the increase in antipsychotic use is due to in part to an overall increase in the number of mental health diagnoses assigned to children. Researchers found a 28 percent increase in the number of children with a mental health diagnosis, but this alone did not account for the spike in prescriptions.
“We knew that the number of children prescribed antipsychotics had grown steadily over the past two decades, particularly among children with public insurance,” said Meredith Matone, MHS, the study’s lead author and a researcher at PolicyLab. “With this study, we wanted to learn more about why these drugs are being used so often, what diagnoses they’re being used to treat, and how prescribing patterns changed over the course of the last decade.”
While schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and autism were the most likely diagnoses to result in an antipsychotic prescription, children with these disorders did not make up the majority of antipsychotic users. Children with ADHD and those who were diagnosed with three or more concurrent mental health disorders made up the largest group of children taking antipsychotics. In 2007, 50 percent of children taking antipsychotics had a diagnosis of ADHD, and 14 percent had ADHD as their only diagnosis.
“The fact that we see an uptick in prescribing antipsychotics for many diagnoses tells us that antipsychotics are likely being used to treat specific behaviors, like aggression, that are shared among a variety of mental health diagnoses,” explained Matone. “Insights like this are only available by conducting very large-scale studies like this one. Reaching an average of 15 million children a year provided the needed national perspective on medication use. Continuing to conduct population-based, public health studies is crucial to inform policies and guidelines for the use of antipsychotics for children.”
For more information about the study and on PolicyLab’s body of child welfare work, visit the PolicyLab website.
PolicyLab develops evidence-based solutions for the most challenging health-related issues affecting children. PolicyLab engages in research that is both responsive to community needs and relevant to policy priorities, partnering with practitioners, policymakers, and families throughout the research process. Through its work, PolicyLab identifies the programs, practices, and policies that support the best outcomes for children and their families, disseminating its findings beyond research and academic communities as part of its commitment to transform evidence to action.
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Stage Styles - Not All Were Coaches
State Styles - Not All Were Coaches !
By Mary A. Helmich
Interpretation & Education Division
California State Parks, 2008
Download PDF of Article
Today the word “stagecoach” is applied almost exclusively to the classic, oval-shaped overland coach produced in Concord, New Hampshire. These have starred in countless Western movies and colored the public’s perceptions about transportation. However throughout the 19th century, there were several vehicle types used to transport passengers and mail. Each simply was referred to as the “stage.”
The kinds of stages depended largely upon the character and the condition of the roads, the distances to be traveled and their urban or rural destinations. Manufacturers produced many different styles in various sizes for stage travel. They ranged from passenger wagons and hacks to “classic” overland coaches and to open-sided wagons, including celerity wagons, mud wagons, and ambulances.
On the roughest Western roads, the Butterfield Overland Mail and later Wells, Fargo & Co. frequently transferred passengers and mail to lightweight, more durable celerity wagons or to the less expensive, but also light mud wagons.
The Butterfield Overland Mail transferred passengers and mail to light,
durable vehicles for travel over rough roads.
From Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, October 23, 1858.
From the mid- through the late-19th century, stage vehicle manufacturing centers included Albany and Troy, New York, several towns in New England, and cities on the West Coast, like Stockton., (1) (2) Concord, New Hampshire, however, served as the center for coach production. It began when wheelwright Lewis Downing (whose shop opened in 1813) joined his skills with expert coachbuilder J. Stephens Abbot from Maine. Together they took stagecoach construction to a new level. (3) In 1826, the two began turning out their first coaches. (4) The partnership lasted over 20 years, turning into a thriving, world-renowned business.
What separated Abbot and Downing from other coachbuilders of their day were the vehicles’ handsome appearance, durability, and overall quality. (5) These masterpieces of construction had no equal. Concord stage were first to offer shock-absorbing thorough braces—an important feature not just for passengers, but for the animals pulling them, too. These braces allowed the coach to rock back and forth and swing sideways, too, providing forward momentum for the teams.
Thorough braces were strips of leather cured to the toughness of steel and strung in pairs to support the body of the coach and enable it to swing back and forth. This cradle-like motion absorbed the shocks of the road and spared the horses as well as the passengers. It also permitted the coach to work up its own assisting momentum when it was mired in a slough of bad road…These thorough braces were carefully wrought and intricate in arrangement, and it usually required the hides of more than a dozen oxen to supply enough of them for a single coach. (6)
Cross-section of the Concord Coach's thorough braces
from Nick Eggenhofer's Wagons, Men and Mules.
Mark Twain and his brother traveled west by overland stagecoach in 1861. Describing their experiences in his book, Roughing It, he wrote: “Our coach was a greate [sic] swinging and swaying stage of the most sumptuous description—an imposing cradle on wheels.” It rocked on its thorough braces, instead of bouncing on steel springs. (7)
Abbot and Downing coaches came in three sizes, “…built to hold six, nine, or twelve passengers, though some of the later models could crowd in twenty. They were usually drawn by teams of four or six horses, whose harnesses were supplied by the James R. Hill Company, also of Concord.” (8) More passengers could be seated outside on top of the coach.
The Overland Mail stage departs from Atchison, Kansas.
Published in Harper's Weekly on January 27. 1866.
The company also offered special features on its vehicles.
The coaches were … equipped with an ingenious apparatus for braking. Sand boxes were placed over the brake pads in such a way so that sand could be released when approaching the more rugged hills along the trail.
The inside of the Concord Coach was only a bit over four feet in width, and its height inside was about four and one-half feet. The interior, upholstered in padded leather and damask cloth… The seats, covered with leather-covered pads, were reported to be harder than the wood beneath them….
The final touch for the Concord Coach was its paint job. And, there were never any two exactly alike. It was a gloriously beautiful coach to look at with the favorite colors for the coaches being red for the body and yellow trim, with an exquisite landscape on the doors. The two coats of paint were hand-rubbed, then finished with two more coats of spar varnish. Gold leaf scrollwork was artistically painted in the interior. (9)
1882 Dougherty Spring Wagon
Abbot and Downing produced other types of vehicles, as well.
In addition to the celebrated coaches, the firm made a variety of wagons of the more common kinds, and a wide assortment of the type of stage wagons generally known as “mud wagons.” These included models known as Passenger Wagons, Passenger Hacks, and Overland Wagons; and there was an ambulance resembling the Army’s widely-used Dougherty wagon. Open-sided wagons were designated as Mail Wagons, Australian Wagons, and Florida Wagons. A Mail Jerky was a short, two-seated wagon; and there was a Picnic Wagon, a three-seated topless open carriage. The Yellowstone Wagon, with roll-down curtains and three forward-facing seats inside, was made especially for sight-seeing in the well-known park but some were also used on regular stage runs. All these had the typical stage-wagon
thorough-brace suspension. (10)
Coach works in Albany, New York and Concord, New Hampshire (and perhaps elsewhere) manufactured celerity wagons. James Goold’s factory in Albany built 100 of the wagons for service on the Butterfield Overland route in 1857. (11) The New York Herald’s special correspondent, Waterman L. Ormsby, attributed the innovative design for the celerity wagon to John Butterfield. Instead of having a heavy wooden top, typical of most coaches, it had a light frame structure with a thick duck or canvas covering. This reduced the weight of the vehicle. Its wheels were also set further apart and were protected by wide steel rims. These details helped to keep the vehicle from tipping over or the wheels from sinking in soft roadside sands. (12)
While not as comfortable for daytime travelers as the larger, well-appointed overland coaches, they were designed for passenger travel at night. Ormsby, who was the first through passenger on the Butterfield Overland Mail Line in 1858, described the wagon’s sleeping accommodations:
As for sleeping, most of the wagons are arranged so that the backs of the seats let down and form a bed the length of the vehicle. When the stage is full, passengers must take turns at sleeping. Perhaps the jolting will be found disagreeable at first, but a few nights without sleeping will obviate that difficulty, and soon the jolting will be as little of a disturbance as the rocking of a cradle to a sucking babe. For my part, I found no difficulty in sleeping over the roughest roads, and I have no doubt that any one else will learn quite as quickly. A bounce of the wagon, which makes one’s head strike the top, bottom, or sides, will be equally disregarded, and “nature’s sweet restorer” found as welcome on the hard bottom of the wagon as in the downy beds of the St. Nicholas. White pants and kid gloves had better be discarded by most passengers. (13)
A Concord-made Celerity Wagon exhibited at Seeley
Stable in Old Town San Diego State Historic Park.
Abbot and Downing’s version of the celerity wagon, produced in Concord, used thorough braces (described in the previous section), which made the ride more comfortable for passengers and far safer for the animals pulling the vehicle. It also was smaller, having two passenger seats. And, it probably was more maneuverable on mountain roads and across deserts. According to Nick Eggenhofer, it could carry five to six hundred pounds of mail. (14) Because of the light roof construction, baggage was stowed in the boot at the back of the vehicle or, if need be, inside with the passengers, but not on top. Wide window and door openings also kept the celerity wagon lightweight, letting the air flow through along with the dust and the rain. Heavy duck or leather roll-down curtains were the passengers’ only protection from the elements.
There was no way to heat the stage.
One of the most common and preferred stage vehicles used in the West by stage operators was the mud wagon. Its less than flattering name may offer a hint as to the character of the passenger experience. While a celerity wagon could be considered a mud wagon, because of its lightweight construction and use over rough roads, not all mud wagons were celerity wagons. Some were wagonettes, distinguished by their square, boxy design. Christine Jeffords described them in her article, “Here She Comes! The Stagecoach”:
A square-bodied, homely conveyance with a top of treated canvas stretched over wooden struts, it lacked the Concord's beautifully curved and joined panels, being enclosed only halfway up by flat panels decorated with a roving of wood strips to make it look more expensively made. Its carriage and running gear were lighter than the Concord's, but still sturdy enough for slower travel over muddy roads, and it had the same sort of thoroughbraces as the big one. When its canvas side-curtains were rolled up and fastened, it was almost completely open, which let in more dust but also admitted every available breeze—an advantage in the Southwest. Built like its big brother by Abbott & Downing, it was tough and durable, but lighter in weight, and had a lower center of gravity, making it good for mountain roads, such as those routinely servicing mining camps. The body measured from 6'10" to over 8' high, the track 5'2" (in the U.S.) or 4'8" (in Canada), and it weighed from 800 lb. (for the commonest nine-passenger model) to 1200 (for a 14-). It had two to three inside seats (no roof passengers), and baggage was stored in the single rear boot or piled inside with the passengers. (15)
Unlike the classic Concord stagecoaches, which could be mired in bad weather, mud wagons—true to their name—could travel over trails and roads during inclement weather. However, the only protection provided for passengers against bad weather and dusty roads were the canvas side-curtains, which could be rolled down and fastened.
These vehicles cost about 35% what the Concord did, but the later varieties became beautiful, with curved panels in the rove sides, sometimes solid sides and doors and/or permanent tops with railings, or curved dashes and elaborate leather trim. (16)
The Wells Fargo Mud Wagon displayed in Old Town San Diego State Historic Park’s Seeley Stable once traveled the rugged roads between San Diego and Julian. The vehicle was given to the park by Roscoe E. Hazard in 1972. There are three seats inside with a luggage rack on top. The vehicle has not been restored. Today, more than 100 years later, it retains its worn but original finishes that give an indication of its hard use on the dusty roads of San Diego County.
Variations in mud wagons were made by different manufacturers. Note the differences in the Northern Trinity Stage Co.’s vehicle produced by M.P. Henderson & Son in Stockton. It was used on the steep and rugged roads of Northern California. The stage is displayed at Shasta State Historic Park.
Left: The Wells Fargo Mud Wagon exhibited in
Seeley Stable, Old Town San Diego State Historic Park.
Right: The Northern Trinity Stage, built by M.P. Henderson & Son in Stockton, California,
on display at Shasta State Historic Park.
(1) Josiah Gregg in his Commerce of the Prairies published in 1884, also mentions Dearborn carriages and Jersey wagons.
(2) Henderson & Co. out of Stockton, California built mud wagons used by the Yosemite Stage & Turnpike Co. R.D. Israel and John Van Alst operated a carriage manufacturing business in Old Town San Diego.
(3) Nick Eggenhofer, Wagons, Mules and Men: How the Frontier Moved West. Hastings House Publishers,
New York, 1961. P.151.
(4) David Nevins, The Expressmen, The Old West, Time-Life Books, New York, 1974. P.134.
(5) Eggenhofer, Ibid.
(6) Peter Anthony Adams, “Abbot-Downing Concord Coaches,” http://theconcordcoach.tripod.com/abbotdowning/index
(7) Mark Twain, Roughing It, A publication of the Mark Twain Project of The Bancroft Library. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1995. P. 7..
(8) Adams, Ibid.
(9) Adams, Ibid.
(10) Eggenhofer, pp. 151-152.
(11) Jim W. Adams, “The Butterfield Overland Stagecoach through Guadalupe Pass,” Guadalupe Mountains National Park.
www. geocities.com/guadalupemountains2/history.pdf. P. 326.
(12) Vernon H. Brown, “American Airlines Along the Butterfield Mail Route,” Chronicles of Oklahoma, c.1954. P. 10
(13) Waterman L. Ormsby, The Butterfield Overland Mail, ed. Lyle H. Wright and Josephine M. Bynum, The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA, 1942. P..
(14) Eggenhofer, P.156.
(15) Christine Jefford, "Here She Comes ! The Stagecoach." http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~poindexterfamily/ChristinesPages/Stagecoach.html
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|John Broskie's Guide to Tube Circuit Analysis & Design|
06 October 2013
C. T. Hall's Patent of the Circlotron
Well, there is always something new under the sun, if you know where to look. For example, with a few more advancements, carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFET) will become available and they could be used in a Circlotron amplifier. Today, we can buy Silicon Carbide (SiC) transistors and MOSFETs, which can also be used in a Circlotron amplifier. True, these are just new devices being plugged into an old topology. So, are there any real gaps, topological gaps, to be filled? Indeed, yes.
A few years ago, when I was obsessed with current-out amplifiers, I wondered what a current-out Circlotron power amplifier would look like. The circuit I came up with was based on the topology I created for blog 137.
The above Circlotron is a voltage-out design that uses two negative-feedback loops to set the fixed gain. (The output devices are assumed to be BUZ901 power MOSFETs.) If we subtract the feedback loops, the output MOSFETs run wild, developing an output swing based on the load resistance and the MOSFET's transconductance. The following circuit removes the two negative-feedback loops.
A balanced input signal is applied and the MOSFETs see this signal at their gates, but voltage-shifted down. After running many SPICE simulations, I was disheartened, as the results were poor, very poor. Different MOSFET types didn't help. I, then, assumed that the MJE350 PNP transistors were gumming up the works, so I tried other types, to no avail. Still convinced that the transistors were somehow at fault, I ran some simulations on the following circuit, which uses two input transformers in place of the PNP transistors.
Once again, the results were poor. This troubled me greatly, as a similar circuit, shown below, yielded fantastically good results.
A big, balanced, input signal is applied and the MOSFETs see this signal voltage-shifted down at their gates; and the PNP transistors bases no longer attach to ground, but to the the output terminals. This circuit is a unity-gain power buffer, which explains why a huge balanced input signal is required, as this buffer provides no voltage gain.
So, what went wrong with the current-out version? If we pause and pull back, we see that what drives all of these designs is the MOSFET's transconductance, which the input signal stimulates into action. In the case of the current-out Circlotron, the small input signal had to provoke big output voltages and current swings from the MOSFETs, as they worked into the loudspeaker's 8-ohm impedance. But in the case of the voltage-out Circlotron, the huge input signal didn't need to create voltage amplification, only current delivery. Thus, we were not close to comparing apples to apples, as the unity-gain buffer enjoyed a huge advantage by seeing a huge input signal, which it could use in a degenerative fashion to force its output to conform to accurately. Imagine that you are given $10,000 to build a nice tool shed with. Now, imagine that you are given $300,000 to build a tool shed, the same size, but nicer. Which project would would be more likely to turn out well? In other words, if a current-out Circlotron were designed to accept a huge input signal, what improvement in performance might be had, considering that it could use that huge input signal?
Hybrid Circlotron Variations
A typical power MOSFET, on the other hand, delivers gm of many amperes per volt and can release many amperes of current. Thus the appeal of combining the two technologies. We can simply cascade the MOSFET after a triode, so the triode delivers the MOSFET its input signal, as is done in the following design.
This is not the only way configure a hybrid Circlotron, however. for example, we can use two PNP transistors with the two triodes, as the following circuit shows.
The PNP transistor conducts nine times more current than the triode (a 6DJ8) at idle, but it is the triode that is in charge of the PNP transistor. If the transistor conducts too much, it will turn off the triode, which in turn will turn off the PNP transistor. If the transistor conducts too little, it will force the triode to increase its current conduction until the PNP transistor turns on and conducts sufficient current to establish the necessary base-to-emitter voltage for the PNP transistor. In other words, this is a self regulating circuit, wherein the triode's current swings are small compared to those of the PNP transistor. The above design would make an excellent balanced headphone amplifier output stage for low-impedance loads.
Unfortunately, this topology will not work well with driving speakers, as the PNP transistor will see far too much emitter-to-collector voltage. In the previous hybrid circuit, this was not an issue, as the MOSFETs received their own low-voltage floating power-supply rails. How do we do this with the PNP-transistor-based design?
The above circuit uses two B+ voltages, 30Vdc and 100Vdc, with the power MOSFETs using the lower voltage. The PNP transistor still strives to maintain a fixed base-to-emitter voltage and the triode still receives the input signal and controls the MOSFET's output.
Mind you, this schematic is only for instructional purposes, as the MOSFETs are missing their essential gate-stopper resistors and the two 10-ohm cathode resistors are excessively large in value. Nonetheless, the topology is sound.
In the above doubled-up Circlotron circuit, how much larger or smaller should be the signal delivered to the top triodes versus the signal amplitude the bottom triodes will see?
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Chapters 5 and 6
- Recognize and use terms related to the anatomy and physiology of blood, lymphatic, and immune systems.
- Recognize and use terms related to the pathology of the blood, lymphatic, and immune systems.
- Recognize and use terms related to the diagnostic procedures for the blood, lymphatic, and immune systems.
- Recognize and use terms related to the therapeutic interventions for the blood, lymphatic, and immune systems.
Functions of the Blood, Lymphatic, and Immune Systems
Homeostasis, or a “steady state,” is a continual balancing act of the body systems to provide an internal environment that is comparable with life. The two liquid tissues of the body, the blood and lymph have separate but interrelated functions in maintaining this balance. They combine with a third system, the immune, to protect the body against pathogens that could threaten the organism’s viability. The blood is responsible for the following:
- Transportation of gases (oxygen O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), chemical substances (hormones, nutrients, salts), and cells that defend the body.
- Regulation of the body’s fluid and electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, and body temperature.
- Protection of the body from infection.
- Protection of the body from loss of blood by the action of clotting.
The lymph system is responsible for the following:
- Cleansing the cellular environment
- Returning proteins and tissue fluids to the blood (drainage)
- Providing a pathway for the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins into the bloodstream.
- Defending the body against disease.
The immune system is responsible for the following:
- Defending the body against disease via the immune response
The hematic and lymphatic systems flow through separate yet interconnected and interdependent channels. Both are systems composed of vessels and the liquids that flow through them. The immune system, a very complex set of levels of protection for the body, includes blood and lymph cells.
The above graphic shows the relationship of the lymphatic vessels to the circulatory system. Note the the close relationship between the distribution the distribution of the lymphatic vessels and the venous blood vessels. Tissue fluid is drained by the lymphatic capillaries and transported by a series of larger lymphatic vessels toward the heart.
The hematic system is composed of blood and the vessels that carry the blood throughout the body. Because blood can be an extremely important part of the diagnostic process, students need to understand its normal composition. Blood is composed of a solid portion called plasma. Blood cells make up 45% of the total blood volume, and plasma makes up the other 55%.
The solid portion of blood is composed of three different types of cells:
- Erythrocytes – also called red blood cells (RBCs).
- Leukocytes – also called white blood cells (ABCs).
- Thrombocytes – also called clotting cells, cell fragments, or platelets. Be Careful!
Components of Blood
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
The erythrocytes (which are normally present in the millions) have the important function of transport O2 and CO2throughout the body. The vehicle for this transportation is a protein-iron pigment called hemoglobin.
The formation of RBCs in the bone marrow is stimulated by a hormone from the kidneys called erythropoietin. RBCs have a life span of approximately 120 days, after which they decompose into hemosiderin, an iron pigment resulting from hemolysis and bilirubin. The iron is stored in the liver to be recycled into new RBCs, and the bile pigments are excreted via the liver.
Abnormal RBCs can be named by their morphology, the study of shape or form. RBCs normally have a biconcave, dislike shape. (Although the center is depressed, there is not an actual hole.) Those that are shaped differently often have difficulty in carrying out their function. For example, sickle cell anemia is a hereditary condition characterized by erythrocytes (RBCs) that are abnormally shaped. They resemble a crescent or sickle. An abnormal hemoglobin found inside these erythrocytes causes sickle-cell anemia in a number of Africans and African-Americans. Did You Know?
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
Although there are fewer leukocytes (thousands, not millions), there are different types with different functions. In general, WBCs protect the body from invasion by pathogens. The different types of cells provide this defense in a number of different ways. There are two main types of WBCs: granulocytes and agranulocytes.
Named for their appearance, granulocytes also called polymorphonucleocytes have small grains within the cytoplasm and multilobed nuclei. Both names are used interchangeably.
These are three types of granulocytes, each with its own function. Each of them is named for the type of dye that it attracts.
- Eosinophils – are cells that absorb an acidic dye, causing them to appear reddish. An increase in eosinophils is a response to a need for their function in defending the body against allergens and parasites.
- Neutrophils are cells that do not absorb either an acidic or basic dye and consequently are a purplish color. They are also called phagocytes because they specialize in phagocytosis and generally combat bacteria in pyogenic infections. This means that these cells are drawn to the site of a pathogenic “invasion,” where they consume the enemy and remove the debris resulting from the battle.
- Basophils are cells that absorb a basic (or alkaline) dye and stain a bluish color. Especially effective in combating parasites, they release histamine (a substance that initiates an inflammatory response) and heparin (an anticoagulant), both of which are instrumental in healing damaged tissue.
Agranulocytes are cells named for their lack of granules. The alternative names, mononuclear leucocytes, is so given because they have one nucleus. Both names are used interchangeably. Although these cells originate in the bone marrow, they mature after entering the lymphatic system. There are two types of these WBCs:
- Monocytes: These cells, named for their single, large nucleus, transform into macrophages, which eat pathogens and are effective against severe infections.
- Lymphocytes: these cells are key in what is called the immune response, which involves the “recognition” of dangerous, foreign (viral) substances, and the manufacture of their neutralizers. The foreign substances are called antigens, and the neutralizers are called antibodies
Platelets (also known as thrombocytes) have a round or oval shape and are so named because they look like small plates. Platelets aid in the process of coagulation, the process of changing a liquid to a solid. When blood cells escape their normal vessels, they agglutinate, or clump together, by the following process: First, they release factor X (formerly called thrombokinase), which, in the presence of calcium, reacts with the blood protein, prothrombin, to form thrombin. Thrombin then converts another blood protein, fibrinogen, to fibrin, which eventually forms a mesh like fibrin clot (blood clot), achieving hemostasis (control of blood flow; that is, stopping the bleeding).
Plasma, the liquid portion of blood, is composed of the following:
- Water, or H2O (90%)
- Inorganic substances (calcium, potassium, sodium)
- Organic substances (glucose, amino acids, fats, cholesterol, hormones)
- Waste products (urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine)
- Plasma proteins (serum albumin, serum globulin, and two clotting proteins: fibrinogen and prothrombin)
Serum is plasma minus the clotting proteins. Serology is the branch of laboratory medicine that studies blood serum for evidence of infection by evaluating antigen-antibody reactions in vitro.
Did You Know
The clotting process
Human blood is divided into four major different types: A, B, Ab, and O. The differences are due to antigens present on the surface of the blood cells. Antigens are substances that produce an immune reaction by their nature of being perceived as foreign to the body. In response, the body produces substances called antibodiesthat nullify or neutralize the antigens. In blood, these antigens are called agglutinogens because their presence can cause the blood to clot.
The antibody is termed an agglutinin. For example, type A blood has A antigen, type B has B antigen, type AB has both A and B antigens, and type O has neither A nor B antigens. If an individual with type A blood is transfused with type B blood, The A antigens will form anti-B antibodies because they perceive B blood as being foreign. Following the logic of each of these antigen-antibody reactions, an individual with type AB blood is a universal recipient, and an individual with type O blood is a universal donor.
Another antigen, the Rh factor, is important in pregnancy because a mismatch between the fetus and the mother can cause erythroblastosis fetalis, or hemolytic disease of the newborn. In this disorder, a mother with a negative Rh factor will develop antibodies to an RH + fetus during the first pregnancy. If another pregnancy occurs with an Rh + fetus, the antibodies will destroy the fetal blood cells.
The lymphatic system is responsible for the following:
- Cleansing the cellular environment
- Returning proteins and tissue fluids to the blood
- Providing a pathway for the absorption of fats into the bloodstream
- Defending the body against disease
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph (or interstitial fluid), lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph organs (e.g. tonsils, adenoids, appendix, spleen,, thymus gland, and patches of tissue in the intestines called Peyer patches), and lymphoid tissue. Monocytes and lymphocytes pass from the bloodstream through the blood capillary walls into the spaces between the cells in the body. When they pass into this lymph or interstitial fluid that surrounds cells, they perform their protective functions. Monocytes change into macrophages, destroy pathogens, and collect debris from damaged cells. Lymphocytes are much more complicated and are essential to the immune response, so they are discussed in the next section. Once monocytes and lymphocytes pass into the lymphatic capillaries, the fluid is termed lymph orlymphatic fluid.
Lymph moves in one directo to prevent pathogens from flowing through the entire body. The system filters out the microorganisms as the lymph passes through its various capillaries, vessels, and nodes. Lymph travels in the following sequence:
- From the interstitial spaces between the cells, then
- Toward the heart through lymphatic capillaries.
- To lymphatic vessels that carry lymph using a valvular system.
- To the lymphatic nodes, which are also called lymph glands, that filter the debris that has been collected through the use of macrophages. These nodes can become enlarged when pathogens are present. Note the major lymph nodes in the figure, including the cervical, axillary, inguinal , and mediastinal nodes.
- Then to either the right lymphatic duct or the thoracic duct, both of which empty into the large subclavian veins in the neck.
- Once in the venous blood, the lymph is then recycled through the body through the circulatory system.
The organs in the lymphatic system are the spleen, the thymus gland, the tonsils, the appendix, and Peyer’s patches. the spleen is located in the upper left quadrant and serves to filter, store, and produce blood cells; remove RBCs; and activate B lymphocytes. The thymus gland is located is located in the mediastinum and is instrumental in the development of T lymphocytes (T cells). the tonsils are lymphatic tissue (lingual, pharyngeal, and palatine) that helps protect the entrance to the respiratory and digestive systems. The vermiform appendix and Peyer patches are lymphoid tissue in the intestines.
The immune system is composed of organs, tissues, cells, and chemical messengers that interact to protect the body from external invaders and its own internally altered cells. The chemical messengers are cytokines which are secreted by cells of the immune system that direct immune cellular interactions. Lymphocytes (leukocytes that are categorized as either B cells or T cells) secrete lymphokines. Monocytes and macrophages secrete monokines. Interleukins are a type of cytokine that send messages among leukocytes to direct protective action. The best way to understand this system is through the body’s various levels of defense. The goal of pathogens is to breach these levels to enter the body, reproduce, and subsequently exploit healthy tissue, causing harm. The immune system’s task is to stop them.
The above graphic illustrates the levels of defense. The two outside circles represent nonspecific immunity and its two levels of defense. the inner circle represents the various mechanisms of specific immunity, which can be natural (genetic) or acquired in four different ways. Most pathogens can be contained by the first two lines of nonspecific defense. However, some pathogens deserve a “special” means of protection, which is discussed under “Specific Immunity.”
This term refers to the various ways that the body protects itself from many types of pathogens, without having to “recognize” them. The first line of defense in nonspecific immunity (the outermost layer) consists of the methods of protection:
- Mechanical – examples include the skin, which acts as a barrier, and the sticky mucus on mucous membranes, which serves to trap pathogens.
- Physical – examples include coughing, sneezing, vomiting, and diarrhea. Although not pleasant, these serve to expel pathogens that have gotten past the initial barriers.
- Chemical – examples include tears, saliva, and perspiration. These have a slightly acidic nature that deters pathogens from entering the body while also washing them away. In addition, stomach acids and enzymes serve to kill germs.
The second line of defense in nonspecific immunity comes into play if the pathogens make it past the first line. Defensive measures include certain processes, proteins, and specialized cells. Defensive processes include the following:
- Phagocytosis – pathogens that make it past the first line of defense and enter into the bloodstream may be consumed by neutrophils and monocytes.
- Inflammation – acquiring its name from its properties, this is a protective response to irritation or injury. The characteristics (heat, swelling, redness, and pain) arise in response to an immediate vasoconstriction, followed by an increase in vascular permeability. These provide a good environment for health. If caused by a pathogen, the inflammation is called an infection.
- Pyrexia – when infection is present, fever may serve a protective function by increasing the action of phagocytes and decreasing the viability of certain pathogens.
The protective proteins are part of the second line of defense. These include interferons, which get their name from their ability to “interfere” with viral replication and limit a virus’s ability to damage the body. A second protein type, the complement proteins, exist as inactive forms in blood circulation that become activated in the presence of bacteria, enabling them to lyse (destroy) the organisms.
Finally the last of the “team” in the second line of defense are the natural killer (NK) cells. This special kind of lymphocyte acts nonspecifically to kill cells that have been infected by certain viruses and cancer cells.
Specific immunity may be either genetic – an inherited ability to resist certain diseases because of one’s species, race, sex, or individual genetics – or acquired. Specific immunity is dependent on the body’s ability to identify a pathogen and prepare a specific response (antibody) to only that invader (antigen). antibodies are also referred to as immunoglobulins (lg). The acquired form can be further divided into natural and artificial forms, which in turn can each be either active or passive. After a description of the specific immune process, each of the four types is discussed. Did You Know?
Specific immunity is dependent on the agraulocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes) for its function. The monocytes metamorphose into macrophages, which dispose of foreign substances. The lymphocytes differentiate into either T lymphocytes (they mature in the thymus) or B lymphocytes (they mature in the bone marrow or fetal liver). Although both types of lympocytes take part in specific immunity, they do it in different ways.
The T cells neutralize their enemies through a process of cell-mediated immunity. This means that they attack antigens directly. They are effective against fungi, cancer cells, protozoa, and unfortunately, organ transplants. B cells use a process of humoral immunity (also called antibody-mediated immunity). This means that they secrete antibodies to “poison” their enemies.
Types of Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity is categorized as active or passive and then is further subcategorized as natural or artificial. All describe ways that the body has acquired antibodies to specific diseases.
Active acquired immunity can take either of the following two forms:
- Natural: Development of memory cells to protect the individual from a second exposure.
- Artificial: Vaccination (immunization) that uses a greatly weakened form of the antigen, thus enabling the body to develop antibodies in response to this intentional exposure. Examples are the DTP and MMR vaccines.
Passive acquired immunity can take either of the following two forms:
- Natural: Passage of antibodies through the placenta or breast milk.
- Artificial: Use of immunoglobulins harvested from a donor who developed resistance against specific antigens
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Source: ZImbabwe Independent
BEFORE every general election in Zimbabwe, the issue of citizenship in relation to voter registration, voting and associated disenfranchisement surfaces all the time.
Zimbabwean citizens, mainly those with roots in Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique, have to be subjected to official harassment and humiliation on whether they can register to vote or not.
For years they have been technically barred from voting — disenfranchised in other words — ostensibly because they must first of all renounce entitlement to foreign citizenship by virtue of their parents, grandparents or ancestors having originated from the region.
This is scandalous. It is common cause that millions of Zimbabweans — probably up to a third of the population or five million — came from the region in search of greener pastures. That history is well-documented.
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Talk about timing. Just hours before a small asteroid exploded above Russia last February, two California universities issued a press release proposing a way to deflect or destroy such rocky invaders long before they reach Earth: Zap them with a giant ray-gun.
Scientists have toyed with several ideas for deflecting killer asteroids: blasting them with nuclear bombs, attaching rocket engines to them, using a nearby spacecraft as a "gravitational tug," and even painting sections white or black to change the way they reflect solar energy.
DE-STAR (Directed Energy System for Targeting of Asteroids and exploRation) is the latest entry in the field. It would use lasers in Earth orbit to vaporize or deflect asteroids while they’re still tens of millions of miles away.
“We looked at a modest worst-case scenario,” says University of California-Santa Barbara physicist Philip Lubin, one of the two project leaders. “We picked a 500-meter asteroid moving at 30 kilometers per second because if it hit us, it could cause massive destruction. With a year’s warning, we wanted to be able to completely vaporize the asteroid. That was our challenge.”
To meet that goal, Lubin and Gary Hughes of California Polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo designed a system that would use an array of solar-powered lasers several miles across to deliver a concentrated beam of energy to a small spot on an asteroid’s surface, heating it to about 6,000 degrees Fahrenheit. With enough lead time, that could obliterate the entire asteroid.
You wouldn’t even need to destroy the asteroid completely to protect Earth from harm, Lubin says. Vaporized rock spewing into space would act like a powerful rocket engine, pushing the asteroid to a safe course.
While the full-scale planetary defense system would be far larger than anything ever built in space before, it could start with something smaller than the sail on a tallship. “Even with a 10-meter system, you could take down space debris pretty effectively,” says Lubin. And a system the size of a couple of football fields could nudge most asteroids into new orbits.
Because a DE-STAR unit would be wide but thin, like a thick tarp, it could be folded to fit in a standard rocket payload fairing. Much of the development work would be in devising techniques to assemble multiple modules in orbit, align them with the Sun, and maintain precise pointing as they track an incoming asteroid.
The system would not, however, require major advances in laser technology, Lubin says. Lasers already tested in the laboratory could provide adequate performance today, and both power output and cost are expected to improve in the next few years. “It wouldn’t require any fundamental breakthroughs,” Lubin says. “It would be hard to do, but we could do it.” With enough funding, he estimates, a small system could be deployed in a few years, and a football field-size array could be operating in a decade-and-a-half, offering some protection from all but the biggest asteroids.
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Allowing more people to cast early votes or vote-by-mail is a good way to make voting Covid-secure
With in-person voting presenting a risk to Covid-19 transmission, many states opted to expand mail-in and early voting. The spread of Covid-19 led to 16 Democracy Primaries being postponed or changed to vote-by-mail with the deadline extended. It was therefore crucial for states to take steps to ensure that the presidential election could go ahead smoothly, without any voter being deterred from voting as a result of fear of infection. The option to cast an early vote in person is also an effective measure to reduce the chance of Covid-19 transmission, as spreading voting over a longer period means voters are less likely to come into close contact with each other. Voting-by-mail is Covid-secure, and in this election only five states require a legitimate reason to vote-by-mail; in all others votes-by-mail are issued automatically or are available to all registered voters who request one. As a result, it is estimated that 80 million postal votes will be cast ahead of 3rd November, more than double the number in 2016. Vote-by-mail records are being broken at the state level too, with Texas breaking the state’s record for the most ballots cast on the first day of early voting. In Florida, before in-person early voting began, 2.5 million votes had been cast by mail and in Georgia, voting-by-mail has increased by 648% from 2016. The expansion of early in-person voting and voting-by-mail has been hugely successful in enabling levels of democratic engagement that were threatened by Covid-19.
Whilst voting-by-mail has been successful in avoiding Covid-19 transmission risks, the popularity of early voting in person has not done this. Reports of long queues to cast early votes in person present similar (or only slightly lessened) Covid-19 transmission risks as regular voting on election day would. The long queues are also disproportionately affecting certain social groups, and so concerns of voter suppression and deterrence have been raised.
Rejecting the premises
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The cinnamon bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus) is a small wading bird belonging to the family Ardeidae. The cinnamon bittern species is distributed in Indian Subcontinent, China, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.
Taxonomy of Cinnamon bittern
- Scientific Name: Ixobrychus cinnamomeus
- Common Name: Cinnamon bittern
- French: Blongios cannelle; German: Zimtdommel; Spanish: Avetorillo canelo;
- Other names: Ardea cinnamomea J. F. Gmelin, 1789; chestnut bittern;
- Family: Ardeidae › Pelecaniformes › Aves › Chordata › Animalia
- Species author: (Gmelin, 1789)
|Indian birds - Cinnamon bittern - Ixobrychus cinnamomeus|
DescriptionThe cinnamon bittern species is a small bird, measuring 40 cm in length and weighing 100 to 160 grams. The wingspan is nearly 50 cm. They neck is short and the bill is long. The male is colored uniformly cinnamon above and buff below. The female's back and crown are brown. The juvenile looks like the female but heavily streaked.
HabitatThey inhabit a variety of habitats. They prefer reed beds and dense vegetation close to pools, ponds, lakes, streams and marshes.
Feeding habitsThese bittern species feed on insects, crustaceans, molluscs, frogs, fish and small reptiles.
BreedingThe breeding season of these bittern species in India is between June to September, during monsoon season.
DistributionThe cinnamon bittern species are distributed in the Indian Subcontinent, including Sri Lanka and Indian Islands. They also occur in China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Philippines and Indonesia.
Movement PatternsThese bittern species are resident birds. The northern population may move to south of their range after breeding. Local movements in search of feed are common.
Status and conservationThe global population of the cinnamon bittern species is estimated to be 130,000 to 2,000,000 individual birds. The species have large range and the population is stable. They are considered least vulnerable. Habitat destruction, human activity in the breeding grounds are the major threats in conservation of these species.
The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) has categorized and evaluated these bittern species species and has listed them as of "Least Concern".
Image source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cinnamon_Bittern_-_Taiwan_S4E9894.jpg
Author: Francesco Veronesi from Italy | License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Current topic in Birds of India: Cinnamon bittern - Ixobrychus cinnamomeus.
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With cannabis gaining more recognition as a medicine and a recreational plant, we can observe a growing abundance of various strains available on the market. New strains are discovered and bred each month, each having their own unique profile of fragrances, flavors, and aromas.
Unlike some people think, weed isn’t just weed — and this article will prove that.
Usually, we classify cannabis into three main categories: indica, sativa, and hybrids. However, there’s also one (less common) type this plant — cannabis ruderalis.
If you want to be a savvy consumer, it’s important to know the difference between the above varieties. In our beginner’s guide to cannabis strains, we give you a detailed breakdown of their origins, characteristics, and unique effects.
How Are Cannabis Strains Classified?
There are two main categories of cannabis strains:
All varieties come from different parts of the world and have distinct features that help us distinguish between one another.
Read on to find out what each type of cannabis has to offer.
Differences Between Cannabis Sativa vs Cannabis Indica Plants
Cannabis has an extremely long record of cultivation, dating back to 5000 B.C. Over the years, the plant has evolved to fit into different climates. When it comes to the indica vs sativa classification, both species are unique to different regions of the world.
Cannabis indica is believed to have originated from colder parts of the globe, including higher mountain regions. These plants are native to countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Lebanon. Many indica strains were originally bred in the Hindu Kush region, hence the “Kush” suffix added to some indica flowers.
Cannabis sativa, on the other hand, comes from India and countries near the equator, such as Mexico, Columbia, and several African countries.
Both cannabis sativa and cannabis indica strains vary when it comes to their physical and chemical traits.
Sativa plants tend to grow taller than cannabis indica, reaching up to 25 feet in height. Sativas also grow thin leaves and tall branches, allowing the sun to easily penetrate the flowers and providing large yields within 60–90 days. The buds of a sativa strain have a conical shape and their structure is rather loose.
Indica strains grow smaller and bushier, reaching only up to 6 feet. These plants produce more dense and resinous nuggets with a pungent aroma within 45–50 days.
Due to their height, cannabis sativa plants are better suited for outdoor cultivation. Although it takes a little bit more patience to maximize the yields from a sativa strain, the result is worth the extra time.
Indica plants are usually cultivated outdoors. Although they give smaller yields than sativa strains, the nuggets have insane trichome production and faster flowering time.
Cannabis has different effects depending on the type of strain.
Sativa flowers are known for giving a more invigorating and uplifting high that sharpens focus, boosts creativity, and induce chattiness.
Given this, cannabis sativa strains are better suited for social settings, creative jobs, and physical or repetitive activities. If you’re the wake n’ bake type of cannabis user, choose a sativa bud — it will help you kickstart the day with a jolt of positive energy.
Indica strains have a different nature; they provide quite the opposite effects than sativa buds.
This type of cannabis tends to have sedative properties and produce a complete body relaxation that also eases muscle tension and is typically recommended for sleeping disorders.
However, the effects of any given strain are rather driven by its ratio of THC and CBD, rather than geographical origins. Another factor that shapes the effects of cannabis is the strain’s terpene content. Terpenes are aromatic molecules that give cannabis flowers their unique fragrances and flavors, but they also modulate the potency and types of effects provided by the flower.
A Word on Cannabis Hybrids
If you want to get the best of both worlds, cannabis hybrids are the way to go.
Hybrids are made by crossbreeding different types of cannabis. The result is a combination of different characteristics from each strain in various ratios.
Cannabis hybrids can be broken down into the following categories:
- Indica-dominant hybrids
- Sativa-dominant hybrids
- 50/50 hybrids
By logic, consuming a sativa-dominant strain will cause you to experience the majority of its sativa traits with some delicate characteristics of indica.
Using the same analogy, indica-dominant hybrids produce mostly indica effects with some notes of sativa.
With 50/50 hybrids, you can expect a well-balanced set of effects resulting from the even ratio of both varieties — you can use this type of cannabis throughout the whole day.
Cannabis Ruderalis: Why Is This Type of Cannabis So Rare?
There’s actually one more type of cannabis named Cannabis Ruderalis. It’s not a common type of weed because it lacks psychoactive properties.
Nevertheless, cannabis breeders often use ruderalis plants for crossbreeding due to their ability to produce an auto-flowering effect. Appearance-wise, cannabis ruderalis grows dense and shorts, and can reach up to 25 inches — it resembles the structure of cannabis indica plants.
How to Choose the Best Strain For Yourself?
People have different preferences when it comes to cannabis strains. Your choice will boil down to the effects you’re expecting after consuming cannabis.
If you prefer a boost of energy and a creative buzz, we suggest that you go with a sativa or sativa-dominant hybrid — it can make a fine addition to your morning routine, providing you with a boost of motivation.
On the other hand, if you’re having trouble falling asleep or need a strain that would stimulate your appetite, an indica-dominant hybrid or pure indica will be the best match for your needs.
The easiest way to decide whether you’re more into indicas or sativas is to try both types of cannabis and see which effects you deem more satisfying.
Final Thoughts on Different Cannabis Strains: Can You Name Them Now?
Understanding the differences between cannabis strains is obligatory if you want to learn how the herb works and what to expect when consuming it.
Exploring different cannabis varieties is a beautiful adventure. Whether you’re looking for its invigorating properties, or you just want to kick back and relax, the abundance of strains allows you to personalize your experience with weed throughout the day to help yourself get things done with a smile your face.
What’s your experience with different cannabis strains? Are you more into sativas or do you prefer indica flowers? Share your thoughts with us!
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If you’re trying to add more fruits, vegetables and super foods to your diet, you may be wondering what the difference is between a juicer and a blender. While both make healthy drinks, these two appliances differ in just about every other way.
Let’s take a closer look at the major differences between a juicer and a blender.
Blenders Blend; Juicers Separate
The primary difference between a blender and a juicer is this:
- A juicer separates juice from fiber, while a blender blends all ingredients together.
Every time you toss a beet, carrot or any other fruit or vegetable into a juicer, the juice gets separated from the pulp (or fiber). The liquid is poured into a glass, while the leftover pulp is collected in a container. Juicers work by pressing the food against a set of blades to literally push or squeeze the liquid out.
Blenders, on the other hand, blend all the ingredients together. This means that you’re also getting the pulp, or fiber, found in the foods you blend. There’s no waste left behind, and no complicated prep work involved.
Most juicers have multiple parts, which can make clean-up and operation a bit more time-consuming and complex. Blenders have just a few basic parts, and clean-up is virtually effortless.
How Juicers and Blenders Work
There are a variety of different juicer types on the market, and each comes with its own set of pros and cons. The two primary types are:
Centrifugal is the most common type of juicer, and it works by rapidly spinning foods in its chamber to extract juice. Food is passed through a chute at the top of the juicer, and the food then falls into a chamber with razor sharp teeth. The teeth shred the pulp, and the food is spun at high speeds to remove the juice.
Masticating juicers are also known as cold-pressed juicers, and tend to be more expensive. Foods are squeezed and crushed at a slower rate than a centrifugal juicer. They also produce less heat, which keeps more of the nutrients intact.
While you’ll find a variety of different brands and models on the market, blenders generally all work the same. Speed and jug size will be the main differences between most models. The higher the speed, the better the blending quality.
Juicers Can’t Make Smoothies
Juicers have one function: to make juice. You will be able to make smoothies like you would with a blender. And unlike blenders, you can’t create other things, like sauces, mixed drinks, salsa or soup. The only thing a juicer can do is make juice. Period.
If you’re hoping to keep all of the fiber and nutrients of your food intact, a blender is the better option.
Juicers and blenders can both play a role in a healthy diet. Which one is right for you? That depends on your needs. If you have issues digesting fiber, a juicer may be the better option. However, if nutrition is your top concern, blenders are the better option because you retain all of the fiber in the foods you blend.
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India’s medical practices are some of the most well respected in the entire world. They have an excellent reputation for medical training and success in managing disease and illness. However, despite how stellar their medical reputation is, they still can benefit from traveling in order to receive medical treatment. Every nation on earth stands to gain knowledge and insight by looking outside of their own country for medical treatment. Even the strongest of medical systems can receive an education by engaging in medical tourism. This can also greatly benefit the personal health of Indian residents and citizens.
For example, when Indian residents and citizens travel to Canada to receive healthcare, they have access to treatment options they would not have in India. Canadian medical professionals are trained under different philosophies in medicine than medical professionals in India. They are also trained in different specialties than Indian physicians are trained in. Both are strong nations for quality medical care, but do not resemble each other in some ways, which means both have strengths and weaknesses.
Canadian medicine is socialized and easily accessible to its residents and citizens. Canadians pay small premiums for their socialized healthcare, or they pay no premium at all in some provinces. Overcrowding in medical facilities can happen, but it is the exception, not the rule. Patients in Canadian medical facilities are seen promptly and expediently, and receive high quality services. They have access to specialists as well, and with the addition of a private insurance policy, they have access to even more medical services.
Not all citizens and residents of India can afford to travel to receive healthcare, but those who can certainly should. Indian citizens and residents who travel to Canada to take advantage of its healthcare system will not be disappointed. Canadian culture is very welcoming of outside culture and is happy to accommodate the health needs of foreign citizens.
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Reading is integral to research. Everyone says that, and it’s true. It’s also true that you need to find ways to read, note and keep track of all that reading. This is in part a question of tools and strategies. But tools and strategies are necessary but not sufficient.
You need to make sense of your reading. This is not just so that you can write short reports for your supervisor and then a literature review. Making sense of the reading is about understanding scholarly conversations – what they are, who is involved, the debates, tensions, silences, assumptions and holes. Making sense of the reading is finding the pleasure in scholarship.
One of the things that can help you in making sense of your reading is a reading journal. A reading journal is not so much a place to keep track of what you’ve read. It’s not a data base. Nor is it a place where you keep the key points that arise from each piece of reading. A reading journal is not a set of summaries. A reading journal is a place to keep track of what you are thinking about what you’ve read.
It’s a place where you can write what that the readings have prompted or provoked.
It’s a place to record questions that you may have about arguments or evidence.
It’s a place to explore ideas, both sensible and off the wall.
It’s a place to speculate about how the readings might come together.
It’s a place to store possible ways to connect the reading to your research.
It’s a place to record key quotations that resonate strongly with you.
It’s a place where you can write about the things you don’t understand and the things you want to know more about.
It’s a place to contain the curiosities, excitement, anxieties that the reading provokes.
It’s a place to argue with the authors of the texts you’ve read.
It’s place to see what you can add to the ideas already in the scholarly archive.
A reading journal is about your responses. It’s a way of supporting you to develop response-ability. It’s an aide-memoire and a practice of reflection.
A reading journal can be a digital document, or folder or written by hand in a carefully chosen notebook. Or whatever. No rules. No prescribed formats. What suits you. If your reading journal is digital, it can be hyperlinked to your references or reference library. But it doesn’t have to be. The reading journal is not about being efficient. It’s about thinking. The reading journal might collect together highlighted notes that you make on some pieces. But it ain’t necessarily so – it’s not a database. I know I’ve said that already, but it’s important. A reading journal is an open text.
Think of a reading journal as a writer’s resource book. As a place to experiment with interpreting ideas. As a place to develop your own writer’s voice. A place where you get to decide which and how other writers enter. A place that is not overrun by established researchers.
A reading journal foregrounds your moments of engagement with scholarly thinking. A reading journal can be an important path for being and becoming researcher. Researchers are never the finished article – we are always learning. The PhD simply begins this process. And writing about, from and with our reading is a key to growing our scholarship and ourselves as scholar.
Read it, journal it.
(With thanks to Chris who reminded me recently about the benefits of reading journals.)
Photocredit: Bea Mahon. Sketchbook-011
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Multnomah Falls in winter – photo taken by our friend, PQ.
According to one Native American legend, the falls were created by Coyote to win the hand of a chief’s daughter. The chief demanded that Coyote give his daughter the gift that would make her the most happy. She asked for a pool where she might bathe in private. So Coyote built the pool and the waterfalls and she consented to become his wife.
In another legend, there was a terrible disease killing the people. So the daughter of the chief climbed to the top of a cliff and prayed to Great Spirit to stop the epidemic. Great Spirit demanded she sacrifice herself by leaping from the cliff. To save her people, she did so. The next day, her father found her body at the bottom of the cliff. He wept bitterly and cried out to Great Spirit that her death not be in vain. At that moment, water began to fall from the top of the cliff, forming Multnomah Falls. And under the right conditions, you can see the daughter’s face in the waterfall.
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Zhongshanqiao is named “the Zhongshan iron bridge”, “the Yellow River iron bridge”, the old Zhenyuan bridge, located at the shore waterway center-section white Tashan, is called “the world Yellow River first bridge”. it constructs in 1907 (clear Guangxu 33). The project undertakes construction by the German merchants, altogether has spent the silver 306,000 two. The bridge both sides build separately have two big memorial archways made of stone, on engraves “trilateral advantage Jinan” and “nine Qu Anlan”. The bridge
Old is Yongzhou Gansu provincial capital Lanzhou. Located in the upper Yellow River, located in the geographical center of China, between latitude 32 ° 31 '~ 42 ° 57', longitude 92 ° 13 '~ 108 ° 46' between. It is the east, Shaanxi, Qinghai, Sichuan controlled South, West Hill Xinjiang, brief Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, is the ancient Silk Road of the key sections of land and gold, and with the Mongolian border, it was like a magnificent gem, set in central China the Loess Plateau, Qinghai and Inner Mongolia plateau, something more than 1,600 kilometers meandering, aspect 453,700 square kilometers, accounting for 4.72% of the total area. Population 26 million (968 million in 1949), Han, Hui, Tibetan, Dongxiang, Yugu, Baoan, Mongolian, Kazak, Tu, Salar, Manchu and other ethnic groups. Among them, the Dongxiang, Yugur, Bonan is a minority of Gansu.
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Moore's Law will keep going strong for decades, Intel CTO Justin Rattner predicts.
Moore's Law, in force for more than 40 years, says that the number of transistors that can be placed on an integrated circuit will double every 18 to 24 months. Predictions of the demise of Moore's Law are routinely heard in the IT world, and some organisations are trying to find a replacement for silicon chip technology. But Rattner says that silicon has plenty of life left and said there is no end in sight for Moore's Law.
"If Moore's Law is simply a measure of the increase in the number of electronic devices per chip, then Moore's Law has much more time to go, probably decades," Rattner said in an interview with Network World.
The National Science Foundation is already preparing for a post-silicon world, having requested federal funding for research that could improve or replace current transistor technology. Separately, IBM scientists are building computer chips out of DNA.
Rattner, who is CTO of the world's biggest chipmaker and the head of Intel Labs, the company's primary research arm, predicted that chip architecture will "undergo dramatic changes" in the coming decades but that silicon itself will remain the core element for the foreseeable future. Intel is now moving to a 32-nanometer process for chip production, an upgrade over the existing 45-nanometer process.
"There's plenty of life left in silicon," Rattner says. "We're well along in our 32-nanometer development and I think we'll show some significant product-level results at 32. Right now, in terms of silicon technology we don't feel like we're at some point of demise in any sense. And there are still new approaches to the way we build transistors and devices that will involve silicon and newer materials, like our high-k metal gate silicon technology."
The high-k metal gate technology uses hafnium-based circuitry, which Intel adopted to create smaller processors that are faster and more energy-efficient.
Beyond the search for ever-greater performance and efficiency, Intel's researchers today are striving to make chips more compatible with server virtualisation technologies, such as the VMware and Xen hypervisors.
Just a decade ago, Intel had a hard time convincing its own chip designers that virtualisation was an important feature, but times have changed quickly.
"Virtualisation has become mandatory," Rattner says. "We had a lot of work to do to convince the chip designers that this was a really important feature. At first they looked at it, kind of squinted and said 'really'? Now it's just about the most important thing in the product."
Rattner, who will deliver the opening address at the SC supercomputing conference in November, also discussed how supercomputing power is being packed into smaller and smaller form factors. What we think of today as supercomputer applications will ultimately move down to desktops, laptops and even mobile phones, Rattner says.
Intel is building many new "system on chip" designs that will add new capabilities to a variety of Internet-connected devices, such as robotics, set-top boxes and various mobile Internet devices.
Rattner says "mobile augmented reality" will become a part of everyday life, with cameras that you can point at an object – such as a famous ruin – and instantly receive detailed information about what it is.
"That's augmented reality, where you take real world information, and you overlay the virtual information that informs you about the scene," Rattner says. "Beyond that, what we see happening is an increasing amount of what we call perceptual computing tasks, as small form factor machines have richer sensor capabilities."
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German industrialist Berthold Beitz, who saved Jews during WWII, dies
German industrialist Berthold Beitz, who rescued Jewish workers in occupied Poland by employing them during World War II, has died.
Beitz’s death Tuesday at the age of 99 was announced by the foundation he headed, the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Stiftung.
In 1942, Beitz was working in Borislaw, Poland, as commercial director for a German oil company when he prevented the deportation of Jews to a death camp. The tall, blond-haired, blue-eyed German repeatedly insisted that Jewish men and women be sent to his offices and factories as “armaments workers,” according to the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. He and his wife, Else, also hid Jewish children in their house and managed to get the local SS governor to allow Beitz to divert further Jews from deportation.
When asked if he had feared for the lives of his wife and their daughter, Beitz once said that he felt as if he were two people: the one who worried and the other who “didn’t think but just acted,” the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung reported. Not all the Jews he helped ultimately survived, but several hundred reportedly were saved.
Beitz and his wife were both honored by Yad Vashem as Righteous Gentiles — he in 1973 and she in 2006. The Central Council of Jews in Germany gave the couple its highest award, the Leo Baeck Prize, in 1999.
When Beitz reflected upon his wartime experiences many years later, he said that his actions were not motivated by anti-fascism or resistance to the Nazi regime.
“We experienced firsthand what was happening to the Jews of Borislaw, from morning to night,” he said, according to the Yad Vashem website. “If you see how a woman with a child on her arm is shot, and you have a child yourself, you have a completely different reaction.”
Beitz was general manager of the Essen-based Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach company, and an influential industrialist in the steel industry of the Ruhr Valley. He was also honorary chairman of the ThyssenKrupp Supervisory Board.
His passing this week brought words of condolence from Jewish leaders and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.
Germany “lost one of its most respected and successful entrepreneurs,” Merkel said in a statement Wednesday. She praised his ”courageous and exemplary intervention to rescue Jewish workers during World War II” and his postwar efforts to build connections with Eastern Europe.
“Berthold Beitz was a light and a role model in the darkness of the murderous Nazi period,” Dieter Graumann, head of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, told the Juedische Allgemeine, Germany’s Jewish weekly. Beitz proved “that you could certainly remain human in that time, if you really wanted to.”
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It is one of the four nitrogenous nucleobases that form the essential components of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Also known as 5-methyl uracil, thymine (T) is a pyrimidine nucleobase that combines with adenine (A), a purine nucleobase.
They bind to each other like a pair of bases through two hydrogen bonds, which stabilize the nucleic acid structures in the DNA. When stacked with the other pair of bottoms, guanine (G) and cytosine (C), the helical structure of DNA (or RNA) is formed.
In the structure of RNA, thymine is replaced by the nucleobase of uracil. As its alternative name suggests (5-methyl uracil), thymine can be derived by methylation of uracil in the 5th carbon (a branching of methyl-CH3 is added to the pyrimidine ring).
The combination of thymine with the pentose sugar and deoxyribose forms the nucleoside deoxythymidine (alternatively called “thymidine”). A nucleoside is a nucleotide without a phosphate group.
Mutation and Cancer
When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, such as sunlight, covalent bonds are formed between adjacent thymine molecules in the same DNA chain, creating thymine dimers. This process causes damage, causing the DNA to form “folds.” This inhibits the normal function of DNA, which can not be replicated or transcribed.
Fortunately, most cells can repair damaged DNA. This can be achieved in two ways: repair enzymes called photolyase can break the covalent bond, using light as an energy source for cleavage of the bond.
This process is called photoreactivation and is possible in most organisms, although not in placental mammals.
The second mechanism involves a cleavage enzyme, which removes the damaged section of a single strand of DNA. The excised nucleotides are replaced by DNA polymerase, and a final phosphodiester bond (the stabilizing structure of the nucleic acids) is formed by the DNA ligase.
Structure of thymine
The formula of timing is C5H6N2O2.
Thymine is constructed from a specific nitrogenous base that serves as the primary base. Think of this as the secret ingredient for a particular recipe. For example, thymine would have a different nitrogenous base than adenine.
In addition to this, it also contains a phosphate group and a deoxyribose sugar molecule to complete your recipe.
It is a heterocyclic, aromatic, and organic compound. Heterocyclic compounds or “ring structures” are cyclic compounds (the atoms in the compound are connected to form a ring) with traces of at least two different elements.
An “organic” compound contains carbon, so a heterocyclic organic compound contains carbon atoms and one or more additional elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen.
The term aromatic describes a cyclic and flat molecule with a ring of resonance bonds, which give stability to the molecule. This means that it does not break or react with other substances efficiently.
The four DNA bases
Four bases support the formation of DNA. They are thymine, adenine, guanine, and cytosine. The acronyms are also known as T, A, G and C. These bases attract each other and form specific associations to help the creation of DNA.
DNA is a small molecule found in every cell of your body and is responsible for writing the genetic information of your body.
DNA is best visualized when imagining a long, twisted spiral staircase. The internal part of the staircase is built with steps. If you envision the four bases of DNA as rungs that help form the ladder, you can understand how the bases hold the DNA structure together.
In the same way that the steps have the responsibility to stabilize the ladder, the bases have the responsibility to stabilize the DNA structure.
Thymine is an exciting base because it is the only one of the four bases found exclusively within DNA.
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| 0.93836 | 871 | 4.3125 | 4 |
If you’re looking to decrease your risk of developing a chronic illness, you may want to start monitoring your pH levels. According to research, high acid levels may increase your risk of type 2 diabetes, hypertension and degenerative diseases. Some experts are warning people to stay away from a high acid diet. Even some celebrities are hopping on the alkaline diet train! Here’s what you need to know about how the acid levels in your body may be affecting your health.
The Link Between Degenerative Illness and Acid Levels
High acidity refers to an imbalance in the body’s pH levels. The body functions at its best when its pH levels measure slightly alkaline, or 7.39. A pH reading higher than this indicates that the body is in a state of alkalosis. Measures that are lower than 7.39 indicate the body is in a state of acidosis. Disease can occur during both states; however, acidosis is far more common than alkalosis and can be easily rectified by eating an alkalising diet where emphasis is placed on eating 80% alkalising foods and drinks, and 20% acidic foods and drinks.
According to a 2012 study published in The Journal of Environmental and Public Health, an alkaline diet may reduce mortality and overall mortality caused by chronic disease. The study found that chronic acidosis has been linked to bone disease caused by a decrease in bone density. This occurs when too many acid levels are present and the body has to pull calcium (an alkaline mineral) from the bones in an attempt to regain a proper pH balance again. When too many acids are present, the body runs out of calcium to pull from its bones and reduced bone density and bone disease occurs as a result.
The study also found that acidosis contributes to muscle loss as we age, which puts us at an increased risk of falling and fractures. A three-year-study found that potassium rich fruits and vegetables helped reduced acid load, which resulted in the preservation of muscle mass in the older population. When the skeletal muscles break down, there is an increased risk of renal failure, lung disease, trauma, sepsis, chronic obstructive lung disease, and diabetic ketosis.
Lastly, a 2001 study found that supplementing with alkaline minerals may reduce back pain. The study found that the alkaline minerals significantly increased blood pH levels as well as magnesium found within cells. Magnesium plays an important role in the function of enzyme systems and the activation of vitamin D, which has been shown to reduce back pain.
How An Alkalising Diet Can Help
A food is considered to be acidic when it contains more acid minerals than alkaline. These include calcium, sodium, magnesium, copper and cobalt. Unlike acidic foods, alkaline foods contain no corrosive properties and are widely considered to be gentle. In other words, they are less likely to cause disease.
An alkalising diet is based on the theory that eating mostly alkaline foods reduces acid levels in the body and prevents disease. Many celebrities have already hopped on the alkaline diet train to keep healthy! Victoria Beckham, Alicia Silverstone, Gwyneth Paltrow, Kirsten Dunst, Jennifer Aniston and Jared Leto are just a few celebrities who use the alkaline diet to look and feel great.
The premise behind the alkaline diet is that eating fruits and vegetables high in alkaline minerals creates an environment in which disease cannot thrive. When we eat too many processed foods and sugars, high acid levels throw off the pH level in the body, which results in inflammation, irritation of the organs and tissue, and disruption of important enzymatic reactions.
Diseases love to thrive in environments like these. But when we eat lots of alkaline foods with alkaline minerals, they go to work by combating the acidosis in the body and moving it out in the form of urine or sweat. The body’s pH levels return to normal and the likelihood of developing a chronic disease is greatly reduced. To gain a deeper understanding about the alkaline diet, please see our article here.
In addition to eating lots of fruits and vegetables that are high in alkaline minerals, drinking alkaline water that has been enriched with alkaline minerals has also been shown to promote alkalinity. Biocera Alkaline Jug Filters are an easy way to make sure you have access to alkaline water whenever you need it.
AlkaMax promotes a better body alkaline pH by increasing the body’s supply of alkaline minerals so it doesn’t have to pull from valuable sources, such as your bones, which helps reduce the risk of developing a degenerative disease. A teaspoon of AlkaMax in a glass of water provides six different types of alkalising salts that move acids out of the body where they cannot linger and cause disease.
If you have questions about any of our products, please contact us here. Our professional staff is standing by to help you make an informed decision about health concerns and products to suit all lifestyles and issues.
The premise behind the alkaline diet is that eating fruits and vegetables high in alkaline minerals creates an environment in which disease cannot thrive.
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There are about 1 million described species of insects, and millions more still to be discovered, but every species of insect on Earth has been placed in only 31 existing orders. Now there’s one more.
The findings have been published in the journal Cretaceous Research and describe this small, wingless female insect that probably lived in fissures in the bark of trees, looking for mites, worms or fungi to feed on while dinosaurs lumbered nearby. It was tiny, but scary looking.
“This insect has a number of features that just don’t match those of any other insect species that I know,” said George Poinar, Jr., an emeritus professor of entomology in the OSU College of Science and one of the world’s leading experts on plant and animal life forms found preserved in the semi-precious stone amber.
“I had never really seen anything like it. It appears to be unique in the insect world, and after considerable discussion we decided it had to take its place in a new order.”
Perhaps most unusual, Poinar said, was a triangular head with bulging eyes, with the vertex of the right triangle located at the base of the neck. This is different from any other known insect, and would have given this species the ability to see almost 180 degrees by turning its head sideways.
You can read and see more at Phys.org.
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Because the complexity of the simulation mainly occurs in algorithmic and not in mathematics, JAVA is an excellent choice because this programming language is full and has already been introduced in the commercial engineering course at FEB Gent. The simulation program was designed in such a way that all parameters can be read in by means of a text file. This file has a fixed structure and was drawn up in a way that all necessary information for the program can be specified. The information provided relates to the arrival process, the specifications of the queue, the operating process and the data that needs to be kept for making a certain. The reading of this file queue management is done by a regular expression, after which the necessary information is stored in different HashMaps structured according to a tree structure.
These Hash Maps will then be added later in the program where online queue management system necessary. Even if multiple simulations are required to obtain certain data that are necessary for the establishment of a specific, this read in file will be functional. After all, every that can be drawn up is linked to a class in which the parameters will vary in the necessary way to obtain the correct data. The simulation program is made up of different classes and sub classes. Each separate class has a specific function in the program. Because not every class of the simulation program can be discussed separately, the classes in this text are structured into groups that are discussed in the following paragraphs. As already mentioned, distributions will often be used in the simulation program. In order to implement this, the super class Distribution was created with its sub classes Poisson, Binomial, Geometric and Deterministic. These class group ensures that a correct distribution can always be created in the program and that numbers can be generated according to this created distribution when necessary. To implement online queue management system this function, the commons math .jar library was added to the program.
This library has the Distribution package which makes it very simple to customer queue management system initialize a distribution and generate numbers according to a certain distribution. In the simulation program, a difference is needed between the distributions used for the incidence and the distributions that are used to determine the length of an arriving train. Because the length of an arriving train must always be at least package, we will use a shifted discrete distribution for the length. In concrete terms, the sample value will always be increased by unit. This does not have to be a problem, although one must be attentive when determining and entering an average value in the read in file for this shifted distribution.
The table below shows the average values for the original and customer queue management system shifted discrete distributions. Under the group arrival process the classes Arrival, Packet and Train are understood. The classes Packet and Train provide all information with a package or train respectively when that package or train is created. For a train this is the arrival time the time slot in which the train is created and the number of remaining packages from which the train still exists in this time slot. For a package this is the type of package type and type packages are distinguished in the program by initializing a Boolean true or false when the package is created, in which time visit here slots the package was created and to which train the package belongs.
The company therefore tries to promote its existing products in education queue management solutions new markets. This is achieved by developing additional geographic markets. Because the brand is relatively recent, the company s main strategy is the geographical expansion of the brand not only in Attica but also throughout Greece. So in a few years it has many branches and wholesale customers all over Greece. Once the strategic placement of the stores has been completed at the points that the company believes should be present within, the market development strategy is directed abroad.
Although the implementation of this strategy is at an early stage, the first steps have been taken to achieve it by opening a store in Cyprus, Jordan and Albania. The main goal and stage of its development is also the greater emphasis and promotion of its e-shop. There is a great effort to develop its online markets so that it is a key source of revenue as the company recognizes and surveys the global consumer trend towards online markets. It strives to create an even more user-friendly platform that will act as a stand-alone store and include not just a part but the entire collection of its products. After processing the questionnaire responses using the Must software, both aggregate and analytical results were obtained for customer satisfaction levels of the company. The results are listed below. The survey was made at an e-shop for a long chain of men s clothing. Responses came from 24% of the female population aged 18 to 54 and 76% of the male population aged 18 to 70. Ages responding most to the questionnaire were both women and men between 25 and 44 with 76% of women and 71% on the part of men. Result was anticipated as the click here companys products are for men aged 25-45 who want to have a casual but also fashionable look that is suitable for all hours of the day.
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| 0.956854 | 1,015 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Different teaching methods for children
Teaching To Kids’ Learning Styles
- Visual (spatial): You prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
- Aural (auditory-musical): You prefer using sound and music.
- Verbal (linguistic): You prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
- Physical (kinesthetic): You prefer using your body, hands and sense of touch.
- Logical (mathematical): You prefer using logic, reasoning and systems.
- Social (interpersonal): You prefer to learn in groups or with other people.
- Solitary (intrapersonal): You prefer to work alone and use self-study.
Your student will most likely not possess one style exclusively but you may be able to see patterns in their learning preferences. For example, a student who is visual may also be a very social and verbal learner and prefers to learn especially difficult topics using their primary skills.
Understanding how your student learns is perhaps one of the most important tasks a parent can undergo while homeschooling. Another is learning how to provide opportunities for learning through the use of these identified learning preferences.
Teachers often use their preferred learning style as their main mode of teaching and if students do not share those same preferences then learning can be very difficult and frustrating.
As a Special Education teacher it was important for me to understand those differences in order to maximize my students’ learning potential. It is just as important for all parents and teachers to do the same. Watch your children and students. Listen to what they want and their interests. Compare the differences between how they learn Aurally and Visually as well as the other styles outlined above. Compare how they interact with others while learning in a group or by themselves. Each observation will bring you closer to understanding their special gifts and will reveal to you more effective ways to teach them using their preferred learning styles.
No student is exclusively one style or another and most utilize a variety of modalities when learning. It is important to expand their abilities to use as many learning styles as possible, helping them to succeed in a world where how one learns often means nothing and only the ability to learn has value.
Time4Learning has developed a comprehensive, multi-modality learning curriculum that allows all students to reach successful levels of understanding by using their preferred learning styles. Time4Learning’s lessons are scientifically designed to reach the vast array of learning needs.
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DescriptionDesign considerations in the packaging of electronic systems. Production of circuit boards and design of electronic assemblies. Vibration, shock, fatigue and thermal considerations.
Semesters OfferedFall 2017, Fall 2018, Fall 2019, Fall 2020
- Develop an understanding of the basic and fundamental operating principles of semiconductor devices (e.g. transistors), passive electronic devices (e.g. resistors, capacitors), and MEMS through lecture.
- Develop a knowledge of the types of electronic packages and their constituent parts through lecture and a term project involving deconstruction of an electronic system.
Develop an ability to apply mathematics and physics to conduct basic and fundamental electrical, mechanical, and thermal analysis and design of electronic systems within realistic constraints understanding the impacts in an economic, environmental, and societal context, including
- Layout design of a circuit card to minimize signal distortion and temperature gradients, while assuring manufacturability
- Development of a thermal management plan to minimize energy consumption
- Create assemblies with lead-free solders to minimize the deleterious environmental and health effects of lead and to increase sustainability
- Conduct mechanical stress analysis on an assembly subjected to shock, vibration, and/or temperature cycling to ensure safety and reliability.
- Enhance the ability to function on multidisciplinary teams and to communicate effectively through the semester project which is performed in groups of 3 to 5 students and for which there is an written report and in-class presentation at the end of the semester.
- Enhance your ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice. This is emphasized through the use of analytical tools, such as scanning electron microscopy and X-ray analysis along with computational fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mechanical stress analysis simulation tools, such as Flotherm, Icepak, ANSYS Workbench in the deconstruction project.
- Fundamental operating principles of active and passive electronic devices
- MEMS and microsystems
- Design of component level packaging (i.e. wirebonds, flip chip, die attach, substrates, encapsulants)
- Taxonomy of compionent packaging (e.g. QFN, BGA, CSP)
- Design of circuit boards (i.e. signal attenuation/distortion, routing, materials)
- Manufacturing of circuit boards (i.e., electroplating, lamination, panelization)
- Lead-free soldering and environmental impacts
- Additive vs. subtractive manufacturing techniques
- Heat transfer, thermal analysis, and cooling techniques
- Reliability analysis (especially thermal, vibration, and shock fatigue)
- an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering
- an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability
- an ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams
- an ability to communicate effectively
- the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global, economic, environmental, and societal context
- a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in life-long learning
- a knowledge of contemporary issues
- an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice
Additional Course Information
McCluskey, F. Patrick
- Two 75 minute lectures per week
Last Updated By
F. Patrick McCluskey, June 2017
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366 pages, Col photos, illus, tabs
Combines a discussion of the ecology of streams and rivers with an illustrative field guide of the plants and animals found in the running waters of North America. Although this book uses North American examples, much of the ecological processes, interactions and classifications are covered are applicable to running waters worldwide.
...this book is ideal for use by conservation organizations and monitoring groups. -SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST, (2005) "Cushing and Allen have written an attractive and easy-to-read book that will appeal to the nonprofessional, but seriously interested stream-lover for whom it is intended. Superb color photographs of streams and organisms will please any naturalist. ...the book combines the advantages of reference book and field guide, and provides a nontrivial account of ecosystem function in streams and rivers. ...All in all, a good book that J-NABS readers can confidently recommend to others, especially nonprofessionals" Rosemary J. Mackay for JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN BENTHOLOGICAL SOCIETY (2002) "This book is very well organized. It is a comprehensive volume that covers all the basics of stream ecology and would serve as a useful reference for both professional and lay audiences. ...This is the best available road map through the scientific complexities of a discipline that informs our understanding of environmental quality. --Charles F. Gauvin, President and CEO, TROUT UNLIMITED (May 2001) "This informative volume is exactly what has long been needed - a book that tells us how rivers and their essential life systems work. Every reader's understanding of our watery lifelines will be enhanced by the superb knowledge and wisdom that these fine scientists impart. Streams: Their Ecology and Life will become a useful tool for better care of our waterways and an essential companion to river enthusiasts." --Tim Palmer, author of "Lifelines: The Case for River Conservation, America by Rivers", and "The Heart of America" "When the president of a local watershed protection group asks me what book to read to learn about streams, I'll recommend this one. It is an engaging introduction to the ecology of rivers and streams. The authors' enthusiasm for the subject is contagious." --Judy Meyer, Director of Science, River Basin Science and Policy Center, University of Georgia
There are currently no reviews for this product. Be the first to review this product!
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Home| Site Map | Online Bookstore | Welsh Faerie Witchcraft | How Do I Meet Witches or Find a Coven? Thirteen Treasures Study Course | Welsh Resources | Celtic Resources | Shaman Resources | Tantra Resources Herbal Resources | Articles, Notes, & Writings | Free Spritual Counseling & Healing | Search Engines
Sword of Dyrnwyn On-Line Magazine
Volume 26, Issue No. 3 Beltane, or May Day, Issue May 1, 2007
Table of Contents |
Beltane | Tree of the Month | Circle Ritual
Organizational News | Transitions | Classes | Y Tylwyth TegNews | Classifieds | Recommended Books
New Book Reviews | Recipes | Georgia News | Worldwide News | Becoming Legal | Bangor Institute
Camelot | Crystal Dragon | Dynion Mwyn News | Environment | Spell | Herbs
Flowers | UFP News | Newsletters | Links
History and Meaning of Beltane
(Beltane May Day)
Kipling: Oh,do not tell the Priest of our plight,
Or he would call it a sin;
But we have been out in the woods all night,
A-conjuring Summer in!
All fires were extinguished on the eve of Beltane. This is one of the fire festival at which Balefires would be started across the country with a new fire that had been started by the Druid. All hearths would be rekindled with the fresh flame at sunrise. Actually the preparation for Beltane would start a few days before it, with the gathering of the nine sacred woods used for the kindling of the fire. At dawn the Bel-fire or Need-fire would be started and then torches fit from it to be carried home to relight the hearth fires. According to Robert Graves, the Beltane need-fire was kindled by drilling an oak plank with specific incantations and the fire had special properties. Irish traditions call for the first Beltane fire to be lit by the High King, then all the others were lit. A "little voice" tells me that the fires were lit by the Head Arch Druid and the other "fifths" or kingdoms were lit in an East, West, South, and North direction, by their Arch Druids or Lords of the area to form a circle of protection around the Island.
It is celebrated as an early agricultural festival accompanying the first turning of the herds out to wild pasture. The rituals were held to promote fertility. The cattle were driven between the Belfires to protect them from ills and to ensure fertility. Contact with the fire was interpreted as symbolic contact with the sun. People also jumped the fire for fertility and prosperity.
It was a time of fun and games. The time of planting is finished and a time of waiting begins. The Beltane Games were a time to test the young warriors against each other in friendly matches, archery contests, feasting, dancing, story telling and a chance for people to get together.
It is also considered as the coming together of the God and Goddess in fertile union to add new life to the crops and hasten their growth. "Beltane" means "~Fire of Bel", the Sun God who's accession feast we now celebrate. Bel or Belinos, being associated with the Apollo and Baal. As a side note; Bel, Belinos, Balor or Belenus are traced back to Baal, they all mean Lord. They are more of a Fire God than a solar god. Also the Irish and Scottish word for the sun is "grian", another is "Mor", they are both feminine. So the Irish and Scots both thought of the Sun as female, a giver of life.
As summer begins, weather becomes warmer, and the plant world blossoms, an exuberant mood prevails. It is a time of unabashed sexuality and passion. Young people spend the entire night in the woods "a-maying", and dance around the phallic Maypole the next morning. Older married couples may remove their wedding rings (and the restrictions they imply) for this one night. May morning is a magical time for "wild" water (dew, flowing streams, and springs) which is collected and used to bathe in for beauty, or to drink for health.
Some Beltane traditions are: Make a rope out of the tail hair of Cattle and drag it in the dew chanting "Milk of this one down, milk of that one up, into my own big pail" to ensure a good milk supply. Bannocks cakes made with milk, eggs and oatmeal by hand and not suppose to come into contact with steel were made up until the end of the 19th century. To stop enchantments from fairies, rowan crosses were hung and people and animals sprinkled with water from sacred wells. The rowan branch is hung over the house fire on May Day to preserve the fire itself from bewitchment (the house fire being symbolic of the luck of the house.
The May Queen (and often King) is chosen from among the young people, and they go singing from door to door throughout the town carrying flowers or the May tree, soliciting donations for a merrymaking in return for the "blessing of May". In some rituals, a King and Queen May symbolize the male and female principles of productivity This is symbolic of bestowing and sharing of the new creative power that is stirring in the world. As the kids go from door to door, the May Bride often sings to the effect that those who give wilt get of nature's bounty through the year.
In parts of France, some jilted youth will lie in a field on May Day and pretend to sleep. If any village girl is willing to marry him, she goes and wakes him with a kiss; the pair then go to the village inn together and lead the dance which announces their engagement. The boy is called "the betrothed of May."
Branches and flowers were brought back and woven into garlands of intersecting hoops with two balls dangling within the circle. It was supposedly made out of rowan and marsh marigolds. This is still done in some Irish villages today. Also staying up all night and dancing among the crops was traditional. Some say that is were the tradition that witches fly on broomstick came from. That the old pagans use to dance with phallic staffs and jump as high as they could because that was as high as the crops would grow.
The last known public Beltane festival was held on Arran was as late as 1895. The Beltane fires and festivals went on all over the Scottish Highlands until the mid-nineteenth century. Beltane rites still are carried over at several places today. The famous Cloutie Well (the Blue Well or Well of youth) on Culloden moor in Inverness-shire is still visited on the first Sunday of May and strips of cloth are stilll left there on the trees. Arthur seat in Edinburgh, people still climb to the top of this summit to watch the May sunrise.
The Christian religion substitute for Beltane was celebrated as "Roodmas". In Germany, it was the feast of Saint Walpurga or "Walpurgisnacht". Later when the Christian church took over the Beltane observances, a service was held in the church, followed by a procession to the fields or hills, where the priest kindled the fire and blessed field and animals.
The astrological date for Beltane is around May 5 when the sun reaches 15 degrees Taurus, this was the original time of the Sabbat. It is believed that Beltane was not adjusted when the calendar was recalculated and it should be closer to that date. This is a "power point" in astrology and is shown in the Tarot as the Bull in the cards World and Wheel of fortune.
Hawthorn, Whitethorn or May is the Goddess tree whose white flowers indicate the time of Beltane, the Good Fires, which burn away the evils of winter and signal the start of the Goddess' reign again. Thorns are protective trees and Whitethorn, Quickthorn and Hawthorn are all sacred to the Goddess. The Celtic letter name was Uath. There was a strong taboo on breaking hawthorn branches or bringing them into the house except on May Day. Then sprigs are cut for the Goddess. This taboo is still strong for the Irish for they loath to cut a lone hawthorn, a fairy tree.
Sycamore is a God tree and has a long magical association, for its leaves are often those shown on foliated heads of the God of Nature, Jack in the Green, found as a pub sign and in old churches. The wood is used green for carving and is often used for Welsh 'love spoons" given as tokens of betrothal at around May Day. The phallic May Pole were put up on many a village green as folk celebrated the marriage of the White Goddess (Marian) to the Green Man or Robin Hood.
A few of Beltane's Historical/mythological events are from the ancient Irish 'Book of Invasions'. The first settler of Ireland, Partholan, arrived on May 1st; and it was on May 1st that the plague came which destroyed his people. The landing of the Tuatha De Danaan in Ireland and years later, the Tuatha De Danann were conquered by the Milesians on May Day. In Welsh myth, the perennial battle between Gwythur and Gwyn for the love of Creudylad took place each May Day; and it was on May Eve that Teirnyon lost his colts and found Pryderi. And Queen Guinevere's 'abduction' by Meliagrance. May is named in honor of the goddess Maia, originally a Greek mountain nymph, later identified as the most beautiful of the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades. By Zeus, she is also the mother of Hermes, god of magic. Maia's parents were Atlas and Pleione, a sea nymph.
I will end this with a thought from one of my favorite singers, Jethro Tull.
For the May Day is the great day,
Sung along the old straight track.
And those who ancient lines did ley
Will heed this song that calls them back.
Celli Laughing Coyote
The Sword of Dynion Mwyn provides news, views, and other information primarily of and for the students, members and friends of The Welsh Tradition of Dynion Mwyn and selected members of the International Pagan Community. The Sword is the official journal of the Church of Dynion Mwyn, and has a section which is devoted to the Southeastern Pagan Alliance (SEPA). We are primarily interested in news of topical interest, and articles pertaining to Witchcraft, Wicca, the Occult and Paganism. Deadline for the Beltane, 2007 issue is May 15, 2007. All submissions must include legal name and address. Names will be withheld or magickal names substituted on request. Subscription lists, names, addresses, etc. are not given out or sold. All news and articles should be submitted by the 1st of the month proceeding the issue date.
The Sword is published at the eight sacred festivals of the year during the months of: December, February, March, May, June, August, September, and November. Circulation: 10642
Content: The ideas expressed herein are those of the authors and not those of The Church of Dynion Mwyn, it's covens and groves (except where noted), nor the editors of The Sword of Dynion Mwyn. We will not knowingly print oathbound material, gossip, or rumors. The Sword of Dynion Mwyn cannot vouch for any product, services, or contact identified herein. The Sword of Dynion Mwyn reserves the right to refuse any advertisement that it finds inappropriate.
Address: Dynion Mwyn, P.O. Box 673206, Marietta, Georgia 30006-0036 -- Phone: 000-000-0000
Printed Subscription: Students and members of Dynion Mwyn receive a free subscription; SEPA members and all others receive a free subscription with a donation of $17 or more to the Church of Dynion Mwyn.
This newsletter is published by the Church and Coven of Dynion Mwyn, Inc.
Copywrite©2007 Church of Dynion Mwyn, Inc
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Title:Observational Signatures of Solar Flares|
Type of Project: Data analysis
Interest in physics of solar X-ray emission and magnetic activity. Familiarity with computer programming would be useful but not strictly required.
Mentor: Dr. Paola Testa and Dr. Kathy Reeves
Email: ptesta_at_cfa.harvard.edu, kreeves_at_cfa.harvard.edu
The hot solar outer atmosphere, the corona, is characterized by dynamic events on a large range of spatial and temporal scales. Solar flares are
the largest scale events, involving rapid evolution of the coronal plasma (over time scales from seconds up to hours) and large amounts of
radiation emitted in the X-ray and EUV passbands. Despite the wealth of observations, the details of the physical mechanisms at work during flares
are not well understood yet. This project is designed to derive a robust understanding of the observational signatures of flares in the X-ray/EUV
bands as observed by the recently launched Solar Dynamics Observatory. These observational constraints are fundamental to test flare models.
During the summer the student will analyze solar X-ray/EUV spectra and images obtained with the Extreme-ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE)
and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). In particular, the student will select EVE and AIA
observations of flares and she/he will study the observational signatures of flares vs. flare properties (e.g., flare class, morphology, time
scales,..). The student might then compare the observed characteristics (e.g., intensity of X-ray/EUV emission in a line or passband and its
temporal evolution; spatial distribution of flaring plasma and its evolution) with predictions of models of flaring loops.
Figure 1: Images of a solar flare taken by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on the Solar Dynamics Observatory. Right: 304 Å. Left: 131
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Race/Ethnicity-Resolved Time Trends in United States ASD Prevalence Estimates from IDEA and ADDM
Race-specific time trends in Autism Spectrum Disorder prevalence are tracked among 3–5 year-olds and 8 year-olds identified by the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network, respectively. White ASD prevalence historically has been higher than other racial groups but plateaued for IDEA birth cohorts from ~ 2004 to 2007 before resuming its increase. Black and Hispanic IDEA prevalence increased continuously and caught up to whites by birth year ~ 2008 and ~ 2013, respectively, with black prevalence subsequently exceeding white prevalence in the majority of states. Plateaus in white prevalence occurred in some ADDM states for birth years 2002–2006, but IDEA trends suggest prevalence will increase across all racial groups in ADDM’s birth year 2008 report.
KeywordsAutism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence Time trends ADDM IDEA Race/ethnicity Black White Hispanic
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a complex set of disorders characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication and restricted or stereotyped behaviors (APA 2013). Historically, diagnosed ASD prevalence has been higher among white children than among black or Hispanic peers. Also, black and Hispanic children have been more likely than white children to have severe forms of autism and/or co-occurring intellectual disability (Jarquin et al. 2011; CDC 2018). One explanation for these findings is that autism has been underdiagnosed in some traditionally underserved children, especially those who have milder symptoms (Liptak et al. 2008).
The most recent report of the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network found that overall ASD prevalence was 1.68% among 8 year-olds born in 2006 (CDC 2018). This represented a 15% increase from the ASD prevalence of 1.46% in cohorts born in 2002 and 2004, which, in turn, was more than double the baseline ADDM Network prevalence estimate of 0.67% among cohorts born in 1992 (CDC 2007a, 2014, 2016). The recent ADDM report noted that the prevalence of ASD among black and Hispanic children was approaching the rate identified in white peers (CDC 2018). It was suggested that the narrowing gap between white children and peers of other races might account for some or much of the increase between the birth year 2006 and previous ADDM Network reports.
California Department of Developmental Services (CDDS) data extend further back in time than ADDM to birth years well before 1992 (CDDS 2003). A recent analysis of CDDS data indicated a dramatic increase in U.S. autism prevalence over the last 8 decades to present, by as much as 1000-fold from birth year 1931 to 2012 and 25-fold from 1970 to 2012 (Nevison et al. 2018). The U.S. Department of Education provides additional data on the ASD classification of children, under the auspices of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (Gurney et al. 2003; Shattuck 2006). State and local education authorities, acting on behalf of the IDEA, have tracked children ages 3–21 receiving special education services, beginning in 1991, going back to birth cohorts of the early 1970s. The availability of cohort-specific autism counts in both the CDDS and IDEA datasets over multiple, successive, years allows for “constant-age tracking” of ASD prevalence, among specific age groups. The ADDM network also uses a constant-age tracking method, over successive biannual reports, focusing specifically on 8 year-olds (CDC 2007a, b, 2009a, b, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018), though recent work also has tracked prevalence among 4 year-olds (CDC 2019).
In this paper, we use constant-age tracking to describe race-specific trends among black, Hispanic and white children, and examine how race and ethnicity contribute to the total ASD trend across all races. We characterize the time trend in race-specific United States autism prevalence using the two best available datasets, which, in the IDEA dataset, extend most recently to 3 to 5 year-old children, born in 2012–2014. We pose the hypothesis that increased diagnosis of black and Hispanic children is responsible for the continued upward trend in ASD prevalence in recent years and consider what the IDEA 3–5 year-old data might portend for future ADDM reports and for ASD prevalence in the United States.
Autism Prevalence Data
Race-specific and overall trends in ASD prevalence in the United States are examined using the constant-age tracking approach, in which the prevalence of autism is tracked among 3 to 5 year-olds across 18 years of annual IDEA reports and among 8 year-olds across eight biannual ADDM Network reports. The IDEA and ADDM reports are described in greater detail below and the complete datasets used in our study are provided in Supplementary Files S2-4. Since the relevant information was without identifying information and since the datasets were aggregated by age at the state level, this project did not require institutional review and approval.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Autism Classification Data
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires the collection of special education enrollment counts for 13 specific child disability categories, including autism. IDEA is federally mandated and conducted under the authority of the U.S. Department of Education, but it allows individual states discretion in determining student eligibility under the special education categories. Determination of whether a student qualifies for services under an autism classification is made by district-level professionals, using state-level guidelines in concert with the student’s parents and teachers (MacFarlane and Kanaya 2009).
Autism classification counts were obtained from the IDEA Part B database for each of the 50 United States (http://www.ideadata.org and later https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/state-level-data-files/part-b-data/child-count-and-educational-environments/). From 2000 to 2007, annual autism counts by state for children ages 3–5 years were partitioned into five race/ethnicity groups: American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), Asian or Pacific Islander, Black (not Hispanic), Hispanic, and White (not Hispanic). In 2008–2009, the annual reports shifted to categorizing seven race/ethnicity groups (with many states still using the old five race/ethnicity groups), in which group 2 above was split into (1) Asian and (2) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and a seventh group, Two or More Races, was added. From 2010 and 2017 all states had transitioned to the seven race/ethnicity groups, with a major change in the formatting of the Part B IDEA report starting in 2012. In this study, we focus on autism classification of 3 to 5 year-olds using the following race/ethnicity categories: (1) Black (not Hispanic), (2) Hispanic, and (3) White (not Hispanic), and (4) All races, where category 4 encompasses all race/ethnicity groups. We include the combined Asian/Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander category in our Supplemental Spreadsheets but do not present it in the main text both because it is small in most states and also to avoid confusion over the splitting of the category into two separate groups around 2008. We neglect the AIAN group because it is very small and the Two or More Races group because it was not consistently available in the IDEA annual reports across the full 2000–2017 time span of this study.
Autism prevalence was computed by dividing the IDEA counts by total statewide race-specific public school kindergarten populations (i.e., 5 year-olds), multiplied by 3, as provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/elsi/). The factor of 3 in the prevalence calculation assumes that the 3 and 4 year-old populations (which are not comprehensively available from NCES) are similar to the kindergarten population. The NCES data are available in annual reports for all races as a whole and partitioned into five race/ethnicity groups for the 2000–2007 reports and seven race/ethnicity groups for 2008–2016 reports, consistent with the partitioning of the IDEA data described above. We also assumed that the 2016 race-specific kindergarten populations were a good approximation of the 2017 kindergarten populations (which were not yet available from NCES at the time of this study).
The full datasets of race-specific IDEA autism classification counts and NCES kindergarten populations are provided in Supplementary Files S2 and S3, respectively. Both datasets are presented for all 50 United States plus Washington, D.C. We also computed overall race-specific autism prevalence estimates for the U.S. from 2000 to 2017 by summing all race-specific autism counts from all available states for each year with non-blank data and dividing by the sum of the race-specific NCES public school populations in those states. Race-specific autism classification data were available from at least 48 states for each year from 2000 to 2017.
Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network
The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network is an ongoing, active, multiple source ASD surveillance system established by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in 2000 and conducted in multiple select U.S. regions to provide estimates of ASD prevalence among 8 year-old children. Reports of ASD prevalence are available biannually for birth years from 1992 to 2006, for a total of eight reports (CDC 2007a, b, 2009a, b, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018; Zahorodny et al. 2014). ADDM ASD cases are determined by systematic review and analysis of information contained in existing professional evaluations conducted for developmental health and special education purposes. In some states, ADDM researchers have access only to health records and not education records. (Note: Separate health-only and health-plus-education surveys were reported by Maryland in 2004 and Colorado in 2000. We used only the health-plus-education data in this study.) ADDM uses U.S. Census-based data for the age cohort denominators needed to compute prevalence. ADDM Network estimates through birth year 2006 were based on the DSM-IV criteria and encompass all ASD subtypes, including Autistic Disorder (AD), Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS) and Asperger’s Disorder (APA 1994). Over the lifetime of the Network, ADDM included parts of 18 different states. However, the states surveyed are not consistent from report to report and the number of counties referenced in each report is also somewhat variable.
In addition to tracking site specific and overall ASD prevalence, ADDM presents race/ethnicity-specific prevalence estimates for each participating state in three categories: white (non-Hispanic) black (non-Hispanic) and Hispanic across all reports (in Table 3 for the 2012–2014 reports and Table 2 for all other reports). Asian/Pacific Islander ASD prevalence is also presented in all but the 2000 report, but this category is blank for a number of states/years. The total survey population in each race/ethnicity category is also provided in Table 1 of the ADDM reports. Using the information described above, race-specific prevalence estimates and least squares linear regression slopes were calculated for each group, over time. We split these linear regressions into two periods, encompassing the first set of five reports (birth years 1992–2000) and the three most recent reports (birth years 2002–2006), due to strong non-linearity across these time periods among some race/ethnicity groups in a number of states. This presentation focuses on 9 out 18 total ADDM states that met two criteria: (1) Participation in the most recent report (i.e., survey year 2014, birth year 2006) and (2) participation in at least five reports over the lifetime of the ADDM Network.
We also calculated proportional contributions for each race using total 8 year-old populations (rather than race-specific) denominators to calculate prevalence. For these calculations, we backed out the total number of ASD counts for each race group by multiplying the reported race-specific prevalence rate by the total race-specific survey population, then divided those ASD counts by the total 8 year-old population. Finally, we note that ADDM data are resolved for each state by gender or by race (see Tables 2 and 3 in the biannual reports), but not by both simultaneously. IDEA 3–5 year old data are only resolved by race, not by gender. Thus, it was not possible to examine race trends by gender with the data used in this study.
Autism Trends Among 3 to 5 Year-Olds from IDEA
The mid 2000s plateau in white prevalence is evident in many individual states, although the IDEA data are also erratic in a number of states (Figure S1). When the data are sorted according to absolute value of white prevalence in the most recent report year 2017 (i.e., < 0.5%, 0.5–1%, > 1%), the mean of each of these subgroups looks similar to the nationwide mean in showing a flattening of the white prevalence trend between about birth year 2004–2007 (Fig. 1).
Hispanic and black ASD prevalence estimates were substantially lower than white prevalence across the early IDEA reports in most states. However, in more recent years, ASD prevalence among black children caught up, by about birth year ~ 2008, and thereafter exceeded prevalence among white children in the majority (~ 30) of states (Supplementary Figure S1). Meanwhile ASD prevalence among Hispanic children caught up to prevalence among white children by birth year 2013 on average (Fig. 1a–c) and even exceeded white prevalence in 18–20 states in the last three IDEA reports (Supplementary Figure S1). In the nationwide mean (Fig. 1d), ASD prevalence among Hispanic children began growing the fastest of the three groups starting around birth year 2007, reaching 0.84% by birth year 2013, compared to about 0.7% among white and black children. However (as discussed further below) a disproportionate share of the Hispanic kindergarten population (34%) lives in the six states, which include California, that report high prevalence of > 1% in the 3–5 year-old age group. In contrast, only 11% of the black population and 16% of the white population live in those states.
The states divide relatively evenly in terms of which race group shows the fastest specific rate of increase over the full set of 2000–2017 IDEA reports. Using least squares linear regression to quantify the trend slopes, the fastest growth occurred among white, Hispanic and black children in 11, 15 and 24 states, respectively (Figure S1). However, when the linear fit was restricted to the reports from 2012 to 2017, the race-specific growth rate in autism prevalence was fastest among Hispanic children in the (clear) majority (n = 30) of states. Only eight states showed fastest race-specific growth among white children.
In the earlier 2000–2011 IDEA reports in our study, total ASD counts are available in age-resolved annual reports for 3, 4 and 5 year-olds. For 2012–2017, only aggregated age groups (e.g., 3–5, 6–11, 12–17) are available. In all years, only 3–5 year-olds and 6–21 year-olds are resolved by race. The mean age of the total 3–5 year-old ASD population in the fully age-resolved 2000–2011 reports was 4.3, which we rounded off to ~ 4 in Figs. 1, 2, 3. Only two states (New Jersey and West Virginia) did not report any 3 or 4 year-olds, such that their 3–5 year-old autism counts consisted entirely of 5 year-olds. We assumed that ~ 4 continued to be the mean age in the 2012–2017 reports.
ADDM 8 Year-Old ASD Prevalence in Nine States
Georgia and New Jersey were the two ADDM states with the most consistent and complete ASD case ascertainment, i.e., with access to both health and education records and a relatively consistent survey population. Both states had highest prevalence among whites, but different race-specific trends. In New Jersey, the rate of increase over birth years 2002–2006 was continuous and similar across white, black and Hispanic children. In contrast, in Georgia, white prevalence plateaued over birth years 2002–2006 while Hispanic and black prevalence continued to increase, with black prevalence nearly catching up to white prevalence by 2006, but Hispanic prevalence still lagging.
The white percentage of the ADDM survey population has fluctuated and/or declined substantially in most states (Supplementary Figure S2). In Georgia, for example, white children declined from over 42% of the survey population in birth year 1992 to only 30% by birth year 2006 and in North Carolina they declined from 58.5 to 50%. Simultaneously and in contrast, the Hispanic percentage of the ADDM survey population has increased substantially in almost all states. For example, Hispanic children increased from 10 to 19% of the 8 year-old population of Georgia and from 8 to 18% in North Carolina. The percentage of black children in the ADDM population has fluctuated or declined in some states, but generally remained more constant than that of white or Hispanic children.
Over the history of the Network, white children accounted for the large majority of all ASD cases (Supplementary Figure S3). However, the combination of the plateau in race-specific white prevalence and the declining fraction of the white population reduced the white contribution to increasing ASD prevalence in recent years. Conversely, the combination of increasing race-specific Hispanic ASD prevalence and the increasing Hispanic population fraction enhanced their contribution to increasing ASD prevalence.
One of the most prominent features of the IDEA 3–5 year-old dataset is the plateau in white ASD prevalence over birth years in the mid 2000s followed by a renewed increase in prevalence after birth year 2007. This plateau might suggest a stabilization of the environmental drivers of ASD in the mid-2000s followed by a new or increasing environmental insult after 2007 (Nevison 2014). Hispanic and black prevalence both increased more or less continuously across birth years 1996–2013, without an obvious plateau, although these groups also had lower prevalence than whites throughout most of this time. It is therefore possible that the mid-2000s plateau is not evident for these races because they were still catching up from historical underascertainment during those years, due to more effective outreach to black and Hispanic communities. However, the finding that black prevalence has exceeded white prevalence in the majority of states since birth year 2009, and that Hispanic prevalence also recently has surpassed white prevalence in a third of all states, suggests that additional factors beyond catch-up and access to services may be involved.
Changes in reporting also may have influenced the observed trends. A major shift in the formatting of the IDEA reports occurred in 2012 (birth year ~ 2008), around the same time that the plateau in white prevalence ended and resumed its rise. To our knowledge, though, the determination of autism classification did not change in 2012 when the IDEA reports were reformatted. Furthermore, the uptick in prevalence around birth year 2007–2008 is also seen in the California DDS dataset (Nevison et al. 2018), which did not undergo a change in reporting protocol at that time. Notably, prevalence did not plateau during birth years in the mid 2000s in the CDDS dataset, but it did grow at a slower rate than during the birth years of the early 2000s. The CDDS trends are not inconsistent with the IDEA data, given that whites comprised only one quarter of California’s kindergarten population over those years, such that a plateau in the white-specific trend may have been overshadowed by ongoing increases among other racial groups.
A recent race-resolved analysis of CDDS cases, age 7 years or older, provides important insight into this issue (Pearl et al. 2019). That analysis indicates that the annual rate in growth of autism prevalence among privately-insured whites indeed slowed down, by more than a factor of 5, to a near plateau between birth years 2000–2010. Hispanic ASD prevalence (both privately or publicly insured) also experienced a near plateau, albeit more briefly, between birth years 2003–2006. However, ASD prevalence among publicly-insured whites (considered “lower income” by the study) increased strongly over birth years 2000–2010, ending at 1.2% in birth year 2010, compared to 0.9% among privately-insured whites. Black ASD prevalence (both privately or publicly insured) also increased strongly over this time frame, ending nearly 40% higher than overall white prevalence by birth year 2010.
The publication of DSM-5 in November, 2013 (APA 2013) may have affected the IDEA trends, although the influence of the new diagnostic guidelines on IDEA is unclear given the discretion afforded to states to determine an autism classification for special education purposes. DSM-5 formally defined the term Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), encompassing but no longer distinguishing between milder and more severe subtypes. Assuming DSM-5 was widely adopted by the time of the 2014 IDEA report (birth years 2009–2011), the resumed growth in ASD prevalence, which occurred around birth year 2007, would have predated this diagnostic change. Nevison et al. (2018) reached a similar conclusion about CDDS trends, i.e., that the renewed uptick in prevalence predated the change to DSM-5.
An additional possibility is that the continuous growth in ASD prevalence among 3–5 year-old black and Hispanic children throughout the 2000–2017 span of IDEA reports reflects a shift toward earlier age of diagnosis among those groups, which can create an artefact upward trend in constant-age tracking data (Hertz-Picciotto 2009). We were not able to assess this possibility directly from the available IDEA data, which do not partition 3, 4 and 5 year-olds separately by race/ethnicity. However, recent ADDM Network findings do not support a specific shift toward earlier diagnosis among blacks and Hispanics. The most recent ADDM report found that the median age of earliest known ASD diagnosis remained consistent over the history of the ADDM Network at 52 months and did not differ significantly by race/ethnicity (CDC 2018).
It is notable that access to health care among blacks and Hispanics improved over the decade that black and Hispanic prevalence caught up to and/or surpassed white prevalence. For children in the 1990s on Medicaid, blacks and Hispanics were shown to receive their first autism diagnosis 1.5–2.5 years later on average than the mean white diagnosis age of 6.3 years (Mandell et al. 2002). Similarly, a 2003/2004 survey found that being black, Latino, or poor was associated with decreased access to services (Liptak et al. 2008). In contrast, a 2013/2014 survey found little inequality between non-Hispanic whites and other races (Augustyn et al. 2019). Much of this improvement may be attributed to the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP), which has increased access to timely preventive care, specialty care and prescription medications (Liptak et al. 2008). CHIP began in 1998 and was expanded in 2009. CHIP has preferentially boosted insurance coverage for Hispanic and African American populations in particular, leading to increased health services for those populations (Kaiser Family Foundation 2019).
Hispanic autism prevalence has only caught up with white prevalence very recently in the IDEA 3–5 year-old dataset, achieving similar values around birth year 2012 or 2013 in the low, medium and high prevalence states (Fig. 1a–c). In the nationwide mean, Fig. 1d suggests that Hispanic prevalence may now be growing even faster than white or black prevalence, although this may be an artefact of the fact that a disproportionate share of the Hispanic kindergarten population (34%) lives in the six states that report high prevalence of > 1% in the 3–5 year-old age group. Within that high prevalence group itself (Fig. 1a), Hispanic prevalence was substantially lower than black or white prevalence over almost the entire history of the IDEA reports, catching up to whites only in birth year ~ 2013 on average. However, when the states are examined individually, Hispanic prevalence exceeded white prevalence in over a third of states by birth year 2012–2013 (Supplementary Figure S1). Furthermore, a recent study of individuals ages 7 or older found that Hispanic autism prevalence in California surpassed white prevalence in birth year 2010, at which time the Hispanic prevalence rate was 1.14% compared to 1.07% for whites (Pearl et al. 2019).
Black IDEA autism prevalence estimates caught up somewhat earlier to white prevalence, around birth year 2008 (Fig. 1). Subsequently, it has increased at a similar or higher rate than white prevalence, particularly in the high prevalence category states (Fig. 1a), and has exceeded white prevalence in the majority of states since the 2013 IDEA report (birth year ~ 2009). Thus, the IDEA data suggest that prevalence among black children already exceeds white prevalence in the majority of states and that prevalence among Hispanic children may be trending in that direction too. However, the IDEA data also suggest that these recent race/ethnicity trends are likely not yet apparent in available ADDM data, which thus far have extended only through birth year 2006.
The IDEA age 3 to 5 year-old autism dataset, which encompasses all states, and the population-based ADDM 8 year-old ASD dataset are the two primary ongoing sources of race-resolved ASD prevalence information available in the U.S. (IDEA also tracks race-resolved autism counts among 6 to 21 year-olds, but we considered this too broad an age range to provide meaningful constant-age tracking trends.) The two datasets cover overlapping birth year intervals (1996 ± 1 to 2013 ± 1 for IDEA and 1992–2006 for ADDM). IDEA data extend up to 8 years farther into recent time both because they sample a population that is ~ 4 years younger and because there is a 4 year lag in the publication of ADDM data, e.g., the 2014 survey of 8 year-olds born in 2006 was published in 2018 (CDC 2018). Due to their timely annual availability, IDEA autism classification data may provide a bellwether of forthcoming ASD prevalence trends in the ADDM Network. We advance this idea with the caveat that the IDEA autism counts for 3–5 year-olds significantly underrepresent the ADDM ASD estimates for 8 year-olds (CDC 2019).
In addition, some important differences and discrepancies between the IDEA and ADDM datasets should be acknowledged. The core purposes and definitions of the datasets are different, as are the methodologies and the level of detail characterizing the cases. ADDM is population-based while IDEA may be considered universal because it encompasses the vast majority of school age children. The ages of subjects vary, as do the roles of parents and education or health care professionals in instigating the evaluation for ASD. Recent studies generally have not found significant differences among whites and non-whites in health care-based screening rates and referral practices for toddlers (Rea et al. 2019) or in wait time to care, referral and final diagnosis following evaluation by pediatricians for school-age children (Augustyn et al. 2019). Recent studies also generally have found only limited differences between whites and non-whites in the receipt of school-based physical and occupational therapy (Bilaver et al. 2019). However, these researchers all noted the difficulty of separating effects due to socioeconomic status from those due to race/ethnicity and called for further research into lingering race or wealth-based disparities in access to health and education resources.
Over the duration of the ADDM Network, each biannual report has brought shifts in which and how many states were included. In addition, more recently, at some sites with a history of consistent participation, the number of surveyed counties changed across reports, as did access to records (i.e., health-plus-education versus health-only records). These inconsistencies complicate the Network’s ability to track trends in ASD prevalence. As the ADDM investigators commented most recently, “Comparisons with earlier ADDM Network surveillance results should be interpreted cautiously because of changing composition of sites and geographic coverage over time.” (CDC 2018; see also Supplementary File S4).
The inconsistencies of sampling complicate the interpretation not only of the overall ASD trend but also of the race/ethnicity-specific trends. Across the nine most stable ADDM states, white-specific ASD prevalence declined over the most recent three reports in both Arizona and Arkansas, but these were states with inconsistent sampling in which black and/or Hispanic-specific prevalence estimates also decreased. Three other ADDM Network states showed plateaus in white prevalence, but among these, Missouri also showed a sharp decrease in Hispanic prevalence and North Carolina reported a plateau in black ASD prevalence. Only in Georgia did white ASD prevalence stabilize over birth year 2002–2006, while Hispanic and black prevalence contemporaneously continued to increase. However, Hispanic prevalence in birth year 2006 was still 30% lower than white prevalence in Georgia (1.26% compared to 1.79%) (CDC 2018). Indeed, as of birth year 2006, white and Hispanic children still had the highest and lowest, respectively, race-specific rates of ASD in almost all ADDM states, including Georgia, and IDEA data suggest the gap may not close until birth year 2013.
The most recent ADDM Network report (CDC 2018) suggested that white ASD prevalence had largely stabilized and that the 15% increase in prevalence, from 1.46% in birth year 2002–2004 to 1.68% in birth year 2006, was driven by the catch-up of Hispanics and blacks who had been historically underascertained. This interpretation appears substantially based on the ASD prevalence findings from Georgia, which is the only ADDM state whose findings fully support the hypothesis. Notably this hypothesis is not supported by the findings from New Jersey, which, after Georgia, is the ADDM state with the most complete and geographically consistent ascertainment. In New Jersey, white ASD prevalence continued to increase over the birth year period 2002–2006, at a rate comparable to the increases in Hispanic and black prevalence.
The declining white population and increasing Hispanic population may also influence trends in ASD prevalence, both in past and future ADDM reports. Using total population (rather than race-specific) denominators, the white-absolute ASD prevalence declined in five out of nine states (Supplementary Figure S3). In two of these, Arizona and Arkansas, white-specific ASD prevalence also decreased, as discussed above. However, the white-absolute declines in the remaining three states (Georgia, North Carolina and Maryland) resulted from the decreasing white fraction of the school population combined with flat or only slowly increasing white-specific prevalence.
The plateau in white autism prevalence in 3 to 5 year-old in IDEA data from birth years 2004-2007 occurred during roughly the same period as the flattening of white prevalence seen in 8 year-olds in some ADDM sites, although differences in age and likely completeness of ascertainment, as well as inconsistencies in the ADDM protocol, complicate the comparison. The renewed growth in autism prevalence among white children, beginning around birth year 2007 and the ongoing growth in black and Hispanic prevalence observed in the IDEA dataset suggest that similar increases in ASD prevalence across all race and ethnicity groups, including whites, may be observed in the next ADDM report, which will focus on 8 year-olds born in 2008. Indeed, a recent report on 4 year-olds by the Early ADDM Network found an increase of 40% in ASD prevalence among children born in 2014 compared to children born in 2010 (from 2.0 to 2.8%) in New Jersey (CDC 2019). While the other two participating sites, Arizona and Missouri, reported no clear trend among 4 year-olds, these sites also show ambiguous trends in the 8 year-old counts (Fig. 4), possibly due to lack of access to education records (Missouri) and/or frequent changes and inconsistencies in the ascertainment region (Arizona).
Historically, autism prevalence has been reported higher among white children than among other race/ethnicity groups. Recently, however, Hispanic and black prevalence in the IDEA 3–5 year-old autism dataset has “caught up” to and, in the case of blacks, surpassed white prevalence in the majority of states. The fastest growth in prevalence reflected in the IDEA dataset has been observed among Hispanic children, with Hispanic autism prevalence exceeding white prevalence in one-third of states in the 2013 birth cohort. Meanwhile, white ASD prevalence in the IDEA dataset appeared to plateau for birth cohorts in the mid 2000s in many states, but resumed its upward climb among children born around or after 2007. A plateau in white prevalence was also observed among 8 year-olds for birth years 2002–2006 in some ADDM states, but was inconsistent across the 9 states with the longest record of ADDM participation. As of birth year 2006, white children still had the highest race-specific rate of ASD in almost all ADDM states, while Hispanic children had the lowest race-specific rate. The overall trend in ASD prevalence reflects the combined influence of differences in race-specific prevalence convolved with the declining white and increasing Hispanic fractions of the U.S. school population. The available IDEA 3–5 year-old autism count, which extends to the 2013 birth cohort, suggests that the forthcoming ADDM report (birth year 2008/study year 2016) will show ASD increases across all race/ethnicity groups.
The authors thank the U.S. Department of Education and the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network for providing the data used in this study. We are grateful to Sallie Bernard and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
CN conceived of the study, compiled the IDEA and ADDM race-resolved data, and drafted most of the manuscript. WZ provided detailed information about the ADDM data and wrote parts of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
None of the authors received specific funding for this work.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of interest
CN and WZ declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The information used in this study was from datasets in which all relevant personally-identifiable information had been removed prior to our activities and in which the data were aggregated by age, at the state level. Therefore, this project did not require institutional review and approval for research with human subjects.
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Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
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Sugar as we know it today is table sugar, which is refined sucrose.
Concentrated sugar includes cane sugar, beet sugar, and high-fructose corn syrup. To start, let’s just look at the overall change that has occurred.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, sugar came from sugarcane, which grows in tropical climates and is native to southeast Asia. Sugar was expensive outside these regions and always labor-intensive to refine. The Greeks and Romans were aware of sugar, but they did not consider it a food, they considered it a medicine.
Sugar remained a plant by-product with limited refinement until the Industrial Revolution.
1493, Christopher Columbus brought sugar to the New World from the Spanish Canary islands. Sugar fueled the African slave trade in the following centuries.
1747, German chemist Andreas Marggraf discovered sucrose in beet root, giving another plant source of sugar in addition to sugarcane.
1768, a steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica and thus began the industrial mechanization of the refinement of sugar.
This has brought about cheap sugar, and desserts as sweet as we can desire that are often cheaper than traditional food, and made of sugar rather than sweetened by sugar.
Industrialized sugar refinement has brought about normalization of sugar as a food group. Even if you don’t eat candy, there are many other foods that are sweetened with huge amounts of sugar that we often consider to be normal food. Donuts for example, or soda as a drink to wash down a meal.
How to keep the good part of the industrial refinement of sugar without the unnatural extreme sweet diet? The answer is to have zero refined sugar inside your house. This rule might seem extreme, but by historical standards, refined sugar is an exception within our diets, a rarity. It is not normal to eat refined sugar regularly. Our bodies are not accustomed to it and it is not healthy.
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How can RFID Technology Help Library Management
"RFID is increasing in popularity among libraries, as the early adopters of this technology have shown that, it makes good economic sense, both for large and small libraries"
As you are familiar with, RFID technology is revolutionizing schools all over the world.Earlier, managing libraries would have been a complex task for you. But with the advent of RFID technology, you would able to manage libraries better than ever before. Also, the task of school/college librarians becomes much easier and quicker. You can even say that the future of RFID might wipe out the necessity of a full time librarian.
Use of RFID in Libraries
RFID technology is mainly used for effectively managing your library operation and detecting missing books. The RFID based system has a tracking system that moves beyond security with efficient tracking of materials inside the library. These systems provide you services like easier and quicker charge and discharge, proper listing of books and material management.
This technology helps librarians save valuable staff time, which may otherwise be spent on scanning bar codes while borrowing or returning books. As the name indicates, RFID is an integration of radio-frequency based technology and microchip technology. Using RFID technology, you can extract information stored on a microchip in the tags affixed to library materials.
Key Features of RFID in Libraries
Using RFID technology, you are able to reduce the amount of time required to perform circulation operations. A lot of time can be saved by librarians which is spent on checking out and checking in borrowed items. The procedure of borrowing and returning become easier and faster.
Reliability of the System
As you already know, RFID based system is highly reliable. RFID based library systems declare 100 percent detection rate using RFID tags. If you need to identify the items moving out of the library, you can use RFID system that has an interface between exit sensors and the circulation software.
As a library official, you will be able to know if an item is missing, and if someone tries to get away with your books,that person can easily be spotted..
High Speed Inventorying
Without tipping out or removing books, RFID tags help you to scan the books on the shelves. Using a hand held inventory reader, unique identification information of each book can be read.
Automated Materials Handling
Material handling became much easier for you with RFID technology. Conveyor and sorting system in this technology helps you to move library materials and thus sort them into separate categories. Also, it helps you to reduce the amount of staff time required to make materials for re-shelving.
RFID tags have a longer life than bar codes.Before a replacement, most RFID vendors claim a minimum of 1,00,000 transactions for you.
Though there are so many benefits with this technology, there are certain disadvantages associated with it.
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Disadvantages of RFID Systems
Active RFID systems are expensive
RFID tags are easily damaged
Problems with exit gate sensors
Issues in user privacy
Collision of reader and tags
The future of RFID in library depends mainly on rectifying those disadvantages and thus giving more focus on the benefits associated with it. Development of RFID is rapidly going on, which yield larger memory capacities, wider reader ranges and faster processing. Its applications, innovation and standardization are constantly changing.
There is no need for separate database as RFID tags contain identifying information such as title of the book, material type, etc. Though benefits and flexibility of RFID technology is widely known, RFID is a better solution for you to further optimize the automation and tracking documents in the library.VN:F [1.9.16_1159]How can RFID Technology Help Library ManagementRated 5.0 out of 5 based on 1 rating
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Name the three categories in which elements can be normally divided. Give any one property of each element belonging to each category.
Metals, non-metal, metalloids.
Metals have lustre / conduct heat / ductile malleable / sonorous / conduct electricity etc.
Non-metals have variety of colours / poor conductors of heat and electricity etc.
Metalloids have properties intermediate between those of metals and non-metals. (any one in each)
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by David Lindley
Lindley, an astrophysicist-turned-writer, charts the course of Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The culmination of Heisenberg's equally perplexing quantum theory, the uncertainty principle posited that in many physical measurements, one can extract one bit of information only at the price of losing another. Heisenberg's mentor Niels Bohr agreed with the basic premises of his startling insights but saw the need to "make sense of the new quantum physics without throwing overboard the hard-won successes of the previous era." The third voice in this argument was Albert Einstein, to whom Heisenberg's ideas were a "monstrous misrepresentation ... the very idea of a true fact seemed to crumble into an assortment of irreconcilable points of view." Eventually, and reluctantly, Einstein conceded the technical correctness of the system that Heisenberg and Bohr had laid out, but he never fully accepted it. This story has been told before but seldom with such clarity and elegance.Dirt: The Erosion Of Civilizations
by David R. Montgomery
University of California Press, 2007
Montgomery, a geomorphologist at the University of Washington, argues that good old dirt has always been necessary to sustain civilizations, from ancient times right on through today's digital society. This natural resource is being exhausted at a faster rate than it is being replenished, however. In the past century the effects of long-term soil erosion were masked by bringing new land under cultivation and developing fertilizers, pesticides and crop varieties. But as the population continues to grow and the arable land base continues to shrink, Montgomery believes that society must rethink its relationship with the land. Governments and farmers must rely not only on technological sophistication to protect the soil but on intergenerational land stewardship and conservation. "Civilization's survival depends on treating soil as an investment," he says, "as a valuable inheritance rather than a commodity--as something other than dirt."Flower Confidential: The Good, The Bad, And The Beautiful
by Amy Stewart
Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2007
Rose breeders can spend seven years developing a new variety; one team of scientists has been working for 10 years on a blue rose, using a pigment gene from petunias. Making flowers flawless is a $40-billion industry. Per capita spending on cut flowers in the U.S. is about $25 a year; the Swiss have the highest consumption, at $100 per person annually.
The facts are surprising and intriguing. But it is the way nature writer Stewart packages them that makes Flower Confidential the rare nonfiction book that keeps you turning pages. Her own passion for flowers, along with her adventures in the fields, greenhouses, auction houses and laboratories, gives the facts life. An almost perfect book--its only blemish being the off-putting title that seems to promise more muck than this intelligent, evenhanded account rakes.The Invisible Sex: Uncovering The True Roles Of Women In Prehistory
by J. M. Adovasio, Olga Soffer and Jake Page
Smithsonian Books, 2007
Funny how no one has to think twice about which sex is invisible. Anthropologists Adovasio and Soffer and science writer Page take the field of archaeology to task for its traditional focus on hard artifacts such as stone tools and weapons, pointing out that archaeologists are not even trained to look for evidence of women's use of more perishable artifacts such as string and netting. They argue for the central importance of the "fiber revolution," which began some 26,000 years ago in Eurasia. In dry caves and other rare places where artifacts do not deteriorate, fiber and wood objects can account for 95 percent of all artifacts recovered. The influence of fiber and its use in nets, baskets and clothing had "profound effects on human destiny--probably more profound than any advance in the technique of making spear points, knives, scrapers and other tools of stone."
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Immobilization of Enzymes refers to the enzymes which are trapped or immobilized in a membrane support. This technique helps the human race to the chemical substitute and helping the cells for the synthesis naturally with the specific enzyme.
Total number of techniques granted by USPTO for patents is 22. Some tof the patented techniques are listed below.
Patent No: 6,905,733 titled ‘Irreversible immobilization of enzymes into polyurethane coatings’ with the abstract: This invention provides a method of irreversibly immobilizing an enzyme into polyurethane coatings. This invention also provides for an enzyme-containing coating having a degree of immobilization of the enzyme of approximately 100%. The synthesis of waterborne polyurethane coatings in the presence of enzyme has enabled the irreversible attachment of the enzyme to the polymeric matrix. The distribution of immobilized enzyme as well as activity retention are homogeneous within the coating. Decreasing ECC hydrophobicity, via the use of a less hydrophobic polyisocyanate prepolymer during polymerization, significantly enhanced the intrinsic activity of the ECC.
Patent No: 6,582,942 titled ‘Immobilization of enzymes on particulate porous carriers for use in organic mediums’ with the abstract: An immobilized enzyme is prepared for use in organic mediums essentially devoid of free water. An enzyme-containing liquid medium is contacted with a particulate porous carrier which preferably has a particle size of 200-1000 .mu.m and a surface area of 20-1000 m.sup.2 /g to adsorb the enzyme on the carrier, and volatile components of the liquid medium contained by the carrier are removed. The carrier may have a hydrophilic surface, and an amount of liquid medium is used to prevent agglomeration of the carrier. Alternatively, the carrier has a hydrophobic surface, and the addition of a hygroscopic substance suppresses agglomeration of the carrier by absorbing excess liquid. The hygroscopic substance may be removed during the removal of volatile components. Contacting of the enzyme-containing liquid and carrier can be in a fluidized bed where immobilization and removing volatile components are conducted simultaneously, or contacting can be in mixer followed by removing volatile components in a fluidized bed. The enzyme-containing liquid may be atomized onto the carrier in the fluidized bed or in the mixer. Enzymes immobilized include lipase, and the immobilized lipase can be used in trans-esterification reactions.
Patent No: 4,897,352 titled ‘Acrylate based adsorbent resin for the immobilization of enzymes’ with the abstract: Enzymes are immobilized on macroporous hydrophilic polymer beads by adsorption. The polymer beads are cross-linked, acrylate-based resins containing pendant hydroxy groups. The resins contain 10-70% methyl methacrylate, 10-70% methylacrylate, 5-14 40% ethylenically unsaturated monomer having at least one pendant hydroxyl group and 10-25% divinylbenzene. The resins provide immobilized enzyme preparations exhibiting excellent physical strength and stability as well as high enzyme activity.
Patent No: 4,968,605 titled ‘Immobilization of enzymes on porous melt spun polyamide yarns’ with he abstract : An immobilized enzyme structure in which molecules of one or more enzymes are attached to chemically active groups located on surface in the structure, such structure being composed of melt spun polyamide fibres comprising spaced fibrils of polyamide which are substantially aligned to the axis of the fibre, such aligned spaced fibrils being interconnected to each other in a random manner.
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Educational institutes are governed by professional bodies and state legislation to ensure that all buildings are compliant with health and safety regulations.
But did you know that installing the right lighting can also have positive impact on learning abilities?
Last year, scientific research unveiled positive correlations between student performance levels and lighting alone; identifying how the colour of a light bulb can have significant impact on the mental and physical well-being of a student.
According to the study, featured in the Optical Society Journal, researchers found students were more alert and scored higher on their tests when they were in a classroom with lighting that mimicked daylight.
Integrating intelligent lighting not only increases a person’s learning abilities, but can have an immediate impact on health and wellbeing by aiding cognition capacity in children and young adults!
Switching lighting to elicit a better ‘learning environment’ can also have beneficial effect on costs; the more energy efficient your lighting is, the greater the savings!
Some types of LED bulbs and operating solutions can last for almost 70,000 hours; depending on the type of light bulb, and the lighting operating frequency, that can be a delivery of almost ten years before needing a replacement!
To truly save the maximum costs, organisations need to choose the right lighting as well as the correct energy saving control system to gain the full potential daily and lifetime savings. The right lighting isn’t always the lowest cost but it should pay dividends in savings in the longer term, not just in your reduced energy bills but with your staff and students by providing a healthier, brighter and greener learning and working environment for all.
Interested in our energy saving LED Lighting?
Want to speak to a member of the team?
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[ Back | Home ]
[Copyright © 1989 University of Dayton Law Review. Originally published as 15 Dayton L. Rev. 59-89 (1989). For educational use only. The printed edition remains canonical. For citational use please obtain a back issue from William S. Hein & Co., 1285 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14209; 716-882-2600 or 800-828-7571.]
The second amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees that "[a] well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." In addition, the constitutions of all but seven states guarantee a right to bear arms. This enumerated and explicit right has generated public attention and controversy over its meaning and scope.
The 200th anniversary of the Bill of Rights is nearing. The purpose of its guarantees was to enunciate a set of fixed rights that may not be trespassed upon by any branch of government. A constitutional right differs from a right conferred by the common law or by statute in that it is guarded from infringement by any branch of government. The Constitution was not adopted as a means of enhancing the efficiency with which government officials conduct their affairs. Rather, it was meant to provide a bulwark against infringements that might otherwise be justified as necessary expedients of governing. While a court must give due consideration to the needs of the other branches of government, the court's role is to ensure that restraints on governmental power are enforced. Establishing the protected boundaries of a right, by analyzing the four corners of the guarantee, becomes indispensable. While bright boundary lines cannot always be drawn, this is a more (p.60)principled approach to constitutional interpretation than merely paying no attention to plain words or history and applying elastic labels of "valid exercise of the police power" or "reasonable regulation" whenever a constitutional challenge is made, or even denying the existence of a right by interpreting it in such a fashion that it becomes an intangible abstraction.
This article will examine the historical conditions and development of the right to arms, and rules on the interpretation of constitutional rights, to demonstrate its meaning and scope. It will also present that its interpretation by some courts is inaccurate.
The Framers were aware that at common law the carrying of arms was unlawful only if it appeared to be malo animo and "to terrify the King's subjects." On July 24, 1780, the Recorder of London gave the following exposition on the right to bear arms:
The right of his majesty's Protestant subjects, to have arms for their own defence, and to use them for lawful purposes, is most clear and undeniable. It seems, indeed, to be considered, by the ancient laws of this kingdom, not only as a right, but as a duty; for all the subjects of the realm, who are able to bear arms, are bound to be ready, at all times, to (p.61)assist the sheriff, and other civil magistrates, in the execution of the laws and the preservation of the public peace. And that this right, which every Protestant most unquestionably possesses individually, may, and in many cases must, be exercised collectively, is likewise a point which I conceive to be most clearly established by the authority of judicial decisions and ancient acts of parliament, as well as by reason and common sense.
From the proposition, that the possession and the use of arms, to certain purposes, is lawful, it seems to follow, of necessary consequence, that it cannot be unlawful to learn to use them (for such lawful purposes) with safety and effect.
The lawful purposes, for which arms may be used, (besides immediate self-defence,) are, the suppression of violent and felonious breaches of the peace, the assistance of the civil magistrate in the execution of the laws, and the defence of the kingdom against foreign invaders. Whenever these occasions occur, the use of arms becomes not only the right, but the duty, of every Protestant able to bear them.
A common English jury instruction on bearing arms also explains the understanding and scope of this right:
You will see what the Bill of Rights says upon that subject. It provides that, "The subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions, and as allowed by law." But are arms suitable to the condition of people in the ordinary class of life, and are they allowed by law? A man has a clear right to arms to protect himself in his house. A man has a clear right to protect himself when he is going singly or in a small party upon the road where he is travelling or going for the ordinary purposes of business. But I have no difficulty in saying you have no right to carry arms to a public meeting, if the number of arms which are so carried are calculated to produce terror and alarm ....
The peaceful carrying of arms is "[s]o remote from a breach of the peace ... that at common law it was not an indictable offense, nor any offense at all." The Framers were also aware of England's plutocratic (p.62)game laws and other clever measures by the crown to disarm dissidents and suspect classes.
The crown infringed the colonists' right to arms in the New World by disarmament attempts. British troops during the Revolutionary War did not confine their seizures to the colonists' armories and magazines. They also seized the arms of individual civilians. For example, Bostonians were forced to surrender 1,778 muskets, 973 bayonets, 634 pistols, and 38 blunderbusses. The July 6, 1775, Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms by the Continental Congress included the complaint that General Gage disarmed the inhabitants of Boston.
It is against this background that the Anti-federalists demanded a Bill of Rights and proposed 186 amendments; discounting duplications, 80 substantive proposals emerged. Initially the Constitution was ratified without amendments, but it was ratified with the understanding that a bill of rights would be immediately submitted to the people.
When the state conventions were voting to adopt the Federal Constitution, in seven states proposals on arms surfaced, either majority or minority proposals. For example, the minority in Pennsylvania, on December 15, 1787, was the first to offer fifteen guarantees. These proposals eventually found their way into the first, second, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth and tenth amendments. Proposal seven guaranteed
That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence [sic] of themselves and their own State, or the United States, or for the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed, or real danger of public injury from individuals; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military shall be kept under strict subordination to and be governed by the civil (p.63)power."
Massachusetts' minority, lead by Samuel Adams, proposed
that the said Constitution be never construed to authorize Congress to infringe the just liberty of the press, or the rights of conscience; or to prevent the people of the United States, who are peaceable citizens, from keeping their own arms; or to raise standing armies, unless when necessary for the defence of the United States, or of some one or more of them; or to prevent the people from petitioning, in a peaceful and orderly manner, the federal legislature, for a redress of grievance; or to subject the people to unreasonable searches and seizures of their persons, papers or possessions."
New Hampshire's majority simply proposed that "Congress shall never disarm any citizen, unless such as are or have been in actual rebellion." Virginia presented
That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence [sic] of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, and therefore ought to be avoided, as far as the circumstances and protection of the community will admit; and that, in all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power."
Patrick Henry exhorted the convention that "[t]he great object is, that every man be armed .... Every one who is able may have a gun." Another Virginian, Zachariah Johnson, said: "The people are not to be disarmed of their weapons. They are left in full possession of them." George Mason supplied for future generations the common understanding of the term militia: "I ask, Who are the militia? They consist now of the whole people, except a few public officers." New York demanded "[t]hat the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well regulated militia, including the body of the people, capable of bearing arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence [sic] of a free (p.64)state."
North Carolina and Rhode Island, citing the lack of a Bill of Rights, initially did not ratify the Constitution and included a right to arms as a condition of ratification. North Carolina copied Virginia's proffer on arms and Rhode Island copied that of New York.
The seven state proposals cover all of the traditional uses of arms. They show an awareness of crime, too. However, they consistently guaranteed a right to arms. They also did not intend to restrict this right to military purposes, for it would be pointless to guarantee a right to keep and bear arms to the people if the only purpose was to allow a state to have a militia. It is characteristic of a militia to be armed. Even in the proposals from New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, and Virginia the arms right stood by itself as a declarative independent clause. The task of the Framers, then, was to attempt to please everyone in drafting what became the second amendment, since there was a faction in favor of the militia and a faction that wanted a guarantee for the people to possess arms for all traditional purposes.
During the fall and winter of 1787-88, the supporters of the Constitution expounded its meaning and benefits in a series of newspaper articles, afterwards published in book form as The Federalist. James Madison wrote that "the advantage of being armed" was a condition "the Americans possess over the people of almost every other nation." He charged that the despots of Europe were "afraid to trust the people with arms," and envisioned a militia amounting to near half a million citizens "with arms in their hands."
The right to arms was also expounded in pamphlets. Noah Webster wrote that:
Before a standing army can rule, the people must be disarmed; as they are in almost every kingdom in Europe. The supreme power in America cannot enforce unjust laws by the sword; because the whole body of the people are armed, and constitute a force superior to any band of regular troops that can be, on any pretence, raised in the United States. A military force, at the command of Congress, can execute no laws, but such as the people perceive to be just and constitutional; for (p.65)they will possess the power, and jealousy will instantly inspire the inclination to resist the execution of a law which appears to them unjust and oppressive.
Richard Henry Lee opined that "to preserve liberty, it is essential that the whole body of the people always possess arms, and be taught alike, especially when young, how to use them ...."
The Federal Gazette & Philadelphia Evening Post, of June 18, 1789, in an article entitled Remarks on the First Part of the Amendments to the Federal Constitution, Moved on the 8th Instant in the House of Representatives, explained the right to keep and bear arms:
As civil rulers, not having their duty to the people duly before them, may attempt to tyrannize, and as the military forces which must be occasionally raised to defend our country, might pervert their power to the injury of their fellow-citizens, the people are confirmed by the next article in their right to keep and bear their private arms.
This contemporary exposition must be given great weight. It demonstrates that the common understanding of the people and framers was to guarantee an individual right to arms.
Recently, a July, 1789, proposed Bill of Rights, in Roger Sherman's handwriting, was discovered in James Madison's papers. It mentioned the militia, but omitted any reference to a right of the people to keep and bear arms:
The militia shall be under the government of the laws of the respective States, when not in the actual Service of the united [sic] States, but such rules as may be prescribed by Congress for their uniform organization & discipline shall be observed in officering and training them, but military Service shall not be required of persons religiously scrupulous of bearing arms.
The Framers' decision not to adopt it indicates they felt it was inadequate. The Framers also rejected efforts to exclude persons who had (p.66)religious scruples against bearing arms from the second amendment's guarantee to keep and bear arms:
This declaration of rights, I take it, is intended to secure the people against the maladministration of the Government; if we could suppose that, in all cases, the rights of the people would be attended to, the occasion for guards of this kind would be removed. Now, I am apprehensive, sir, that this clause would give an opportunity to the people in power to destroy the Constitution itself. They can declare who are those religiously scrupulous, and prevent them from bearing arms.
On Wednesday, September 9, 1789, a motion in the Senate to insert "for the common defence" next to the words "bear arms" was defeated. This underscores a refusal to limit the right to military purposes.
These events demonstrate that the Framers had two separate objectives in mind: (1) recognize the importance of a militia to a free state and (2) guarantee a right to keep arms and bear arms for traditionally lawful purposes.
This interpretation is supported by an early decision of the Georgia Supreme Court, which used the second amendment to void a state statute at a time when the state constitution was silent on the right to (p.67)bear arms. Hawkins Nunn was charged with "having and keeping about his person, and elsewhere, a pistol, the same not being such a pistol as is known and used as a horseman's pistol." The court discussed extensively the right to keep and bear arms:
It is true, that these adjudications are all made on clauses in the State Constitutions; but these instruments confer no new rights on the people which did not belong to them before. When, I would ask, did any legislative body in the Union have the right to deny to its citizens the privilege of keeping and bearing arms in defence [sic] of themselves and their country?
... We do not believe that, because the people withheld this arbitrary power of disfranchisement from Congress, they ever intended to confer it on the local legislatures.
... The right of the whole people, old and young, men, women and boys, and not militia only, to keep and bear arms of every description, and not such merely as are used by the militia, shall not be infringed, curtailed, or broken in upon, in the smallest degree; and all this for the important end to be attained: the rearing up and qualifying a well-regulated militia, so vitally necessary to the security of a free State.
Justice William Paterson, a signer of the Federal Constitution, reminded that
in England, the authority of the Parliament runs without limits, and rises above control.... [T]here is no written constitution .... In America the case is widely different: Every State in the Union has its constitution reduced to written exactitude and precision.
... [T]he Constitution is the sun of the political system, around which all Legislative, Executive and Judicial bodies must revolve.
This is a reminder that the Framers embraced Chief Justice Edward Coke's dicta that Parliament is not supreme. This critical difference is often ignored by commentators and courts.(p.68)
The Framers, at a minimum, wanted to place in the catalog of personal liberty the enjoyment of the common law right to bear arms. They also wanted to enjoy this right free from the ebb and flow of political passions by placing the arms guarantee beyond the reach of governmental abridgement.
The Bill of Rights is a catalog of indispensable liberties. Constitutional rights are to be honored equally. Fundamental rights enjoy explicit guarantee in the Bill of Rights. In addition, a constitutional right must be broadly interpreted. Neither oppressive taxes or fees nor waiting periods may be imposed on the exercise of a right. Furthermore, government may not require registration and licensing of persons who exercise constitutional rights nor chill the exercise of a constitutional right.
The second amendment should be interpreted according to well-established rules governing interpretation of constitutional guarantees when determining if a particular statute is unconstitutional. Reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions may be imposed on the exercise of fundamental rights, provided the restrictions are narrowly tailored. Courts must balance the justification put forward by the state against the character and magnitude of the asserted injury to the constitutionally (p.69)protected right.
The state will always argue that a compelling state interest exists for the enactment of legislation. This may tempt courts to reflexively bow to the interests of the state. The erosion of rights must be avoided by recognizing that the keeping of arms in the home must be given special protection to preserve personal autonomy. This expectation is buttressed by the rule that the state can take no action which will unnecessarily chill or penalize the assertion of a constitutional right, and the state may not draw adverse inferences from the exercise of a constitutional right.
The bearing of arms in a public place is different from the keeping of arms in the home on account of the home's special zone of privacy. Reasonable time, place, and manner regulations may be placed on bearing arms in a public place. For example, people may be prevented from bringing arms into court. However, the peaceful bearing of arms in a motor vehicle or on a street could not be prohibited. A constitutional right may not be curtailed simply because some people find its exercise disagreeable or offensive.
The framing of the right to arms reveals an awareness of crime. Nevertheless, the guarantee promises that the right "shall not be infringed." The Framers also knew the obvious: certain persons have always been treated differently and do not enjoy the full array of rights. In accord with this understanding are decisions holding that a convicted felon may be prevented from voting or holding office in a union. The collateral consequences of a felony conviction go beyond deprivation of the right to keep and bear arms. Infants are also (p.70)treated differently because the state has a compelling interest in protecting their physical and psychological well-being. Nevertheless, while courts adhere to these well-known exceptions in construing other constitutional guarantees, the right to arms has often been treated with disfavor. The command that the people have a right to keep and bear arms is simply ignored. Courts simply look at the preamble or precatory language of the second amendment, ignore the rest of the language, and interpret it to guarantee the right of a state to have a military force. However, the right of a state to have and train military or constabulary forces does not depend on the second amendment right of the people to keep and bear arms.
String citing cases that have upheld even confiscatory arms legislation demonstrates that the analysis is neither penetrating nor robust, but demonstrates a penchant for inaccuracy. Some judges have even displayed an open animosity for the right to arms. For example, Chief Justice Earl Warren dissented from a holding that a firearm registration statute offended the fifth amendment privilege against self-incrimination because "[t]he impact of that decision on the efforts of Congress to enact much-needed federal gun control laws is not consistent with (p.71)national safety." Justice William O. Douglas, joined by Justice Thurgood Marshall, called for the "watering down" of the second amendment in his dissenting opinion in Adams v. Williams. This unfortunately demonstrates that at times the predilection of judges reigns rather than the Bill of Rights. Some courts simply overlook history. Justice Neely of the West Virginia Supreme Court quipped that "Lawyers, certainly, who take seriously recent U.S. Supreme Court historical scholarship as applied to the Constitution also probably believe in the Tooth Fairy and the Easter Bunny."
The second amendment need not be rendered moribund because some courts have ignored its command and the political and social ideas that prevailed at the time of its framing. Stare decisis is a rule that has less power in constitutional cases. Courts are obligated to overrule erroneous precedent. Even a line of cases covering nearly a century has been branded as "an unconstitutional assumption of powers by courts of the United States which no lapse of time or respectable array of opinion should make us hesitate to correct."
The United States Supreme Court has had occasion to decide four cases on the right to arms, but three of these came in the nineteenth century and are of little precedential value because none decide the full scope and meaning of the right. One of these cases, United States v. Cruikshank involved a conspiracy by more than a hundred klansmen to deprive blacks of first and second amendment rights. The Court held that the first amendment was "not a right granted to the people by (p.72)the Constitution," and also that the second amendment was not "a right granted by the Constitution." This recognizes the principle that certain rights predate the Constitution and that such rights are guaranteed rather than granted by a Constitution.
The Court, however, held that the national government shall not infringe such rights, and citizens have "to look for their protection against any violation by their fellow-citizens" to the police power of the state. Subsequent decisions have rendered Cruikshank a relic of Reconstruction by holding that the First Amendment applies to the states and that private interference with federal constitutional rights may be punished.
In Presser v. Illinois the defendant was prosecuted for leading a band of armed men in a parade without a license. The Court reaffirmed Cruikshank's holding that the second amendment applied only to infringement by the federal government. The Court defined the constitutional term "militia" and held that a state could not disarm the people because the people have a duty to the federal government to maintain public security and owe militia duties to the federal government.
It is undoubtedly true that all citizens capable of bearing arms constitute the reserved military force or reserve militia of the United States as well as of the States, and, in view of this prerogative of the general government, as well as of its general powers, the States cannot, even laying the constitutional provision in question out of view, prohibit the people from keeping and bearing arms, so as to deprive the United States of their rightful resource for maintaining the public security, and disable the people from performing their duty to the general government.(p.73)
Miller v. Texas cited Cruikshank for the proposition that the second and fourth amendments did not apply to the states. The Court did not decide whether those amendments applied to the states through the fourteenth amendment because that issue "was not set up in the trial court."
In United States v. Miller the Supreme Court reversed the district court's sustention of a demurrer and quashing of the indictment on second amendment grounds:
In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a "shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length" at this time has some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense.
The quoted phrase "[i]n the absence of any evidence" is crucial to the opinion of the Court. The defendants did not appear nor were they represented before the Supreme Court. Thus the opinion suffers from a fundamental defect: the Court considered only the government's view. Further, the reference to the "common defense" flies in the face of the historical intent of the amendment: "[t]he Senate refused to limit the right to bear arms by voting down the addition of the words 'for the common defence.'"(p.74)
Miller discussed the connection between militia service and the private possession of arms:
[T]he Militia comprised all males physically capable of acting in concert for the common defense. "A body of citizens enrolled for military discipline." And further, that ordinarily when called for service these men were expected to appear bearing arms supplied by themselves and of the kind in common use at the time.
The Court simply refused to take judicial notice that a particular shotgun's possession or use had some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well-regulated militia. The Court made no finding that the right to arms is a collective right, or that it belonged only to the militia or the National Guard, and in remanding did not suggest that the lower court inquire as to what constitutes the militia in Arkansas, nor did it suggest an inquiry as to the defendants' able-bodiedness. The focus was on the shotgun in question to see if it was an "arm" in the constitutional sense. These factors and the Court's definition of militia also indicate that a locality rule in judging the breadth of the second amendment was not adopted.
Miller holds that the Constitution protects the right to "possession or use" of arms having a militia utility, e.g., shotguns, rifles, and pistols. The Court, however, was willing to narrow the right by holding that some shotguns may not be "any part of the ordinary military equipment." The arms must have "some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia ...." Justice Black has claimed that "only arms necessary to a well-regulated militia" are absolutely protected. Miller leaves unanswered whether modern arms of mass destruction may be possessed by individuals. Some courts make no attempt to come up with a test; alarmist rhetoric has supplanted intellectual rigor. However, a number of modern (p.75)state courts have come up with a principled test. Hand-carried arms suitable for personal protection and potential militia use come under the Constitution's umbrella. Modern arms of mass destruction used exclusively by the military do not enjoy constitutional protection.
The federal Constitution is a grant of limited power and its Bill of Rights is a further restriction on governmental power. The legislature of a state, unlike Congress, does not depend on the Constitution for an express grant of legislative power. Its powers are plenary unless otherwise restrained. A state's bill or declaration of rights is a restriction on governmental power. It must be examined to ascertain the restraints which the people have imposed upon the state legislature, not to determine the powers they have conferred.
State courts do not utilize a uniform test to determine if a law is an unconstitutional infringement on the right to bear arms or to keep arms. One test is to see if the law sweeps so broadly that it stifles the exercise of a right where the governmental purpose can be more narrowly achieved. Another approach is to see if the enactment is arbitrary, discriminatory, capricious or unreasonable, and whether it bears a real and substantial relation to health, safety, morals or general welfare of the public. Courts have also scrutinized legislation simply to determine if all arms have been banned. Its practical effect is to (p.76)render the arms guarantee lifeless on account of the police power becoming supreme rather than a constitutional right. This analysis makes no serious effort to harmonize the police power with a constitutional right, something that courts face frequently. After all, constitutional guarantees other than the right to arms are subject to regulation.
A guarantee is placed in a constitution because it is deemed peculiarly important and peculiarly exposed to invasion. Therefore, a rational basis standard of review is too weak to protect the guarantee.
In the area of bearing arms, courts often use the following standard: are arms to be borne in such a manner as to render them wholly useless for the purposes guaranteed in the constitution? Where a license to carry a firearm is required, courts often hold that obtaining a license becomes a right rather than a matter of discretion.
The right to keep arms, as opposed to the right to bear arms, is often construed by using a two step process: (1) does the person come under the protection of the constitutional guarantee and (2) does the arm enjoy constitutional protection.
The right to keep and bear arms also includes "the right to load them and shoot them and use them as such things are ordinarily used." It likewise "necessarily involves the right to purchase them, to keep them in a state of efficiency for use, and to purchase and provide ammunition suitable for such arms, and to keep them in repair."
Although 43 states guarantee a right to arms, courts in two states have gone beyond even the most restrictive model on interpretation. In Kansas and Massachusetts their guarantee to arms has been judicially repealed.
City of Salina v. Blaksley held that a constitutional right promising "the people have the right to bear arms for their defense and security" meant only that the people collectively, not individually, had (p.77)a limited right to bear arms in the organized militia or any military organization provided by law. This holding was not even put forth in any party's brief. The court ignored precedent when it chose "to treat the question as an original one." In any event, several generations later the Kansas Supreme Court obliquely retreated from Blaksley when it unanimously voided an arms ordinance in City of Junction City v. Mevis as being unreasonable, oppressive, and overly broad.
The truism that a constitutional guarantee "was not intended to provide merely for the exigencies of a few years, but was to endure through a long lapse of ages" was disregarded in Commonwealth v. Davis. The court agreed that at one time the people kept arms for potential militia service. However, it reasoned that in contemporary times the government provides arms for military use. In turn, military functions are now performed by the National Guard. Moreover, the guarantee that "[t]he people have a right to keep and to bear arms for the common defence" was "not directed to guaranteeing individual ownership or possession of weapons." The opinion is at war with itself. On the one hand it agrees that at one time the right to keep arms for potential militia use was guaranteed. In spite of that, individual (p.78)rights are no longer protected. This construction takes arms out of the hands of the people and places them in the hands of the state, with no restraints upon its power.
Arkansas and Tennessee, like Massachusetts, have a constitutional guarantee to keep and bear arms for the "common defense." Their courts have consistently held that individual liberty is protected. The scope of this right was fully explained in Andrews v. State as follows:
The right and use are guaranteed to the citizen, to be exercised and enjoyed in time of peace, in subordination to the general ends of civil society; but, as a right, to be maintained in all its fullness.
The right to keep arms, necessarily involves the right to purchase them, to keep them in a state of efficiency for use, and to purchase and provide ammunition suitable for such arms, and to keep them in repair.
While the private right to keep and use such weapons as we have indicated as arms, is given as a private right, its exercise is limited by the duties and proprieties of social life, and such arms are to be used in the ordinary mode in which used in the country, and at the usual times and places. Such restrictions are implied upon their use as are thus indicated.
... Bearing arms for the common defense may well be held to be a political right, or for protection and maintenance of such rights, intended to be guaranteed; but the right to keep them, with all that is implied fairly as an incident to this right, is a private individual right, guaranteed to the citizen, not the soldier.
However, even in states without a specific guarantee to arms, the right to self-defense serves as an independent source to guarantee a right to arms. The reasonable mind envisions the use of arms in self-defense rather than bare hands.
Scott v. Sandford opines that privileges and immunities of free men include the right "to keep and carry arms wherever they went," (p.79)and the rights Congress cannot deny include "the right to keep and bear arms." The fourteenth amendment was intended to extend the rights enunciated in Scott to all persons and to prevent such rights from being infringed by the states. This historical reason, plus the decision of 43 states to adopt an arms guarantee, supports the view that the second amendment should be binding on the states. It has been firmly established in our concept of "liberty" under the due process clause.
Although the second amendment has not yet been held to be binding on the states, state guarantees to arms offer the most promise in protecting individual liberty because numerous state courts have taken the right seriously and have strived to achieve a workable balance between a right and the needs of the state. State courts have on at least 20 reported occasions found arms laws to be unconstitutional. This once again demonstrates that the federal Bill of Rights serves as a floor and not as a ceiling.
It is well-known that colonial militia statutes required the keeping of firearms, shot, powder, and edged arms. They help determine (p.80)what the Framers meant by the term arms. Cases of old, when interpreting the second amendment or a state constitutional guarantee with a militia or common defense purpose, took either an expansive view of the term "arms" or a narrow view. The broad view held that basically all arms are constitutionally protected. The narrow view held that only arms suitable for civilized warfare are protected. Under the narrow view, large pistols are constitutionally protected but pocket pistols do not enjoy constitutional protection. Accordingly, "[w]hen we see a man with musket to shoulder, or carbine slung on back, or pistol belted to his side, or such like, he is bearing arms in the constitutional sense."
Constitutionally protected arms under the modern view are not limited to those of a militia. They include hand-carried defensive arms and the modern equivalents of arms possessed by colonial militiamen. While semi-automatic firearms are protected, arms of mass destruction used exclusively by the military are not.
Legislation banning or severely restricting the possession and sale of semi-automatic firearms is unconstitutional, even under the restricted (p.81)"civilized warfare" test. Such firearms have been possessed by civilians since the late nineteenth century. They are suitable for personal protection, potential militia use, and as a deterrent against oppression.
Semi-automatic firearm legislation is appealing to the uninformed because it uses the misnomers assault weapon or assault rifle. Hence, the official military definition is enlightening: "Assault rifles are short, compact, selective-fire weapons that fire a cartridge intermediate in power between submachinegun and rifle cartridges. Assault rifles have mild recoil characteristics and, because of this, are capable of delivering effective full automatic fire at ranges up to 300 meters." The political advantage of mislabeling a semiautomatic firearm as a fully automatic firearm is obvious. However, a debate in which misinformation prevails can only lead to bad policy.
The solid majority of gun owners are noncriminal, and their guns create no social problems. "It is commonly hypothesized that much criminal violence, especially homicide, occurs simply because the means of lethal violence (firearms) are readily at hand, and thus, that much homicide would not occur were firearms generally less available. There is no persuasive evidence that supports this view." Hence, fairness demands that gun owners not be used as scapegoats for society's shortcomings. Reliance on the state for protection is an illusory remedy. Neither the police nor the state has a duty to protect the individual citizen. The burden falls on the citizen to defend himself and his (p.82)family. The Framers intended that the citizen be armed and not be left defenseless. An armed people also serve as a deterrent against crime.
Gun control laws have at least five political functions: (1) increase citizen reliance on government and tolerance of increased police powers and abuse; (2) facilitate repressive action by government; (3) help prevent opposition to government; (4) lessen pressure for major or radical reform; (5) allow selective enforcement against dissidents. In our imperfect world the servants of the state have committed outrages. Nevertheless, they are always exempted from gun laws designed to disarm the people. Crime, regardless of who commits it, "must be prevented by the penitentiary and gallows, and not by a general deprivation of a constitutional privilege."
Mankind's oldest right is personal and communal defense. A written constitution was deemed necessary because experience demonstrated that the state cannot always be trusted to exercise power in a reasonable manner. Gandhi's nonviolent methods would fail against the likes of a Nicolae Ceausescu, Hitler, Stalin, or Pol Pot. The second amendment and its state analogues guarantee that the state would not have a monopoly on arms. The constitutions consistently promise to the people a right to bear arms. Judges know this, but some have a deep personal dislike of this right. If a guarantee's text and original intent are no longer controlling, what is controlling? The Constitution is a reminder that judges must be restrained by something more than their (p.83)own predilections. Legislative bodies also have an obligation to defend constitutional rights. However, ultimately the Constitution restrains them, too. The majority of commentators support the individual rights view on arms. The courts are required to follow it. Laws seeking to disarm the people must be declared unconstitutional. At one time the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments were mainly ignored. Finally, courts started protecting those rights. Responsible judges will make certain that all constitutional rights are protected, regardless of personal feelings. Casting pejorative labels at those who view the arms right as genuine and fundamental will not change history; it only demonstrates the dismal intellectual discourse of some opponents. The (p.84)Constitution contains a mechanism for change should any provision be deemed worthy of change. The process is involved so that change is accomplished only after suitable deliberation. If the integrity of the process for change is not followed, no right is safe.
State Constitutional Guarantees on the Right To Keep And Bear
Forty-three (43) states have constitutional guarantees on the right to keep and bear arms.
Alabama: "That every citizen has a right to bear arms in defense of himself and the state." Ala. Const. art. I, § 26.
Alaska: "A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." Alaska Const. art. I, § 19.
Arizona: "The right of the individual citizen to bear arms in defense of himself or the State shall not be impaired, but nothing in this section shall be construed as authorizing individuals or corporations to organize, maintain, or employ an armed body of men." Ariz. Const. art. 2, § 26.
Arkansas: "The citizens of this State shall have the right to keep and bear arms for their common defense." Ark. Const. art. II, § 5.
Colorado: "The right of no person to keep and bear arms in defense of his home, person and property, or in aid of the civil power when thereto legally summoned, shall be called in question; but nothing herein contained shall be construed to justify the practice of carrying concealed weapons." Colo. Const. art. II, § 13.
Connecticut: "Every citizen has a right to bear arms in defense of himself and the state." Conn. Const. art. I, § 15.
Delaware: "A person has the right to keep and bear arms for the defense of self, family, home and State, and for hunting and recreational use." Del. Const. art. I, § 20.
Florida: "The right of the people to keep and bear arms in defense (p.85)of themselves and of the lawful authority of the state shall not be infringed, except that the manner of bearing arms may be regulated by law." Fla. Const. art. I, § 8.
Georgia: "The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed, but the General Assembly shall have the power to prescribe the manner in which arms may be borne." Ga. Const. art. I, § I, para. VIII.
Hawaii: "A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." Haw. Const. art. I, § 15.
The people have the right to keep and bear arms, which right shall not be abridged; but this provision shall not prevent the passage of laws to govern the carrying of weapons concealed on the person, nor prevent passage of legislation providing minimum sentences for crimes committed while in possession of a firearm, nor prevent passage of legislation providing penalties for the possession of firearms by a convicted felon, nor prevent the passage of legislation punishing the use of a firearm. No law shall impose licensure, registration or special taxation on the ownership or possession of firearms or ammunition. Nor shall any law permit the confiscation of firearms, except those actually used in the commission of a felony.
Idaho Const. art. I, § 11.
Illinois: "Subject only to the police power, the right of the individual citizen to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." Ill. Const. art. I, § 22.
Indiana: "The people shall have a right to bear arms, for the defense of themselves and the State." Ind. Const. art. I, § 32.
Kansas: "The people have the right to bear arms for their defense and security; but standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, and shall not be tolerated, and the military shall be in strict subordination to the civil power." Kansas Bill of Rights § 4.
All men are, by nature, free and equal, and have certain inherent and inalienable rights, among which may be reckoned:
Seventh: The right to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the state, subject to the power of the general assembly to enact laws to prevent persons from carrying concealed weapons.
Ky. Bill of Rights, § I, para. 7.
Louisiana: "The right of each citizen to keep and bear arms shall not be abridged, but this provision shall not prevent the passage of laws to prohibit the carrying of weapons concealed on the person." La. (p.86)Const. art. I, § 11.
Maine: "Every citizen has a right to keep and bear arms and this right shall never be questioned." Me. Const. art. I, § 16.
The people have a right to keep and bear arms for the common defence [sic]. And as, in time of peace, armies are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be maintained without the consent of the legislature; and the military power shall always be held in an exact subordination to the civil authority, and be governed by it.
Mass. Decl. of Rights, pt. I, art. XVII.
Michigan: "Every person has a right to keep and bear arms for the defense of himself and the state." Mich. Const. art. I, § 6.
Mississippi: "The right of every citizen to keep and bear arms in defense of his home, person, or property, or in aid of the civil power when thereto legally summoned, shall not be called in question, but the legislature may regulate or forbid carrying concealed weapons." Miss. Const. art. 3, § 12.
Missouri: "That the right of every citizen to keep and bear arms in defense of his home, person and property, or when lawfully summoned in aid of the civil power, shall not be questioned; but this shall not justify the wearing of concealed weapons." Mo. Const. art. I, § 23.
The right of any person to keep or bear arms in defense of his own home, person, and property, or in aid of the civil power when thereto legally summoned, shall not be called in question, but nothing herein contained shall be held to permit the carrying of concealed weapons.
Mont. Const. art. II, § 12.
All persons are by nature free and independent, and have certain inherent and inalienable rights; among these are ... the right to keep and bear arms for security or defense of self, family, home, and others, and for lawful common defense, hunting, recreational use, and all other lawful purposes, and such rights shall not be denied or infringed by the state or any subdivision thereof.
Neb. Const. art. I, § 1.
Nevada: "Every citizen has the right to keep and bear arms for security and defense, for lawful hunting and recreational use and for other lawful purposes." Nev. Const. art. 1, § II, para. 1.
New Hampshire: "All persons have the right to keep and bear arms in defense of themselves, their families, their property, and the state." N.H. Const. part 1, art. 2-a.(p.87)
No law shall abridge the right of the citizen to keep and bear arms for security and defense, for lawful hunting and recreational use and for other lawful purposes, but nothing herein shall be held to permit the carrying of concealed weapons. No municipality or county shall regulate, in any way, an incident of the right to keep and bear arms.
N.M. Const. art. II, § 6.
A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; and, as standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they shall not be maintained, and the military shall be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power. Nothing herein shall justify the practice of carrying concealed weapons, or prevent the General Assembly from enacting penal statutes against that practice.
N.C. Const. art. I, § 30.
All individuals are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inalienable rights, among which are ... to keep and bear arms for the defense of their person, family, property, and the state, and for lawful hunting, recreational, and other lawful purposes, which shall not be infringed.
N.D. Const. art. I, § 1.
Ohio: "The people have the right to bear arms for their defense and security; but standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, and shall not be kept up; and the military shall be in strict subordination to the civil power. Ohio Const. art. I, § 4.
Oklahoma: "The right of a citizen to keep and bear arms in defense of his home, person, or property, or in aid of the civil power, when thereunto legally summoned, shall never be prohibited; but nothing herein contained shall prevent the Legislature from regulating the carrying of weapons." Okla. Const. art. 2, § 26.
Oregon: "The people shall have the right to bear arms for the defence of themselves, and the State, but the Military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil power." Or. Const. art. I, § 27.
Pennsylvania: "The right of the citizens to bear arms in defence of themselves and the State shall not be questioned." Pa. Const. art. I, § 21.
Rhode Island: "The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." R.I. Const. art. I, § 22.
A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, (p.88)the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. As, in times of peace, armies are dangerous to liberty, they shall not be maintained without the consent of the General Assembly. The military power of the State shall always be held in subordination to the civil authority and be governed by it. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner nor in time of war but in the manner prescribed by law.
S.C. Const. art. I, § 20.
South Dakota: "The right of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the state shall not be denied." S.D. Const. art. VI, § 24.
Tennessee: "That the citizens of this State have a right to keep and to bear arms for their common defense; but the Legislature shall have power, by law, to regulate the wearing of arms with a view to prevent crime." Tenn. Const. art. I, § 26.
Texas: "Every citizen shall have the right to keep and bear arms in lawful defense of himself or the State; but the Legislature shall have power, by law, to regulate the wearing of arms, with a view to prevent crime." Tex. Const. art. I, § 23.
Utah: "The individual right of the people to keep and bear arms for security and defense of self, family, others, property, or the State, as well as for the other lawful purposes shall not be infringed; but nothing herein shall prevent the legislature from defining the lawful use of arms." Utah Const. art. I, § 6.
That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the State--and as standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to and governed by the civil power.
Vt. Const. ch. I, art. 16.
That a well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state, therefore, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power.
Va. Const. art. I, § 13.
Washington: "The right of the individual citizen to bear arms in defense of himself, or the state, shall not be impaired, but nothing in this section shall be construed as authorizing individuals or corporations to organize, maintain, or employ an armed body of men." Wash. Const. art. I, § 24.(p.89)
West Virginia: "A person has the right to keep and bear arms for the defense of self, family, home and state, and for lawful hunting and recreational use." W. Va. Const. art. III, § 22.
Wyoming: "The right of citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the state shall not be denied." Wyo. Const. art. I, § 24.
States Without Constitutional Provisions:
Seven (7) states do not have a constitutional provision on arms: California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin.
[*] Deputy General Counsel for the National Rifle Association; Member D.C. Bar; J.D. 1979 Howard University; B.S. 1975 Indiana University. The views expressed are those of the author. The assistance of Gina Abdo in the preparation of the manuscript is gratefully appreciated.
U.S. Const. amend. II.
California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin do not have a specific guarantee to bear arms. The 43 state constitutional guarantees to arms are reprinted in the appendix to this article. See Dowlut & Knoop, State Constitutions and the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, 7 Okla. City U.L. Rev. 177 (1982).
See United States v. Brewster, 408 U.S. 501, 508 (1972); Vanhorne's Lessee v. Dorrance, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 304, 308 (1795).
See Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952); Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 121 (1866); In re Public Util. Comm'r, 201 Or. 1, 26, 268 P.2d 605, 617 (1954).
"Interpretivism" is defined as judges deciding constitutional issues by confining themselves to enforcing norms that are stated clearly or implicitly in the written Constitution. J. Ely, Democracy and Distrust 1 (1980). "Noninterpretivism" is where courts go beyond that set of references and enforce norms that cannot be discovered within the four corners of the document. Id.
What constitutes a valid exercise of the police power depends more on the predilection of judges than on the imperative language of a constitutional guarantee. Forbidding possession simpliciter of a blackjack, without limitation as to place, time, purpose, or use, is a valid exercise of the police power. People v. Brown, 253 Mich. 537, 539, 542-43, 235 N.W. 245, 246-47 (1931); State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359, 372, 614 P.2d 94, 100 (1980) (right to bear arms guarantees possession of a billy club under the Oregon Constitution); cf. Barnett v. State, 72 Or. App. 585, 695 P.2d 991 (1985) (per curiam) (statute forbidding possession simpliciter of a blackjack infringes right to arms).
What is "reasonable" depends upon the eye of the beholder. Compare Matthews v. State, 237 Ind. 677, 685-87, 148 N.E.2d 334, 338 (1958) (requiring a license to carry a pistol, either openly or concealed, away from one's abode or fixed place of business is a reasonable regulation of the right to bear arms) and Schubert v. DeBard, 398 N.E.2d 1339, 1341 (Ind. Ct. App. 1980) (license to carry a pistol must be given to any responsible adult who lists bearing arms for self-protection as a reason) with State v. Kerner, 181 N.C. 574, 578-79, 107 S.E. 222, 225 (1921) (licensing statute voided) and State ex rel. City of Princeton v. Buckner, 377 S.E.2d 139 (W. Va. 1988) (licensing statute overly broad).
City of Salina v. Blaksley, 72 Kan. 230, 231-32, 83 P. 619, 620 (1905) (the right to bear arms refers to people as a collective body and applies only to members of the organized state militia or some other military organization provided by law). This view has been used to judicially repeal the right to bear arms because no individual is entitled to enjoy it and soldiers do not need it. Cf. United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez, 110 S. Ct. 1056, 1060-61 [ed. 494 U.S. 259, 265] (1990) ("The people" has same meaning in Bill of Rights).
Rex v. Knight, 90 Eng. Rep. 330 (K.B. 1686).
Rex v. Knight, 87 Eng. Rep. 75, 76 (K.B. 1686); cf. Simpson v. State, 13 Tenn. (5 Yer.) 356, 359-61 (1833) (Tennessee Constitution protects right to bear arms "without any qualification whatsoever as to their kind or nature" or the consequence of "terror to the people to be incurred thereby.").
W. Blizzard, Desultory Reflections on Police: With an Essay on the Means of Preventing Crimes and Amending Criminals 59-63 (1785). Accordingly, principled decisions have rejected efforts to limit the right to arms to a collective right. State v. Dawson, 272 N.C. 535, 546, 159 S.E.2d 1, 9 (1968); see also People v. Nakamura, 99 Colo. 262, 264-65, 62 P.2d 246, 246-47 (1936).
I Reports of State Trials (New Series) 601-02 (1970). The jury instruction was given by Justice Bayley. Id. For a detailed discussion of the English background of this right, see generally J. Malcolm, Arms for Their Defence (1990).
Judy v. Lashley, 50 W.Va. 628, 634, 41 S.E. 197, 200 (1903). In accord is Town of Lester ex rel. Richardson v. Trail, 85 W. Va. 386, 389, 101 S.E. 732, 733 (1919) ("It was not a violation of the common law to carry a pistol about one's person; it is only made so by statute.").
See generally Caplan, The Right of the Individual to Bear Arms: A Recent Judicial Trend, 1982 Det. C.L. Rev. 789 (1982); Hardy, Armed Citizens, Citizen Armies: Toward a Jurisprudence of the Second Amendment, 9 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 559 (1986); Malcolm, The Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms: The Common Law Tradition, 10 Hastings Const. L.Q. 285 (1983); Whisker, Historical Development and Subsequent Erosion of the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, 78 W. Va. L. Rev. 171 (1976).
R. Frothingham, History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill 95 (6th ed. 1903).
The Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775), reprinted in Documents of American History 92, 94 (5th ed. 1949).
E. Dumbauld, The Bill of Rights and What it Means Today 32 (1957). The figure becomes 210 if New York's preliminary recitals are added.
Ullmann v. United States, 350 U.S. 422, 426-27 (1956).
Pennsylvania and the Federal Constitution 1787-1788, 422 (1888).
Debates and Proceedings in the Massachusetts Convention 86-87 (1856).
1 Debates on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 326 (1836) [hereinafter 1 Debates on Adoption]. The minority proposals from the conventions in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts are not found in the above source.
3 Debates on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 659 (1836) [hereinafter 3 Debates on Adoption]; cf. Virginia Declaration of Rights art. 13 (1776) (mentions militia but no right of people to keep and bear arms).
Id. at 646.
Id. at 425. Ohio Const. art. IX, § 1 provides for a broad-based militia. If the people are disarmed, the constitutional militia in effect is disarmed.
4 Debates on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 244 (1836) [hereinafter 4 Debates on Adoption].
A. Hamilton, J. Madison & J. Jay, The Federalist Papers (1961).
The Federalist No. 46, at 299 (J. Madison) (C. Rossiter ed. 1961).
Id. The population in 1790 was 3,929,214. R. Current, T. Williams & F. Freidel, I American History: A Survey 470 (3d ed. 1971). Since the state militias in toto would not have amounted to half a million, Madison must have had in mind virtually all males capable of bearing arms to serve as a deterrent to oppression.
Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United States 51, 56 (1888). The jury system also serves as a deterrent to oppression. Scheflin, Jury Nullification: The Right to Say No, 45 S. Cal. L. Rev. 168 (1972).
Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican 124 (1978).
The Fed. Gazette, June 18, 1789, at 2, col. 1.
Id.; see also Halbrook, To Keep and Bear Their Private Arms: The Adoption of the Second Amendment, 1787-91, 10 N. Ky. L. Rev. 13 (1982) (focusing on newspaper exposition of the right to keep and bear arms).
"Great weight has always been attached, and very rightly attached, to contemporaneous exposition." Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264, 418 (1821).
See Mitgang, Handwritten Draft of a Bill of Rights Found, N. Y. Times, July 29, 1987, at A1, col. 4.
1 Annals of Cong. 778 (1789) (Representative Gerry of Massachusetts).
Journal of the First Session of the Senate 77 (1820).
Virtually all males were subject to militia duties. A New York statute of May 6, 1691, subjected males from 15 to 60 to militia duties. 1 The Colonial Laws of New York from the Year 1664 to the Revolution 231 (1894). A 1705 Virginia statute subjected males from 16 to 60 to militia duties. 3 Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature in the Year 1619, at 335 (1823). In its obsolete form pertaining to troops, regulated is defined as "properly disciplined." 7 Oxford English Dictionary 380 (1933). In turn, discipline in relation to arms is defined as "training in the practice of arms." 3 Oxford English Dictionary 416 (1933). Hence, a well-regulated militia means one that has had training or that at least is composed of people who have had training in arms.
Four state constitutions had a specific provision on arms: Pennsylvania, Vermont, North Carolina, and Massachusetts. "That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence [sic] of themselves and the State ...." Pa. Const. art. XIII; Vt. Const. ch. I, art. XV. Those provisions were construed in Commonwealth v. Ray, 218 Pa. Super. 72, 78-79, 272 A.2d 275, 278-79 (1970), vacated on other grounds, 448 Pa. 307, 292 A.2d 410 (1972), and State v. Rosenthal, 75 Vt. 295, 55 A. 610 (1903), to guarantee a right to bear arms for self-protection. "That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence [sic] of the State ...." N.C. Const. Bill of Rights § 17. In State v. Huntley, 25 N.C. (3 Ired.) 418, 422-23 (1843), the court interpreted this provision broadly: "For any lawful purpose--either of business or amusement--the citizen is at perfect liberty to carry his gun." Id. "The people have a right to keep and bear arms for the common defence [sic]...." Mass. Decl. of Rights art. XVII (1780). The right to arms was judicially repealed in Commonwealth v. Davis, 369 Mass. 886, 343 N.E.2d 847 (1976). The people would not have ratified the second amendment if they suspected it did not guarantee rights they already enjoyed. The ninth amendment protects rights found in state bills of rights when the Federal Bill of Rights was adopted. Massachusetts v. Upton, 466 U.S. 727, 737 (1984) (Stevens, J., concurring). It also protects life and private personality. Rosenblatt v. Baer, 383 U.S. 75, 92 (1966) (Stewart, J., concurring).
Id. at 249-51. The Georgia Constitution of 1861, art. I, § 6, finally adopted a right to arms. The Nunn decision establishes the correct meaning of the second amendment. Judge Lumpkin, the author of Nunn, started practicing law in 1820, when Jefferson and Madison were still alive. Joseph Henry Lumpkin In Memoriam, 36 Ga. 19 (1867). He studied at the University of Georgia and Princeton University. Id. at 20. He died in 1867. Id. In view of the times and his age, he probably did not mean children when he used the term "boys" in Nunn.
Vanhorne's Lessee v. Dorrance, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 304, 308 (1795).
Dr. Bonham's Case, 77 Eng. Rep. 646, 652 (1610). American Indians are also claimed to have influenced our Constitution. C. Porter, Our Indian Heritage 20-21 (1964).
Mosk, Gun Control Legislation: Valid and Necessary, 14 N.Y.L.F. 694, 706-14 (1968); see also Burton v. Sills, 53 N.J. 86, 95, 248 A.2d 521, 526 (1968), appeal dismissed, 394 U.S. 812 (1969). The British press was subject to licensing. 4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries *152.
Grosjean v. American Press Co., 297 U.S. 233, 248-49 (1936).
See United States v. Brewster, 408 U.S. 501, 508 (1972); Bridges v. California, 314 U.S. 252, 264 n.7 (1941).
Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church and State, Inc., 454 U.S. 464, 484 (1982); Ullmann v. United States, 350 U.S. 422, 428-29 (1956).
San Antonio Indep. School Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1, 33-34 (1973).
See Lamont v. Postmaster Gen., 381 U.S. 301, 308-09 (1965); Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 635 (1886).
Minneapolis Star v. Minnesota Comm'r of Revenue, 460 U.S. 575 (1983); Harper v. Virginia Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663 (1966); State v. Kerner, 181 N.C., 574, 107 S.E. 222 (1921).
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health, 462 U.S. 416, 449-51 (1983). One state enacted an instant criminal history check for certain firearm purchasers. Va. Code Ann. §§ 18.2-308.2:2, 52-4.4 (1989).
See Thomas v. Collins, 323 U.S. 516, 538-40 (1945).
United States v. Jackson, 390 U.S. 570, 581 (1968).
Konigsberg v. State Bar, 366 U.S. 36, 49 n.10 (1961); State v. Brown, 571 A.2d 816, 819 n.7 (Me. 1990); State v. Dees, 100 N.M. 252, 669 P.2d 261, 263 (Ct. App. 1983) (first amendment analysis applied to arms statute).
Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 109 S. Ct. 2746, 2757-58 (interim ed. 1989). Courts have voided arms laws because of overbreadth. City of Lakewood v. Pillow, 180 Colo. 20, 501 P.2d 744 (1972); Junction City v. Mevis, 226 Kan. 526, 601 P.2d 1145 (1979); State v. Blocker, 291 Or. 255, 630 P.2d 824 (1981); State ex rel. City of Princeton v. Buckner, 377 S.E.2d 139 (W. Va. 1988).
Anderson v. Celebrezze, 460 U.S. 780, 789 (1983).
Welsh v. Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 740, 748-54 (1984) (home guaranteed special protection). In the area of self-defense, it is now uniformly accepted that in one's home a victim of a crime has no duty to retreat. Cf. LaFond, The Case for Liberalizing the Use of Deadly Force in Self-Defense, 6 U. Puget Sound L. Rev. 237, 251-52 (1983).
State v. Rupe, 101 Wash. 2d 664, 705-06, 683 P.2d 571, 595 (1984) (adverse inference cannot be drawn from exercise of right to arms).
State ex rel. City of Princeton v. Buckner, 377 S.E.2d 139, 145-49 (W. Va. 1988).
City of Lakewood v. Pillow, 180 Colo. 20, 501 P.2d 744 (1972); Watson v. Stone, 148 Fla. 516, 4 So. 2d 700 (1941); State v. Kerner, 181 N.C. 574, 107 S.E. 222 (1921); City of Las Vegas v. Moberg, 82 N.M. 626, 485 P.2d 737 (Ct. App. 1971); State v. Blocker, 291 Or. 255, 630 P.2d 824 (1981).
Texas v. Johnson, 109 S. Ct. 2533, 2544 (interim ed. 1989); Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971); see also Holland v. Commonwealth, 294 S.W.2d 83, 85 (Ky. 1956).
U.S. Const. amend. II.
Richardson v. Ramirez, 418 U.S. 24 (1974).
DeVeau v. Braisted, 363 U.S. 144 (1960).
Burton, Cullen & Travis, The Collateral Consequences of a Felony Conviction: A National Study of State Statutes, Fed. Probation, Sept. 1987, at 52; see also Doe v. Webster, 606 F.2d 1226, 1233-34 (1979); State v. Noel, 3 Ariz. App. 313, 414 P.2d 162, 164-65 (1966). However, there are limits on which offenses may be classified as a felony. See United States v. Wulff, 758 F.2d 1121 (6th Cir. 1985); In re Lynch, 8 Cal. 3d 410, 503 P.2d 921, 105 Cal. Rptr. 217 (1972).
Sable Communications v. F.C.C., 109 S. Ct. 2829, 2836 (interim ed. 1989).
Stevens v. United States, 440 F.2d 144, 149 (6th Cir. 1971); cf. Articles of Confederation art. VI, para. 4; Va. Declaration of Rights art. 13 (1776). Both mention a militia without any reference to a right of the people to keep and bear arms. The Framers, however, while having these models available, chose not to use them. They wanted to go beyond guaranteeing to a state the right to have a militia; they guaranteed a right to keep and bear arms to the people. Oddly, a state's attempt to use the Constitution's militia clause as grounds for maintaining control over the National Guard has not found favor with the courts. See Perpich v. Department of Defense, 110 S. Ct. 2418 [ed. 496 U.S. 334] (1990); Dukakis v. United States Dep't of Defense, 686 F. Supp. 30 (D. Mass. 1988), aff'd, 859 F.2d 1066 (1st Cir. 1988) (per curiam), cert. denied, 109 S. Ct. 1743 (interim ed. 1989); J.R. Graham, A Constitutional History of the Military Draft 11, 19 (1971) (discussing the difference between armies and militia).
Quilici v. Village of Morton Grove, 695 F.2d 261, 270 (7th Cir. 1982) (the opinion oddly stated that the debates surrounding the adoption of the second and fourteenth amendments were irrelevant), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 863 (1983); Sandidge v. United States, 520 A.2d 1057, 1057-58 (D.C.), cert. denied, 108 S. Ct. 193 (interim ed. 1987). The author of Quilici was requested to disqualify himself because "[s]even weeks before the date of oral argument, Judge Bauer unequivocally expressed on a public television program his strongly held belief that an ordinance banning the possession of firearms would not violate the Second Amendment." Motion of Plaintiffs-Appellants for Leave to File Their Addendum to Petition for Rehearing and Suggestion for Rehearing en banc Based on Newly Discovered Evidence and Their Motion for Disqualification at 1, Quilici v. Village of Morton Grove, 695 F.2d 261 (7th Cir. 1982), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 863 (1983).
Marchetti v. United States, 390 U.S. 62, 84 (1968) (Warren, C.J., dissenting) (Chief Justice commenting on the Court's holding in Haynes v. United States, 390 U.S. 85 (1968)).
407 U.S. 143, 151 (1972) (Douglas, J., dissenting). This hostility has surfaced in other areas. For example, an attempt to force a $2,500 contribution to a gun prohibition group, as part of a sentence for possessing an unlicensed pistol, was voided in People v. Warren, 89 A.D.2d 501, 452 N.Y.S.2d 50 (1982). Striking veniremen, without voir dire, who believed in the principles of the National Rifle Association, were members or former members of the NRA, or had a family member who belonged to the NRA was held reversible error in United States v. Salamone, 800 F.2d 1216, 1226-27 (3d Cir. 1986).
Webster v. Reproductive Health Servs., 109 S. Ct. 3040, 3056 (interim ed. 1989); Mitchell v. W. T. Grant Co., 416 U.S. 600, 627-28 (1974) (Powell, J., concurring); Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486, 546 (1969); see also Note, The Power that Shall be Vested in a Precedent: Stare Decisis, the Constitution and the Supreme Court, 66 B.U.L. Rev. 345 (1986).
Erie R.R. V. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64, 79 (1938). Courts must bow to force of better reasoning. United States v. Scott, 437 U.S. 82, 101 (1978).
The right to arms "predates any Constitution of the Commonwealth." Commonwealth v. Ray, 218 Pa. Super. 72, 79, 272 A.2d 275, 278-79 (1970), vacated, 448 Pa. 307, 292 A.2d 410 (1972).
United States v. Guest, 383 U.S. 745, 760 (1966) (private interference with federal constitutional rights may be punished); Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303 (1940) (first amendment applies to states).
Id. at 265. The opinion essentially held that banning armed marches does not infringe the right to arms; that even laying the second amendment aside, the people have a right to arms. The Court further stated that due process and privileges and immunities add nothing to the right to arms based on its prior holding that the law against armed marches does not infringe the right to arms. In Dunne v. People, 94 Ill. 120, 140 (1879), the court held that an act prohibiting armed parades or drills without a license does not infringe the right to bear arms for defense of persons and property. Id. The right to arms guarantees of Arizona and Washington contain proscriptions against armed bodies. Ariz. Const. art. 2, § 26; Wash. Const. art. I, § 24.
Id. at 538. The fourth amendment now applies to the states through incorporation under the fourteenth amendment. See Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961). The Supreme Court has not specifically held that the second, third, and seventh amendments, as well as the indictment provision of the fifth and the bail provision of the eighth, apply to the states. Recently, however, federal circuit courts have decided that the third amendment and bail provision of the eighth amendment apply to the states. Engblom v. Carey, 677 F.2d 957 (2d Cir. 1982) (third amendment); Hunt v. Roth, 648 F.2d 1148 (8th Cir. 1981) (bail), vacated as moot sub nom., Murphy v. Hunt, 455 U.S. 478 (1982).
Id. at 178 (citation omitted). The short-barreled shotgun is the modern equivalent of the ancient blunderbuss. It was not uncommon for a blunderbuss to have a barrel under 18 inches. F. Wilkinson, Antique Firearms 99 (1969). Compare Burks v. State, 162 Tenn. 406, 36 S.W.2d 892 (1931) (miniature shotgun with twelve inch barrel is a constitutionally protected firearm) with State v. LaChapelle, 234 Neb. 458, 451 N.W.2d 689 (1990) (sawed-off shotgun is not constitutionally protected).
1 History of the Supreme Court of the United States 450 (1971).
Black, The Bill of Rights, 35 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 865, 873 (1960). Justice Black's individual rights view has Supreme Court support. In Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393 (1856), the Court included the right "to keep and carry arms wherever they went" as a privilege and immunity. Id. at 416-17. It also listed the right to bear arms in a list of individual rights which Congress could not deny. Id. at 450. In Robertson v. Baldwin, 165 U.S. 275, 281 (1897), the Court, in discussing individual rights, opined that a law against concealed carrying of arms is not repugnant to the second amendment, but to admit this exception is to admit there is a fundamental right. Id. In Moore v. City of East Cleveland, 431 U.S. 494, 502 (1977), an earlier list of individual rights, including the right to arms, was approved. Id.
Sandidge v. United States, 520 A.2d 1057 (D.C.), cert. denied, 484 U.S. 868 (1987); see also United States v. Warin, 530 F.2d 103 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, 426 U.S. 948 (1976). Both decisions express alarm about highly sophisticated lethal arms of today.
State v. Kerner, 181 N.C. 574, 107 S.E. 222 (1921); State v. Delgado, 298 Or. 395, 692 P.2d 610 (1984); State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359, 614 P.2d 94 (1980).
Kamper v. Hawkins, 3 Va. (3 Va. Cas.) 20, 79 (1793) (state constitution is supreme); State ex rel. Farley v. Brown, 151 W. Va. 887, 892-93, 157 S.E.2d 850, 853 (1967). State courts have been employing their bill of rights to void state statutes since the infancy of this nation. See, e.g., E. Pollock, Ohio Unreported Decisions Prior to 1823, at 71 (1952) (reporting the case of Rutherford v. M'Faddon (Ohio Supreme Court 1807) (right to jury trial)).
City of Lakewood v. Pillow, 180 Colo. 20, 23, 501 P.2d 744, 745-46 (1972); State ex rel. City of Princeton v. Buckner, 377 S.E.2d 139, 146 (W. Va. 1988); see also State v. Comeau, 233 Neb. 907, 448 N.W.2d 595, 597-98 (1989); State v. Smith, 571 A.2d 279 (N.H. 1990).
City of Akron v. Williams, 113 Ohio App. 293, 296, 177 N.E.2d 802, 804 (1960), appeal dismissed, 172 Ohio St. 287, 175 N.E.2d 174 (1961); see also State v. Hogan, 63 Ohio St. 202, 210, 58 N.E. 572, 573 (1900).
Kalodimos v. Village of Morton Grove, 103 Ill. 2d 483, 511, 470 N.E.2d 266, 279 (1984) (pistol prohibition upheld in 4 to 3 decision). Newspapers throughout Illinois advised that the Bill of Rights Committee rejected 8 to 6 an effort to amend the arms guarantee by adding "except handguns" after the word "arms." Rights Committee Affirms Support For Sweeping Firearms Provision, Galesburg Register-Mail, Mar. 13, 1970, at 2; Committee Backs Gun Supporters, Metro-East Journal, Mar. 13, 1970, at 22; Arms Provision Approved by Committee, Marion Daily Republican, Mar. 13, 1970, at 1; Con-Con Group Supports Right To Bear Arms, Rockford Morning Star, Mar 13, 1970, at A-19; Gun Lobby Triumphs, Southern Illinoisan, Mar. 12, 1970, at 1; Gun Lobby Scores Victory At Con-Con, Decatur Daily Review, Mar. 12, 1970, at 1. The court ignored this evidence of the people's understanding. The Illinois guarantee is unique because it is specifically "subject only to the police power." Ill. Const. art I, § 22.
Some rights are "absolute." Carey v. Piphus, 435 U.S. 247, 266 (1978) (procedural due process); Faheem-El v. Lane, 657 F. Supp. 638, 645 (C.D. Ill. 1986) (religious belief).
See Schubert v. DeBard, 398 N.E.2d 1339, 1341 (Ind. Ct. App. 1980); Rabbitt v. Leonard, 36 Conn. Supp. 108, 413 A.2d 489, 491 (1979). State laws on the issuance of a license to carry a firearm are discussed in Comment, Carrying Concealed Weapons in Self-Defense: Florida Adopts Uniform Regulations for the Issuance of Concealed Weapons Permits, 15 Fla. St. U.L. Rev. 751, 753-61 (1987).
People v. Zerillo, 219 Mich. 635, 189 N.W. 927 (1922); State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359, 614 P.2d 94 (1980).
72 Kan. 230, 83 P. 619 (1905).
Id. at 231, 83 P. at 620.
The Brief for Appellee at 2, City of Salina v. Blaksley, 72 Kan. 230, 83 P. 619 (1903) (No. 14375), noted that in September of 1904, "The evidence in the case showed that the weapon Blaksloy [sic] carried, or 'bore,' on the occasion in question was a short, 32-calibre pistol, and that he made use of it by firing indiscriminately in a crowd of people." Id. It was then argued on pages 4 to 16 of the brief that a pocket pistol is not constitutionally protected and that intoxicated or concealed carrying of arms may be prohibited. Id. at 14-16. On page 16, the brief concluded by noting that
The record in this case nowhere intimates that Mr. Blaksley was carrying that 32-calibre pistol 'for his defense and security,' but it does disclose that he pleaded guilty in the police court, and that the jury found him guilty in the district court of 'carrying on his person a deadly weapon when under the influence of intoxicating liquor.'
Id. at 16. The Brief for Appellant at 13, City of Salina v. Blaksley, 72 Kan. 230, 83 P. 619 (1905) (No. 14375), argued "this right is absolute" and Blaksley had a right to bear arms "whether he be good, bad or indifferent or whether he be drunk or sober." Id. Neither party raised the second amendment nor the fourteenth amendment.
Blaksley, 72 Kan. at 231, 83 P. at 620. Blaksley has been used by other courts to judicially repeal the guarantee to arms. See Commonwealth v. Davis, 369 Mass. 886, 888, 343 N.E.2d 847, 849 (1976).
226 Kan. 526, 601 P.2d 1145 (1979).
Id. at 534, 601 P.2d at 1151.
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 304, 326 (1816).
369 Mass. at 886, 343 N.E.2d at 847. Besides a guarantee to arms, in article 17, the right to self-defense is protected by part I, article 1 of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights.
Davis, 369 Mass. at 888, 343 N.E.2d at 849.
Id. at 887-88 (quoting Mass. Decl. of Rights art. xvii)
Ark. Const. art. II, § 5; Tenn. Const. art. I, § 26.
Wilson v. State, 33 Ark. 557 (1878); Carroll v. State, 28 Ark. 99, 101 (1872); Glasscock v. City of Chattanooga, 157 Tenn. 518, 11 S.W.2d 678 (1928); State v. Foutch, 96 Tenn. 242, 34 S.W. 1 (1896).
The natural or inalienable right to self-defense is guaranteed by Cal. Const., art. I, § 1; Iowa Const., art. I, § 1; N.J. Const., art. I, para. 2. The right to life is an inherent right under Wis. Const., art. I, § 1. The right to self-defense serves as an independent guarantee to possess arms. Commonwealth v. Ray, 218 Pa. Super. 72, 272 A.2d 275 (1970), vacated on other grounds, 448 Pa. 307, 292 A.2d 410 (1972).
60 U.S. 393 (1856).
Id. at 417.
Id. at 450.
Benton v. Maryland, 395 U.S. 784, 794-96 (1969).
Wilson v. State, 33 Ark. 557 (1878); City of Lakewood v. Pillow, 180 Colo. 20, 501 P.2d 744 (1972) (en banc); People v. Nakamura, 99 Colo. 262, 62 P.2d 246 (1936) (en banc); Nunn v. State, 1 Ga. 243 (1846); In re Brickey, 8 Idaho 597, 70 P. 609 (1902); Bliss v. Commonwealth, 12 Ky. (2 Litt.) 90 (1822); People v. Zerillo, 219 Mich. 635, 189 N.W. 927 (1922); State v. Kerner, 181 N.C. 574, 107 S.E. 222 (1921); City of Las Vegas v. Moberg, 82 N.M. 626, 485 P.2d 737 (Ct. App. 1971); In re Reilly, 31 Ohio Dec. 364 (C.P. 1919); State v. Delgado, 298 Or. 395, 692 P.2d 610 (1984); State v. Blocker, 291 Or. 255, 630 P.2d 824 (1981); State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359, 614 P.2d 94 (1980); Barnett v. State, 72 Or. App. 585, 695 P.2d 991 (1985); Glasscock v. City of Chattanooga, 157 Tenn. 518, 11 S.W.2d 678 (1928); Andrews, 50 Tenn. (3 Heisk.) at 165; Smith v. Ishenhour, 43 Tenn. (3 Cold.) 214 (1866); Jennings v. State, 5 Tex. Civ. Cas. 298 (1878); State v. Rosenthal, 75 Vt. 295, 55 A. 610 (1903); State ex rel. City of Princeton v. Buckner, 377 S.E.2d 139 (W. Va. 1988).
State courts have also guaranteed greater protection in many areas. E.g., In re T.W., 551 So. 2d 1186 (Fla. 1989) (the right to privacy); Commonwealth v. Upton, 394 Mass. 363, 476 N.E.2d 548 (1985) (searches and seizures); People v. Torres, 74 N.Y.2d 224, 543 N.E.2d 61, 544 N.Y.S.2d 796 (1989) (searches and seizures); State v. Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d 430 (Tenn. 1989) (searches and seizures); Edgewood Indep. School Dist. v. Kirby, 777 S.W.2d 391 (Tex. 1989) (financing public education).
Statutes typically referred to "muskett or fuzee ... pike ... Sword ... Lance ... pistoll [sic] ... case of good pistolls ... rapier ... carabine ... powder ... bullets .... " I The Colonial Laws of N.Y. From the Year 1664 to the Revolution 232 (1894); see also C. Colby, Revolutionary War Weapons (1963); 6 Documents Relating to Colonial History of New Jersey 193 (1882); 3 Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature in the Year 1619, 338 (1823); 3 Records of the Colony of Rhode Island 433 (1856); 3 The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut 12, 295 (1968).
See Andrews v. State, 50 Tenn. 165 (1871). In Andrews, the court stated that, "the rifle of all descriptions, the shot gun, the musket, and repeater, are such arms; and that under the Constitution the right to keep such arms, cannot be infringed or forbidden by the Legislature." Id. at 179. The court continued, "the pistol known as the repeater is a soldier's weapon ...." Id. at 187. The court in Hill v. State, 53 Ga. 473 (1874) stated that, "The word 'arms,' evidently means the arms of a militiamen, the weapons ordinarily used in battle, to-wit: guns of every kind, swords, bayonets, horseman's pistols, etc." Id. at 474. In State v. Workman, 35 W.Va. 367, 373, 14 S.E. 9, 11 (1891), the court stated that
in regard to the kind of arms referred to in the [second] amendment, it must be held to refer to the weapons of warfare to be used by the militia, such as swords, guns, rifles, and muskets, --arms to be used in defending the state and civil liberty--and not to pistols, bowie-knives, brass knuckles, billies, and such other weapons as are usually employed in brawls, street fights, duels, and affrays, and are only habitually carried by bullies, blackguards, and desperadoes ....
Id. The opinion demonstrates an obvious inaccuracy. The federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry manufactured pistols. The court also wore blinders with respect to Colt's revolver in the Dragoon, Navy and Army models.
Rinzler v. Carson, 262 So. 2d 661, 666 (Fla. 1972); State v. Kerner, 181 N.C. 574, 107 S.E. 222 (1921) (Chief Justice Clark was a Civil War veteran and witnessed in his life dramatic changes in arms); Kessler, 289 Or. at 359, 614 P.2d at 94; State v. Rupe, 101 Wash. 2d 664, 703, 683 P.2d 571, 594 (1984).
See, e.g., Cleveland Ordinance No. 415-89 (adding chapter 628 to Codified Ordinances of Cleveland); Dayton Rev. Code of Gen. Ordinances §§ 138.24-138.28; see also Cal. Penal Code § 12275 (West Supp. 1990).
The 1896 Model Mauser semiautomatic pistol was the first to be widely produced. It is still found in places ranging from the United States to China. The 1902 Winchester .22 semiautomatic rifle is another example of a widely produced civilian arm.
Defense Intelligence Agency, United States Department of Defense Small Arms Identification and Operation Guide--Eurasian Communist Countries 105 (1976).
J. Wright & P. Rossi, United States Department of Justice, Weapons, Crime, and Violence in America Executive Summary 2 (Nov. 1981); see also Kleck, Policy Lessons from Recent Gun Control Research, 49 Law & Contemp. Probs. 35 (1986). Most police officers believe a civilian should be entitled to own a rifle, shotgun, and pistol. National Association of Chiefs of Police, American Law Enforcement Officers Survey for 1989, 1 (1989).
The creation of malum prohibitum felony offenses in the firearm area not only helps fill prisons but creates such unjust results that courts hope the defendant will be pardoned. See United States v. Ruisi, 460 F.2d 153, 157 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 914 (1972). The common law punished going armed to terrorize the king's subjects as a misdemeanor. State v. Dawson, 272 N.C. 535, 541-42, 159 S.E.2d 1, 6 (1968).
DeShaney v. Winnebago County Dep't of Social Servs., 109 S. Ct. 998 (interim ed. 1989); Bowers v. DeVito, 686 F.2d 616 (7th Cir. 1982); Everton v. Willard, 468 So. 2d 936 (Fla. 1985); see also Warren v. District of Columbia, 444 A.2d 1 (D.C. 1981) (en banc); Weiner v. Metropolitan Transp. Auth., 55 N.Y.2d 175, 433 N.E.2d 124, 448 N.Y.S.2d 141 (1982).
"The right to bear arms is reserved to the people in our federal and state constitutions as a means of self-protection against tyranny or oppression and as a defense against certain forms of private aggression." Walter v. State, 35 Ohio C.C. Dec. 567, 568 (1905).
Kleck, Crime Control Through the Private Use of Armed Force, 35 Soc. Probs., Feb., 1988, at 1. One court has even admitted that although the defendant violated a harsh gun licensing law, he may have saved his life by having the gun. Commonwealth v. Lindsey, 396 Mass. 840, 845, 489 N.E.2d 666, 669 (1986).
Kessler, Gun Control and Political Power, 5 L. & Pol'y Q. 381 (1983).
On May 13, 1985 police in a residential area fired 10,000 rounds of heavy caliber ammunition, dropped a bomb from a helicopter, killed 11 people (including 5 children ages 7 to 14), made 250 persons homeless, and destroyed a neighborhood. See Brown, Foreword to the Report of the Philadelphia Special Investigation Commission, 59 Temple L.Q. 267, 268 (1986). The My Lai incident is another example. See Calley v. Callaway, 519 F.2d 184 (5th Cir. 1975) (en banc), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 911 (1976). Chicago's Operation Greylord resulted in 15 judges being convicted on corruption charges. 'Greylord Parole', Nat'l L.J., Nov. 20, 1989, at 6.
Wilson v. State, 33 Ark. 557, 560 (1878). The Framers apparently also felt "if proper attention be paid to the education of children in knowledge, and religion, few men will be disposed to use arms, unless for their amusement, and for the defence of themselves and their country." D. Boorstin, The Americans--The Colonial Experience 353 (1958).
See supra notes 14, 38, 80, 144, 153. See generally The Right To Keep and Bear Arms, Report of Subcom. on Constitution of Senate Judiciary Comm., 97th Cong. 2d Sess. (1982); S. Halbrook, A Right to Bear Arms: State and Federal Bills of Rights and Constitutional Guarantees (1989); B. Bordenet, The Right to Possess Arms: The Intent of the Framers of the Second Amendment, 21 U. West. L.A. L. Rev. 1 (1990); Cantrell, The Right to Bear Arms, Wis. B. Bull., Oct., 1980, at 21; Caplan, Handgun Control: Constitutional or Unconstitutional?, 10 N.C. Cent. L.J. 53 (1978); Caplan, Restoring the Balance: The Second Amendment Revisited, 5 Fordham Urban L.J. 31 (1976); Dowlut, The Current Relevancy of Keeping and Bearing Arms, 15 U. Balt. L. F. 32 (1984); Gardiner, To Preserve Liberty--A Look at the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, 10 N. Ky. L. Rev. 63 (1982); Halbrook, The Jurisprudence of the Second and Fourteenth Amendments, 4 Geo. Mason U.L. Rev. 1 (1981); Halbrook, Tort Liability for the Manufacture, Sale, and Ownership of Handguns?, 6 Hamline L. Rev. 351, 372 (1983) (gun ownership protected by second and fourteenth amendments); Halbrook, The Right to Bear Arms in the First State Bills of Rights: Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Vermont, and Massachusetts, 10 Vt. L. Rev. 255 (1985); Hardy, The Second Amendment and the Historiography of the Bill of Rights, 4 J. of L. & Pol. 1 (1987); Hardy & Stompoly, Of Arms and the Law, 51 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 62 (1974); Hays, The Right to Bear Arms, A Study in Judicial Misinterpretation, 2 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 381 (1960); Kates, Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the Second Amendment, 82 Mich. L. Rev. 204 (1983); Levine & Saxe, The Second Amendment: The Right to Bear Arms, 7 Hous. L. Rev. 1 (1969); Levinson, The Embarrassing Second Amendment, 99 Yale L.J. 637 (1989); Lund, The Second Amendment, Political Liberty, and the Right to Self-Preservation, 39 Ala. L. Rev. 103 (1987); McClure, Firearms and Federalism, 7 Idaho L. Rev. 197 (1970); Olds, The Second Amendment and the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Mich. St. B.J., Oct., 1967, at 15; Shalhope, The Armed Citizen in the Early Republic, 49 Law & Contemp. Probs. 125 (1986); Shalhope, The Ideological Origins of the Second Amendment, 69 J. Am. Hist. 599 (1982); Weiss, A Reply to Advocates of Gun Control Law, 52 J. Urb. L. 577 (1974); Comment, The Right to Keep and Bear Arms; A Necessary Constitutional Guarantee or an Outmoded Provision of The Bill of Rights?, 31 Alb. L. Rev. 74 (1967).
See State v. Kessler, 289 Or. 359, 614 P.2d 94 (1980). The law must be followed although the court experiences no satisfaction with the result, for "this is a court of law and not a theological institution." Oleff v. Hodapp, 129 Ohio St. 432, 438, 195 N.E. 838, 841 (1935). Congress declared the second amendment protects individual rights. Firearms Owners' Protection Act, Pub. L. No. 99-308, 100 Stat. 449 (1986).
When the Prohibition Amendment was still in force, a commission, headed by Harvard Law Dean Roscoe Pound, rejected suggestions to repeal it. William S. Kenyon opined that an alternative to repeal was nullification. Wickersham Commission 133 (1931). He added: "Nullification is an odious word in this republic and yet the Fifteenth and parts of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution have been nullified and such nullification accepted by the people." Id.
Other rights suffer whenever a state's interests are perceived as more important than individual rights. See, e.g., Skinner v. Railway Labor Execs. Ass'n, 109 S. Ct. 1402 (interim ed. 1989) (fourth amendment); National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab, 109 S. Ct. 1384 (interim ed. 1989) (fourth amendment); Wasserstrom, The Incredible Shrinking Fourth Amendment, 21 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 257 (1984); see also Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944) (equal protection based on race). Times have changed but the erosion of rights based on emotion continues. The war on drugs has replaced the war with Japan. In both eras liberty has suffered needlessly.
The right to remain silent and have counsel present during a custodial interrogation has been assailed: "In some unknown number of cases the Court's rule will return a killer, a rapist or other criminal to the streets and to the environment which produced him, to repeat his crime whenever it pleases him." Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 542 (1966) (White, J., dissenting).
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Location and General Description
The Tristan da Cunha Island Group (37° 06' S, 12° 18' W) is an archipelago of five volcanic islands resting on the east slope of the mid-Atlantic ridge, midway between Africa and South America. Tristan Island is the youngest island in the group, at one million years, and is still considered volcanically active with its most recent eruption occurring in 1961-62. The island is 41 km2 and has a volcanic cone that reaches 2,062 m with a base circumference of 34 km. The volcano is often snow-capped and has a crater lake. The coast is characterized by sea cliffs of up to 600 m in height, occasionally broken by low coastal strips. Above the cliffs, a 600-900 m plateau of sorts surrounds the base of the volcano. The island’s small settlement, called Edinburgh, is on the northwest coast. Other islands in the group, Nightingale Island and Inaccessible Island, are eroded volcanic cones once similar in size to Tristan Island (Ashworth et al. 2000). Two small islands near Nightingale are named Stoltenhoff Island and Center, or Middle, Island.
Often referred to as the "Remotest Island in the World", Tristan Island has an unusual human history. The island group was discovered by Portuguese Admiral Tristado d'Ancunha in 1506 (Ashworth et al. 2000), and was visited by sealers and whalers during the 18th century. The British formally annexed the islands, and a small community was founded in the early 1800’s. The island’s population had reached almost 300 in 1961, when a volcanic eruption forced the islanders to evacuate. After a period in England, the majority of the islanders chose to return to Tristan in 1963. The island’s current population has a remarkable continuity with its founding members. Tristan Islanders speak a distinct dialect of English that reflects their origins in Georgian England but is also laced with a few early Americanisms.
Gough Island (40°21'S, 09°53'W) lies approximately 425 km southeast of Tristan da Cunha, consisting of one main island and several offshore islets and rocks. Most of these are within 100 m of the main island, and the largest support vascular plants and breeding birds (WCMC 1994). Volcanic in origin, the Gough Island group covers 65 km² and has a high point of 910 m, at Edinburgh Peak. The islands’ most recent volcanic activity occurred about 2,400 years ago (Ashworth et al. 2000); Gough was part of the same volcanic mass as the Tristan formations. Gough Island is composed of a central plateau with several mountain peaks, and the coastline is marked by cliffs of 300 m to 450 m in height with narrow boulder beaches and no sheltered harbor; the only area below 200 m altitude is at the southern end of the island (WCMC 1994).
Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island are included in the Dependencies of Saint Helena, which is 2,333 km to the north. These islands have a cool-temperate oceanic climate, with mean temperatures at near sea level of 11.3°-14.5°C with little seasonal variation, though rapid weather changes are common. Snow may fall on the peaks between May and January, but rarely occurs at sea level. The islands lie on the edge of the "roaring forties", a seasonally oscillating wind belt south of 40°S (WCMC 1994). With a mean of 3,397 mm annually, Gough Island receives much more precipitation than Tristan, which averages 1,676 mm (UNEP 1989-1990).
The vegetation of the Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island group is typical of southern cold-temperate oceanic islands, having relatively low species diversity, and a large prevalence of ferns and other cryptogams. The islands support five native vegetation types zoned in relation to altitude and topography. Coastal areas are dominated by tussock grassland (Spartina arundinacea and Parodiochloa flabellata) that is restricted to areas subjected to regular salt spray (WCMC 1994). Tussock grass has largely been eliminated on Tristan by grazing animals, though it does persist on the eastern coast of the island and on inaccessible cliffs. Beyond the tussock grass, fern bush (Histiopteris incisa and Blechnum palmiforme) interspersed with an occasional "island tree" (Phylica arborea) occurs from about 300 m to 500 m elevation. Wet heath extends as high as 800 m presenting a diverse vegetation type, composed of fern species, sedges, grasses, angiosperms, and mosses. B. palmiforme, Empetrum rumbrum, and grasses and sedges dominate these heaths, respectively. Peat bogs of Sphagnum moss occupy suitable depressions above 600 m. Tetroncium magellanicium and Scirpus spp. are the only abundant vascular plants found in the bogs. From 600 m and above, feldmark and montane rock communities are found. These are composed of an assemblage of "cushion-forming" or crevice plants, growing on exposed areas such as ridges (WCMC 1994). The lower altitude islands show fewer vegetation types; for example, Inaccessible Island has three vegetation types: tussock grass, fern bush and a few freshwater bogs, and Nightingale is predominately covered by dense tussock grass. Over sixty plant taxa are restricted to the Gough and Tristan group of islands (WCMC 1994). Gough Island has only four widespread exotic plants; more occur on Tristan Island.
Gough Island is one of the most important seabird colonies in the world. About 20 species of seabirds breed on the island (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The Tristan Island group supports many of the same bird species as well as claiming a few unique populations. BirdLife International has classified both Tristan da Cunha and Gough as important Endemic Bird Areas. Tristan is quite remarkable in supporting three endemic genera: Atlantisia, Nesocichla, and Nesospiza (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Nesospiza buntings have speciated at the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, resulting in the Tristan bunting (Nesospiza acunhae) and Wilkins' bunting (N. wilkinsi), which are significantly different in size and co-occur without interbreeding on Nightingale Island (Ryan et al. 1994). Two endemic landbirds are found at Gough, the Gough moorhen (Gallinula comeri), which is found in fern bush vegetation areas and has also been introduced on Tristan, and the Gough finch (Rowettia goughensis). Tristan albatross (Diomedea exulans dabbenena), the most genetically distinct of the five subspecies of wandering albatross, is listed as Endangered and breeds only on Gough and Inaccessible Islands (Ryan et al. 2001). Several other birds are restricted to Tristan and Gough Islands when breeding including white-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis conspicillata) (likely an endemic species), great shearwater (Puffinus gravis), and Atlantic petrel (Pterodroma incerta) (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Tristan da Cunha and Gough Islands are the main southern ocean breeding sites of little shearwater (Puffinus assimilis), and Gough is also a primary breeding site of Puffinus gravis, with as many as three million pairs breeding on the island (WCMC 1994). The last survivors of the southern giant petrel (Macronectes gigantous) also breed on Gough, with an estimated 100-150 pairs (WCMC 1994). Other notable birds of this island group are the endemic Inaccessible Island flightless rail (Atlantisia rogersi), the world's smallest flightless bird (Fraser et al. 1992), and the northern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome moseleyi), for which about 48% of the world's population breed at Gough (WCMC 1994).
Only two native breeding mammals occur on the Tristan-Gough Islands. Subantarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) are abundant, and southern elephant seal populations (Mirounga leonina) have been increasing. Populations of these as well as local marine mammals, southern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis australis) (EN) and dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), have fluctuated greatly in recent history due to hunting.
Reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fish, and native terrestrial mammals are absent from these islands and terrestrial invertebrates have been poorly studied. In addition to the crayfish industry that largely supports Tristan Island’s economy, Tristan rock lobster (Jasus tristani) and octopus are both are economically exploited, with regulations (WCMC 1994).
Tristan Island, being the only permanently inhabited island in this group, has experienced the greatest degree of environmental degradation. Pressures have resulted from agriculture, overgrazing by sheep, tree removal, fire, and the introduction of exotic species. The exploitation of natural resources on Tristan was critical for human survival until the middle of this century, and some native species were almost or completely exterminated. The small community on the island has since taken several locally based measures to reverse this trend. The Island Council passed the first Protection Ordinance in 1950, and in 1994, Inaccessible Island was declared a nature reserve. This island is globally important for its endemic terrestrial species, including the flightless rail, as well as being a breeding site for many seabird species. The islanders retain the right to collect driftwood and guano from the uninhabited island.
Gough Island was exploited by sealers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with sealers camping on the island for considerable periods of time. They existed on seabirds and their eggs, fish, wild plants, and cultivated potatoes, which are no longer present on the island. Whaling occurred in the waters of Gough Island between 1830 and 1870, though the island remained uninhabited. The island has been visited by scientists periodically since 1811, and meteorologists have inhabited the island since 1956. The meteorological station, with its associated facilities and helicopter landing site, is the only man made structure on the island. Land birds on Gough Island have been protected under the Tristan da Cunha Wildlife Protection Ordinance since 1950; the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance of 1976 then declared the island and its waters a wildlife reserve. In 1995, Gough Island and its territorial waters to three nautical miles were inscribed on the World Heritage List, only the third natural British site to be included. Justification for the listing included the fact that Gough is the largest scarcely modified cool temperate island ecosystem in the South Atlantic Ocean; for its huge fur seal and rockhopper penguin populations, endemic landbirds, plants and invertebrates; and its importance as a seabird colony (Swales 1996).
Types and Severity of Threats
The isolation of Tristan da Cunha and Gough Islands does not prevent the risk of over-exploitation, which remains a problem with fishing and livestock grazing. The Tristan Islanders have made concerted efforts to prevent degradation and have seen significant success. For example, Phylica arborea trees, which provide an important habitat and food source of for the endemic grosbeak bunting (Nesospiza wilkinsi dunnei), are recovering on cliffs above Edinburgh since a ban on cutting was passed (Swales 1996). Each family on Tristan is now allowed only two cows and seven sheep to reduce the impact of grazing. Some threats, however, are always present, such as the introduction of exotic species onto the islands. The introduced house mouse (Mus musculus) is widespread and abundant on Gough Island (WCMC 1994). Goats and sheep were once introduced to Gough, but are no longer present. All supplies to the meteorological station are carefully checked; in 1990, for example, 10 live snail species were found in an imported cauliflower, along with aphids, caterpillars and mites, and all had to be removed from the island (WCMC 1994). Alien plants on Gough Island primarily originate from seeds found in bird droppings (WCMC 1994). New Zealand Flax, once used for traditional thatched houses on Tristan, had proved to be a problem. It is crucial to keep all of the islands free from exotic mammals, as the important avifauna would be very susceptible to predation from rats or cats.
Tourism is an increasing threat to the environment in all corners of the globe, and Tristan Island’s economy is already partially supported by the sale of postage stamps and handicrafts to non-islanders. The extreme isolation of these islands, the steep and hazardous terrain, and the unpredictability of the weather will likely deter any large-scale tourism.
In 1991, a study was conducted on the effects of the commercial rock-lobster (Jasus tristani) fishery around Tristan, and the most serious impact was found to be the large number of seabirds killed when dazzled by ship's lights at night (Ryan 1991). This affects thousands of individuals of eight or more species annually. Rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) were at one time killed for baiting lobster traps, but this has stopped (Ryan 1991). Unlicensed fishing and illegal use of drift nets occurs to some extent within the Gough reserve (WCMC 1994). Pollution from the meteorological station is carefully controlled, and legislation controls foreign pollutants from vessels passing through Gough’s territorial waters (WCMC 1994).
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
The Tristan da Cunha and Gough archipelagos are oceanic islands that are isolated to the extent that resident taxa have undergone remarkable speciation. Many floral species are restricted to these two island groups, and three endemic bird genera are present. Each are designated as Endemic Bird Areas of the world by Stattersfield et al. (1998).
Ashworth, A. C., W. D. Vestal, G. Hokanson, L. Joseph, M. Martin, K. McGlynn, N. Schlecht, J. Turnbull, A. White, and and T. Zimmerman. 2000. Tristan da Cunha Island Group and Gough Island. Retrieved (2001) from: <http:\\www.ndsu.edu\subantarctic>.
Fraser, M. W., Dean, W. R. J., and Best, I. C. 1992. Observations on the Inaccessible Island Rail Atlantisia-Rogersi the World's Smallest Flightless Bird. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 112:12-22.
Ryan, P. G. 1991. The impact of the commercial lobster fishery on seabirds at the Tristan da Cunha Islands, South Atlantic Ocean. Biological Conservation 57:339-350.
Ryan, P. G., Cooper, J., and Glass, J. P. 2001. Population status, breeding biology and conservation of the Tristan Albatross Diomedea (exulans) dabbenena. Bird Conservation International 11:35-48.
Ryan, P. G., Moloney, C. L., and Hudon, J. 1994. Color variation and hybridization among Nesospiza buntings on inaccessible island, Tristan da Cunha. Auk. 111:314-327.
Stattersfield, A. J., M. J. Crosby, A. J. Long, and D. C. Wege. 1998. Endemic bird areas of the world: priorities for biodiversity conservation. Birdlife Conservation Series 7. Birdlife International, Cambridge, U.K.
Swales, M. 1996. Islander Magazine Issue 2 - Tristan da Cunha. Retrieved (2001) from: <http://www.islandstudies.org/islander/issue2/tristan.htm>.
UNEP. 1989-1990. Island Directory - Islands of Tristan da Cunha Islands, (UNEP) United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved (2001) from: <http://www.unep.ch/islands/INV.htm>.
WCMC. 1994. Gough Island Wildlife Reserve - Protected Areas Database, World Conservation Monitoring Center. Retrieved (2001) from: <http://www.wcmc.org.uk/protected_areas/data/wh/gough.html>.
Prepared by: Leann Trowbridge
Reviewed by: In process
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EXERCISE: an anthem to your cause!
Students will examine one of the songs from Billy Elliot the Musical before seeing the show. They will create their own anthem poems and present them as choral spoken pieces with movement, with a focus on analysing and communicating how their performance reveals key emotions and motivations to the audience.
- YouTube link to "Once We Were Kings" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9P_ZsCrqOk
- Handout of the lyrics of "Once We Were Kings," from Billy Elliot the Musical
- A space in which to move
- Pen, pencils, paper
1. Hand out copies of "Once We Were Kings" lyrics to each student.
2. Stand in a circle and read aloud, with each person taking one line.
3. Review all unfamiliar words and phrases, and check for understanding.
4.Read the lyrics together several times while listening to the YouTube recording. Ask students:
- What is communicated through the lyrics?
- What is the tone (e.g., happy, mournful, energizing, etc.) of the piece?
- What does this song mean to you?
- What techniques do Elton John and Lee Hall use to evoke some sort of emotion in the listener?
- How do you imagine the piece would be staged?
5. As a class, make a list of justice or community issues that matter to you.
6. Next, divide the students into groups of three or four. Each group will write their own anthem poem (minimum eight lines). Each group will write about a cause they believe in or something they wish to praise or show loyalty to (e.g., sports team, school, community, city, nation, etc.).
7. Once the poems are written, encourage students to get each one on its feet, incorporating various techniques (e.g., choral speaking,* movement,** etc.) to present it.
8.Have each group rehearse and perform their piece for the rest of the class.
*Choral Speaking: Students explore the poem by reading aloud in many different ways. Encourage them to experiment with tone, pace, tempo, volume, repetition, various emotions and even incorporating different variations of groupings (e.g., solo, in twos, threes, and using the whole group). The students offer each other helpful suggestions and revisit the poem, trying it in different ways and patterns. [NOTE: This activity helps struggling readers gain more confidence, as they are working together as an ensemble.]
**Movement: When you get a poem "up on its feet" with the students as actors, language quite literally comes alive. As the students solve the pragmatic problems of staging, such as "Where do I stand?" "Who do I say this to?" and so on, they gain greater command of the unfolding events and of the poem's development. The students should consider the following: where they move to or around the playing space; how they move with characterization; and how they move in relation to others around them in the playing space.
- What did you discover during the rehearsal process when you got your anthem poem up on its feet?
- What did you discover while watching and listening to other anthem poems? What were the similarities and what were the differences?
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Q. The sun in Denver is especially dangerous because of the high altitude and my 13 year old son is quite fair skinned. I have strongly advised him to wear a hat while he plays in addition to putting on sunscreen. My son feels sunscreen is enough. Is there any scientific/medical literature that addresses this issue? It would seem that most of the sunscreen comes off by the second set. Any info on this would also be helpful.
A. Thank you for the question about the sun. As most people know, there is a direct link between sun exposure and developing skin cancer. So, taking steps to limit the body’s exposure to the sun has the immediate benefit of preventing sun burn (which can make it very difficult to play tennis) and also has the long-term benefit of helping to prevent skin cancer.
The American Academy of Dermatology recommends that everyone use a broad-spectrum sunscreen having an SPF of at least 15, and advises consumers to check for ingredients that screen UVA: benzophenone, oxybenzone, sulisobenzone, titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, and butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane (also called avobenzone and known by the trade name Parsol 1789).
Tennis players should use sunscreens with higher SPFs, however, if possible. In general the sunscreen should be applied 15-30 minutes prior to the start of the match and should be reapplied according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
One recommendation provided in a Tennis.com article is that an adult should apply 1 ounce of sunscreen every two hours when a person is sweating. As for hats, they can provide additional protection, but only to the areas they cover – so do not expect a baseball cap to protect the ears and back of the neck. The protection offered by a hat can also be extended to the eyes, as sun exposure increases your risk of getting cataracts.
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| 0.95317 | 398 | 3.015625 | 3 |
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