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[ "By Aric Sleeper\nSometime in the wee hours of August 18, 1961, thousands of migrating sooty shearwater sea birds diverted from their normal flight path. After foraging on a bad batch of anchovies off the coast of Rio Del Mar, the flock wasn’t feeling so well, and needed to shore.\nTo their detriment, a thick fog had settled, and the nearest landmark to steer toward was the lights of Capitola. When they arrived there around 3:30 a.m., it became clear that the anchovies had caused more than just indigestion.\nCapitola residents and visitors reported that they heard smashing and crashing—thuds on their roofs. Awoken by the cacophony, some stepped out of their homes, armed with flashlights, only to find that the birds flew straight toward them.\n“One woman in Opal Cliffs opened the door and about six birds wanted to come in her house,” says Frank Perry, curator of the Capitola Historical Museum.\nThe owner of the Venetian Court Motel at the time, Edna Messini, who was bitten by a sooty sheerwater during the frenzy, said she heard the sea birds crying like babies, and that, “They slammed against buildings, regurgitated fish, and knocked themselves out.”\nIn the morning, yards and streets were blanketed with avian corpses and half-digested anchovies. Birds that survived the night lacked the strength to take flight. They huddled under cars and in alleys, and hid from felines, attracted to the pungent aroma that permeated the air. Concerned citizens worked to gather the surviving birds and bring them back to the ocean where they were reported to regain their liveliness.\n“Truckloads of dead birds were hauled away. Altogether, there were several thousand birds,” says Perry. “Public works and various sanitation departments sent guys out to collect the dead birds, many of which were run over in the streets. It was a mess.”\nLocals were baffled. Dead birds were found all along the Monterey Bay, but most were concentrated in Capitola and Opal Cliffs. Experts at the time speculated that the dense fog had caused the sick birds to crash-land in Capitola, but the true source of the frenzy remained a mystery.\nThe perplexing incident caught the attention of auteur and part-time Scotts Valley resident, Alfred Hitchcock. The episode had made national news, and the legendary director asked the editors of the Santa Cruz Sentinel to send him a copy of their news article. Hitchcock was in Hollywood during the incident, working on his follow-up to “Psycho,” a film adaptation of a novelette called, “The Birds,” which featured flocks of murderous fowl.\n“Hitchcock was very famous at the time,” says Perry. “Not only had he made movies for decades, he also had a weekly television program, ‘Alfred Hitchcock Presents,’ and a murder mystery magazine.”\nThen, and now, many locals believe that the 1961 incident served as the inspiration for Hitchcock’s 1963 film, but it was actually based on the 1952 work of fiction of the same name by English author, Daphne du Maurie.\n“Hitchcock changed things around of course, as they often do for movies, but the basic story is du Maurier’s,” says Perry. “The Capitola incident did get a line in the movie, which gave credibility to this fictional story of birds gathering in huge numbers and attacking people. It planted the idea in the viewer’s mind that it could really happen.”\nMore than three decades later, in 1991, a massive sea bird die-off occurred in the Monterey Bay. The culprit was a toxic algae bloom. Scientists speculated that the motive behind the 1961 occurrence in Capitola wasn’t fog or a disdain for humanity, but something similar.\nIn 2012, with this in mind, a team of scientists studied zooplankton from the Monterey Bay that The Scripps Institute for Oceanography had collected in the summer of 1961, and stored. They soon found the source of the sooty shearwaters’ spastic actions, a neurotoxin called domoic acid, which had moved up the food chain from algae to anchovy to sooty shearwater.\nNothing quite like the sooty shearwater invasion of 1961 has struck Capitola since, and although the movie wasn’t based solely on the incident, it is still quite strange that the film’s production occurred at the same moment in history.\n“The timing was perfect,” says Perry. “Hitchcock hired the screenwriter in August and started to film in September 1961. As Hitchcock said in the Sentinel, it was, ‘merely a coincidence.’ The only way it could have been a better coincidence for him is if the Capitola incident happened just when the movie was released. That would’ve really boosted ticket sales.”" ]

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[ "Temporomandibular Joint Disorder (TMJ) occurs as a result of problems with the jaw, jaw joint, and surrounding facial muscles that control movement of the jaw. The temporomandibular joint is the hinge joint that connects the lower jaw to the bone of the skull. This joint is located immediately in front of the ear on each side of the head. The muscles attached to the jaw allow the jaw an incredible amount of movement: side-to-side and up and down. This flexibility allows us to chew, talk, and yawn.\nWhat is TMJ?\nThose who suffer form TMJ experience severe pain and discomfort.  This pain can last for as many as several years or a few months.  More women experience TMJ pain than men and the disorder is seen in people between 20-40 years of age.\nSome symptoms include:\n• Pain or tenderness in the face, jaw joint area, neck and shoulders, and in or around the ear when you chew, speak, or yawn\n• Limited ability to open the mouth wide\n• Jaws that get “stuck†or “lock†in the open-or closed-mouth position\n• Clicking, popping, or grating sounds in the joint when the mouth is opened or closed\n• Tired feeling in the face or neck\n• Difficulty chewing\n• Sudden uncomfortable feeling when biting\n• Swelling on the side of the face\n• Headaches or neck aches\n• Hearing problems\n• Upper shoulder pain\n• Ringing in the ears\nWhat Causes TMJ?\nThe main cause of TMJ is still unknown but scientists believe the symptoms are a result of problems in the muscles of the jaw or with parts of the joint.\nKnown factors that contribute to TMJ include:\n• Bruxism – Grinding of the teeth\n• Rheumatoid Arthritis\nTreatment Options for TMJ\nMost often, TMJ symptoms will go away on their own because your jaw joint will rest and recover while you are unable to chew.  At home treatments for TMJ include taking an anti-inflammatory pain medication (such as aspirin or Tylenol), eating soft foods, and applying warm compresses to the area of pain.\nIf, however, the symptoms of TMJ do not go away on their own medical treatment may be required.  Your doctor may show you some muscle stretching and relaxation exercises to perform at home that may help relax the jaw. You may be fitted with a splint, or bite plate, that fits over your upper and lower teeth like a mouth sports guard. The splint is designed to reduce clenching or grinding at night, thus easing muscle tension.\nIf the non-invasive treatment options do not reduce your pain or tenderness more invasive procedures can be tried at your doctor’s office.  Options such as cortisone shots can help relieve inflammation and pain.  A small percentage of patients require jaw joint replacement surgery to replace the jaw joint with an artificial implant.\nSchedule a consultation with your doctor to discuss your TMJ treatment options!\nDr. Robert Mokbel, located in Fountain Valley, CA, is a Dentist who services patients from Huntington Beach, CA, Costa Mesa, CA, and Garden Grove, CA. We are looking forward to welcoming you to our office and encourage you to schedule your appointment today!" ]

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[ "Lesson Plan July 18, 2016\nQuestions for \"Meet the Journalist: Jon Cohen\"\n- Where will Cohen report?\n- Why did he select these places?\n- What does Cohen say is at the foundation of the ending AIDS movement?\n- How will Cohen be reporting this story?\nQuestions for \"San Francisco's Bold AIDS Mission Is 'Getting to Zero' by 2030\"\n- What is the RAPID treatment?\n- What is the “Getting to Zero” campaign?\n- What is PREP? Why do people take it?\nQuestions for \"Why the South Is the Epicenter of the AIDS Crisis in America\"\n- Describe the prevalence of HIV in the South.\n- According to the CDC, what is the projected percentage of black gay, bisexual and transgender men that will be diagnosed with HIV in their lifetimes?\n- What is the leading cause of people dropping out of HIV care?\n- What does Driffin say is the achilles heel of HIV prevention in the south?\nQuestions for \"Ending Aids in New York Means Finding the Most Vulnerable\"\n- What percentage of people living with HIV in the United States live in New York City?\n- What are the estimated costs for a lifetime of HIV treatment?\nQuestions for \"How Rwanda, Once Torn by Genocide, Became a Global Anti-AIDS Leader\"\n- How long has it been since Rwanda reported a case of HIV being passed from mother to child?\n- Describe the HIV prevention programs in Rwanda before the 1994 genocide.\n- What programs have been put in place for young adults that were born with HIV?\nQuestions for \"South Africa's Bid to End AIDS\"\n- What is the 90-90-90 goal?\n- What research challenges the 90-90-90 goal?\n- How does the article use graphics to visualize the prevalence of HIV in South Africa?\nYou will be able to analyze how authors unfold a series of reporting on HIV prevention methods in multiple cities in order to create a resource addressing an HIV prevention method that could support reducing HIV in your own communities.\n1. Make a list of things you know to be true about HIV. Consider the following as you make your list:\n- How does someone contract HIV?\n- What does HIV do to the body if it is not treated?\n- What is the difference between HIV and Aids?\n- How can someone prevent getting HIV?\n- What treatments are available for someone with HIV?\nWatch this video to learn more about HIV and the efforts to prevent it.\n2. According to UNAIDS, 35.6 million people in the world were living with HIV at the end of 2015. What countries do you think have the largest prevalence of HIV? Click here to check your answer.\n3. Additional Challenge: Research the prevalence of HIV in your own community.\n4. According to the same UNAIDS report, new HIV infections have fallen 6% since 2010. Make a list of reasons you think the rate of HIV infections has fallen.\n5. The first cases of HIV were documented in the mid-1980s. Why do you think that HIV continues to thrive around the world? Who do you think is most affected, and why? Make a list of reasons, and be prepared to share your responses with the class.\nIntroducing the Lesson:\nToday's lesson investigates resources that are part of the reporting project \"Ending AIDS\" by journalists William Brangham, Jon Cohen and Jason Kane. The project analyzes efforts being made to combat the spread of HIV in communities all over the world.\nWatch the Meet the Journalist video attached and answer the accompanying questions to find out how the journalists identified and reported on this project.\nIntroducing the Resources:\nToday, you will investigate efforts in San Francisco, Georgia, New York, Rwanda, and South Africa to prevent the spread of HIV. As you review the following resources, analyze how the authors balanced interviews, facts and images to report their stories by doing the following:\n- Answer the comprehension questions that accompany each resource.\n- Use a table like the one below to track what you notice in each piece:\nHistory with HIV\nPrevention efforts being made in this location\nBarriers to preventing HIV in this location\nSan Francisco, CA\nJot down notes addressing the following questions in order to prepare for a discussion:\n- What are the barriers to ending the AIDS crisis globally? What are the most effective solutions?\n- How do the barriers that other communities face compare to barriers you see in your own communities?\n- Which of the solutions presented in the reporting could be useful to your community?\n- How did the authors balance interviews with facts to present each story? What was the impact?\n- What moments in the reporting were most compelling? Why? How did the reporters capture and present those moments?\n1. Read the attached article \"Zimbabwe: It Takes a Village\" and use the table above to analyze how the author presents the state of HIV prevention efforts in Zimbabwe. Write a short reflection that compares HIV prevention initiatives in Zimbabwe to another location reported on as part of the Ending AIDS project.\n2. Using details from each of the reporting pieces, write an essay that addresses the following prompt: Will we see the end of AIDS? What will it take to see the end of AIDS?\n3. Using details from the reporting, create three visual resources for your community members that highlight successful methods to preventing the spread of HIV.\nThe following lesson plan asks students to analyze reporting on HIV prevention methods in several locations around the world in order to examine how authors balance personal narratives and facts in their reporting. Students will also analyze how prevention methods and barriers to HIV prevention around the world compare to efforts and challenges in their own communities.\nAnalyze how the author unfolds an analysis or series of ideas or events, including the order in which the points are made, how they are introduced and developed, and the connections that are drawn between them.\nAnalyze various accounts of a subject told in different mediums (e.g., a person's life story in both print and multimedia), determining which details are emphasized in each account.\nLesson Facilitation Notes:\n1. The lesson plan is written for students to be able to explore the resources and reflection exercises independently. To save time, students could also review the resources in small groups and report their findings to the whole class.\n2. Students may need to have an extra sheet of paper, or a blank online document open, to answer the warm up, comprehension and extension questions.\n3. The lesson lists several extension exercises. Students could choose one or work through all of the listed exercises.\n4. The warm up and post-reading reflections in this lesson could also lead to rich conversations. You may want to work through the lesson along with the students and denote moments for interactive activities.\n5. With questions about this lesson, contact [email protected]\nREPORTING FEATURED IN THIS LESSON PLAN\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJuly 15, 2016\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJuly 14, 2016\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJuly 13, 2016\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJuly 12, 2016\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJune 29, 2016\n×PART OF: Ending AIDSJune 5, 2016" ]

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[ "I previously discussed the power of fruits and vegetables to help prevent and treat asthma and allergies. If adding a few more servings of fruits and vegetables may help asthma, what about a diet centered around plants? Twenty patients with allergic eczema were placed on a vegetarian diet. At the end of two months, their disease scores, which covered both subjective and objective signs and symptoms, were cut in half, similar to what we might see using one of our most powerful drugs. The drug works much quicker, within about two weeks, but since drugs can often include dangerous side effects the dietary option is more attractive. This was no ordinary vegetarian diet, however. This was an in-patient study using an extremely calorically-restricted diet—the subjects were practically half fasting. Therefore, we don’t know which component was responsible for the therapeutic effect.\nWhat about using a more conventional plant-based diet against a different allergic disease, asthma? In Sweden, there was an active health movement that claimed that a vegan diet could improve or cure asthma. This was a bold claim, so in order to test this, a group of orthopedic surgeons at Linköping University Hospital followed a series of patients who were treated with a vegan regimen for one year. (This study is highlighted in my video, Treating Asthma and Eczema with Plant-Based Diets.) Participants had to be willing to go completely plant-based, and they had to have physician-verified asthma of at least a year’s duration that wasn’t getting better or was getting worse despite the best medical therapies available.\nThe researchers found quite a sick group to follow. The thirty-five patients had long-established, hospital-verified bronchial asthma for an average duration of a dozen years. Of the 35 patients, 20 had been admitted to the hospital for acute asthmatic attacks during the last two years. Of these, one patient had received acute infusion therapy (emergency IV drugs) a total of 23 times during this period and another patient claimed he had been to the hospital 100 times during his disease and on every occasion had evidently required such treatments. One patient even had a cardiac arrest during an asthma attack and had been brought back to life on a ventilator. These were some pretty serious cases.\nThe patients were on up to eight different asthma medicines when they started, with an average of four and a half drugs, and were still not getting better. Twenty of the 35 were constantly using cortisone, which is a powerful steroid used in serious cases. These were all fairly advanced cases of the disease, more severe than the vegan practitioners were used to.\nEleven couldn’t stick to the diet for a year, but of the 24 that did, 71% reported improvement at four months and 92% at one year. These were folks that had not improved at all over the previous year. Concurrently with this improvement, the patients greatly reduced their consumption of medicine. Four had completely given up their medication altogether, and only two weren’t able to at least drop their dose. They went from an average of 4.5 drugs down to 1.2, and some were able to get off cortisone.\nSome subjects said that their improvement was so considerable they felt like “they had a new life.” One nurse had difficulty at work because most of her co-workers were smokers, but after the plant-based regimen she could withstand the secondhand smoke without getting an attack and could tolerate other asthma triggers. Others reported the same thing. Whereas previously they could only live in a clean environment and felt more or less isolated in their homes, they could now go out without getting asthmatic attacks.\nThe researchers didn’t find only subjective improvements. They also found a significant improvement in a number of clinical variables, most importantly in measures of lung function, vital capacity, forced expiratory volume, and physical working capacity, as well as significant drops in sed rate (a marker of inflammation) and IgE (allergy associated antibodies).\nThe study started out with 35 patients who had suffered from serious asthma for an average of 12 years, all receiving long-term medication, with 20 using cortisone, who were “subjected to vegan food for a year,” and, in almost all cases, medication was withdrawn or reduced, and asthma symptoms were significantly reduced.\nDespite the improved lung function tests and lab values, the placebo effect can’t be discounted since there was no blinded control group. However, the nice thing about a healthy diet is that there are only good side effects. The subjects’ cholesterol significantly improved, their blood pressures got better, and they lost 18 pounds. From a medical standpoint, I say why not give it a try?\nIf you missed the first three videos of this 4-part series here are the links:\n- Preventing Asthma With Fruits and Vegetables\n- Treating Asthma With Fruits and Vegetables\n- Treating Asthma With Plants vs. Supplements?\nMore on eczema and diet can be found in my videos:\n- Preventing Childhood Allergies\n- Preventing Allergies in Adulthood\n- Alkylphenol Endocrine Disruptors and Allergies\n- Dietary Sources of Alkylphenol Endocrine Disruptors\nThere are a number of other conditions plant-based diets have been found to be effective in treating:\n- Treating Multiple Sclerosis With the Swank MS Diet\n- Dietary Treatment of Crohn’s Disease\n- Cavities and Coronaries: Our Choice\n- Cancer Reversal Through Diet?\n- Dietary Treatment for Painful Menstrual Periods\n- Nutrient-Dense Approach to Weight Management\n- Plant-Based Diets For Breast Pain\n- Treating Parkinson’s Disease With Diet\n- Fibromyalgia vs. Vegetarian & Raw Vegan Diets\n- Prostate vs. a Plant-Based Diet\n-Michael Greger, M.D.\nPS: If you haven’t yet, you can subscribe to my videos for free by clicking here and watch my full 2012 – 2015 presentations Uprooting the Leading Causes of Death, More than an Apple a Day, From Table to Able, and Food as Medicine." ]

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[ "We all LOVE the first snowfall! The peacefulness of the snow falling, the beauty it brings as it blankets the ground and, of course, the excitement in our kids’ eyes when they realize they have a snow day. It’s all the storms afterwards that become daunting!\nIf your kids are anything like mine, then they take 20 minutes to put on all the snow gear then decide they are done playing after only 5 minutes of being outside. Now, this doesn’t happen every time, but enough to make me wonder what else can we do with the snow besides the traditional sledding and snowman building.\nLast winter, after having more snow storms than I would like to count, I came up with some fun science and art activities using snow. My kids love doing science experiments and art projects so why not use the fresh snow to engage in some fun learning activities!\nBrain Boosting Activities Using Snow\nMaking a snow volcano is so easy, and it is a lot of fun! All you have to do is form the snow into a shape of a volcano leaving a hole at the top to place a cup. Then add baking soda and food coloring (we used red to make it look like lava) into the cup. Last, pour vinegar into the hole and watch it explode! This is an activity that can be done over and over again. To add another learning element, have the kids make hypotheses about what they think will happen, then have them document the results.\nSugar On Snow\nIf you have ever visited Vermont especially during maple sugar season, then you have heard of Sugar On Snow. To make this yummy treat, you will need real maple syrup, not the Mrs. Butterworth. Most recipes recommend Grade A Light Amber. First, you boil the syrup to 234 degrees farenheit. Then add snow to a large bowl. Once the syrup has reached the desired temperature, you can pour it over the snow. Have the kids predict what they think will happen before you pour it. They will love how it turns into a delicious taffy-like candy! For more help, check out this video from the Food Network.\nAfter learning about Sugar On Snow, I thought, “What happens when you pour other household ingredients on snow?” That’s when our snow experiments were born. First we gathered some basic household ingredients such as OJ, baking soda, honey, vinegar and salt.\nThen the boys filled cups with snow, one for each ingredient. I wrote the name of each ingredient on the cup so we wouldn’t forget what we used and to keep a record of the results.\nMy kids and I made predictions on what would happen when we added the ingredients then watched in awe at the results. Check out our YouTube videos of some of our results!\nAfter adding all the household ingredients, we decided to add food coloring next. This was a fun way to introduce my kids to art! We added single colors then combined colors to see what would happen. It was a great lesson in color recognition and color mixing. This is a fun activity for your budding artist!\nI am sure you have seen and heard about painting snow. It is an easy and fun activity using snow that all kids will love! All you have to do is add water and food coloring to a squirt bottle and paint away. Don’t have food coloring? You can also use powdered Hawaiian Punch mix. This is a fun activity that builds fine motor skills while also enhancing creativity!\nI hope you find these activities using snow fun and will add them to your snow day traditions!" ]

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[ "During the winter season, a companion and I spent two nights\nin an igloo near Carson Pass, California. At 8,570 feet the snow\nwas too deep for hiking without snowshoes, and night temperatures\ndipped to minus five degrees Fahrenheit. Despite the cold, we\nkept relatively warm in our igloo. I learned to make igloos from\nKim Grandfield's Snow and Igloo classes at Sunrise\nMountain Sports, not from an Inuit elder. If you have an opportunity\nto watch and participate in building an igloo with someone who\nknows the process, that is the best way to learn. Having said\nthis, I'll do my best to provide a description of the process\nI have found successful.\n- Snow saw, 14-20 inches long\n- Snow shovel\n- Waterproof gloves or mittens\n- Snowshoes may be needed to access site\nMost people have seen pictures of the domed snow block structure known as an igloo. The Inuit also built far more complex snow block structures, but the small domed house most of us have seen in cartoons and movies is a structure which can be constructed in an afternoon.\nConstruction begins with the cutting of snow blocks. In most\nareas snow falls without compacting enough to allow blocks\nto be cut. Tramp an area the size of your intended snow block\nquarry for at least 15 to 30 minutes, then let it rest a half\nhour. Compaction causes the small ice crystals of snow to melt.\nThese quickly refreeze, forming a more solid building material.\nThe size of the blocks you cut will depend upon two things:\n1. How heavy a block are you able to comfortably handle? Your strength and the moisture content of the compacted snow will provide some practical limits to the size of the block.\n2. How strong is the compacted snow? In areas where layers of snow have thawed and refrozen, there may be ice layers in the snow. These layers make the snow blocks fragile. If such blocks must be used, they will have to be thicker than those cut from blocks without ice layers. Well compacted, low moisture snow can be cut into large thin blocks.\nYour quarry may be the area over which the igloo is built. With this plan the quarry forms the floor of the igloo. The floor of the igloo is below ground level. Since entry ways are best set below the level of the igloo floor, further excavation forms the entryway. Planning your igloo site on a hillside facilitates this process.\nIf a number of people are helping to build the igloo, using the floor as the quarry may cause too much congestion. A nearby quarry will work better and the floor can be quickly excavated with a snow shovel.\nRegardless of where your quarry is situated, you will need the snow shovel to excavate a hole or trench. This is the only way to reach the underside of the first blocks to cut them free.\nOnce blocks are cut, construction begins as an upward spiral. When building on a hill, the slope of the hill can be used to ease the angle of the beginning spiral.\nMany illustrations imply that igloo construction follows the rules for masonry. I have seen a lot of illustrations which imply blocks are of a standard size and shape. When building with snow blocks, each block is shaped after it is cut from the quarry. The shape of an individual block depends on the position in the spiral where it will be placed. Near the floor, where the block may not be angled inward more than a few degrees, blocks are rectangular in shape. Near the center of the roof, where the blocks are nearly horizontal, their shape may be nearly triangular.\nI've seldom read descriptions of the angle cut into each block. Imagine yourself at the center of a pie, cutting pie shapes into the crust of the pie (i.e. the snow blocks). The pie shape is applied both to the upright and horizontal angles of a rectangular block.\nAll of this makes intuitive sense. But the next bit of advice is not intuitive, at least not unless you have intimate ties to the nature of snow. Cut out an arc on the bottom of every block such that only the two bottom edges of the block will rest on the block below.\nThe block is now ready to seat. Hold the new block at the appropriate angle for its place in the structure. Now GENTLY slide it into the previous block. Properly set, it will make a gentle \"thunk\". (A lack of restraint will knock the others loose.) The compression of that gentle bump will make it \"stick\" to the previous block. This stickiness is what makes it possible to set blocks at extreme angles as the igloo is built. The reason for the arching bottom of the block has to do with the contact points illustrated above. Beyond that, you will need to ask an expert. I just know a block fitted perfectly to the one below is very hard to seat. Perhaps the smaller contact points direct the compressive force more effectively, melting and refreezing the blocks as they are set. Maybe one of our readers can explain the physics better.\nNow, I have made this all sound very exact. In practice, blocks can be of various sizes and shapes as long as they are cut to similar heights, the upper lengths narrow, and the underside of each block is arched.\nThe final blocks must usually be set from the inside. The last\nis tilted on end, then turned and brought down into place like\nthe lid on a Jack-O-Lantern.\nAfter the final block is set, shovel snow onto the igloo. Gently pack it into holes and crevices. Avoid applying pressure from the inside while filling cracks. Protruding edges may be carefully trimmed on the inside surface. A smooth inner surface prevents dripping as the inside temperature rises above freezing. After a night or two of warming from the inside and refreezing the igloo will be very strong. I stood on top of the one we built on day three.\nThe entry is often most easily done after the blocks are all set. At least it is easy if there is more than one of you. Having set the last block, someone is now inside the closed igloo. They can take a rest while the others cut an entrance down slope from the edge of the igloo. The top of the entry is ideally at the floor level, so one climbs up onto the floor upon entering. This provides a nice heat trap. Open a vent high on the side of the igloo wall to vent carbon dioxide, especially if you are cooking inside.\nWhen it is time to abandon your igloo, consider the visual impact of this man-made structure in the wild. Consider dismantling it in an effort to \"leave no trace\". In some areas, deconstruction is mandatory. In our case, we had a good time hacking and sawing it into new shapes, then delivering the \"coup de gráce\" with flourish.\nE-mail your comments to \"Susan Labiste\" at [email protected]\nPrimitiveWays Home Page\nWe hope the information on the PrimitiveWays website is both instructional and enjoyable. Understand that no warranty or guarantee is included. We expect adults to act responsibly and children to be supervised by a responsible adult. If you use the information on this site to create your own projects or if you try techniques described on PrimitiveWays, behave in accordance with applicable laws, and think about the sustainability of natural resources. Using tools or techniques described on PrimitiveWays can be dangerous with exposure to heavy, sharp or pointed objects, fire, stone tools and hazards present in outdoor settings. Without proper care and caution, or if done incorrectly, there is a risk of property damage, personal injury or even death. So, be advised: Anyone using any information provided on the PrimitiveWays website assumes responsibility for using proper care and caution to protect property, the life, health and safety of himself or herself and all others. He or she expressly assumes all risk of harm or damage to all persons or property proximately caused by the use of this information.\n© PrimitiveWays 2013" ]

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[ "August 1 is World Wide Web Day\nCan you imagine life without the World Wide Web? Come celebrate one of the greatest modern inventions on World Wide Web day, August 1.\nWhat would we do without the World Wide Web? Probably spending less time each day reading travel blogs or answering quizzes about which Taylor Swift album we are, to be sure, but the Web has changed so much of our modern life for the better that it’s hard to imagine life without it. This is why we celebrate World Wide Web day on August 1.\nWhile the World Wide Web is often confused with the Internet, they are not the same things. The Web delivers different pages over the Internet, in the same way as your email uses the Internet to deliver messages between people. Prior to the advent of mobile phone applications and social media accounts, however, reading and posting on the Web was the way most people read content and interacted with each other online.\nThe World Wide Web was initially developed as a side-project by CERN contractor Tim Berners-Lee, as a method for staff to interact with other using hypertext.\nThe concept of hypertext itself – pages that contain links to other pages so they could be read in any order – had been around for decades prior, but was mired in a sea of conflicting operating systems and computer formats. Berners-Lee’s solution, while initially just for UNIX machines, opened the way for content to be delivered from a web server instead of local storage.\nA short while later the first web browser was released for multiple computer platforms, which also functioned as a web site editing tool. This allowed people to publish content on one machine, store the resulting hypertext page on a web server, which could then be viewed by other users on their own machine later.\nFrom there, the idea took on a life on its own. The ability to add images and sounds came along with the advent of the graphics-enabled web browsers of the mid-‘90s, and the number of web pages that existed online increased exponentially every month. Since then, we’ve never looked back and there are now hundreds of million websites online.\nToday, on 1st August this year, thank Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau for laying the seed and foundation of the World Wide Web.\niFactory has been in the business of making websites, applications and more since 2004. To find out how we can help your organisation make its mark online, contact iFactory today." ]

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[ "Huge advances in the field of genomics along with the continued rise of open access has made the past ten years an exciting time to be a biologist.\nOver the past decade we have witnessed a revolution in biology, and especially in molecular biology and genetics. No longer are experiments restricted to the study of a particular gene in one of a small number of model organisms. Today, a more global approach is being embraced, which has not only given rise to the field of systems biology, but has also touched all areas of biological and medical research, bringing them closer together and blurring the lines that previously defined individual disciplines. And our expectations are now much higher. It no longer satisfies us to know simply that a given transcription factor activates a particular gene. We now want to know about all of the regulatory sites for a gene and what other factors might modulate transcription factor binding and gene activation. Horizons and expectations have broadened, but what has driven this shift in attitude? It surely has to be the technological advances in the field of genomics over the past decade, such as chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to DNA microarray (ChIP-chip) or sequencing (ChIP-seq), next-generation sequencing, RNA-seq and new techniques in proteomics.\nTechniques aside, the past decade will surely be best remembered as the decade of the genome. Since the White House press release [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/clinton1.shtml webcite] in June 2000 in which the completion of the initial sequence of the human genome was announced - followed by publications in 2001 in Nature and Science - many draft genomes from other organisms have been published. The chimpanzee, chicken, honeybee and Arabidopsis have most recently been followed by the giant panda. The speed with which new genomes can now be sequenced has been facilitated by the development of powerful new sequencing technologies and assembly methods. It is now possible to assemble de novo a large genome, such as that of the giant panda, using only short reads provided by next-generation DNA sequencing. These technological advances are also driving the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to the treatment of cancer, as researchers re-sequence matched tumour and normal genomes from specific types of cancer. Add to this the advances made in our understanding of say, regulatory genomics that have come from projects such as ENCODE and it is little wonder that the genomics field continues to advance at an unrelenting and increasing pace. The mind boggles to think where we may be in another ten years.\nIn parallel, the past ten years have seen huge changes in the scientific publishing world. Many new journals have been launched, providing authors with much more choice when deciding where to submit. In addition, the open-access model has been widely embraced, with researchers and funding bodies not just demanding that articles should be freely available to all, but that all metadata are also accessible for others to use, ushering in an era of greater collaboration. Indeed, the demand from researchers that their data should be accessible to all has caused many journals to partly change their business model by offering an option of making an article freely available.\nGenome Biology was launched in 2000, and so this year is celebrating its tenth birthday. Over the past ten years, the journal has taken its place alongside other well respected journals as a first-class venue for publishing high-quality, exciting research from a broad range of biological disciplines. This is an achievement indeed, given that at the time of its launch Genome Biology was one of the first online journals, and all its research articles were (and still are) open access, a concept then regarded with some suspicion.\nThese successes could not have been achieved without the efforts of a dedicated editorial staff at Genome Biology. Theodora Bloom, Genome Biology's founding Editor, along with Michaela Torkar, now the Editorial Director for biology at Genome Biology's publisher BioMed Central, were instrumental in steering the journal onto the road to success. Managing Editor Ruth Rowland has provided essential support in developing the website, commissioning reviews and acting as the first port of call for author inquiries. Along with its staff, the support of our readers and advisory board has helped shape Genome Biology into the journal that it is today. We are committed to listening to your feedback, continually reassessing our thresholds and criteria for publication, and developing the journal according to your needs, and we look forward to your continued support and feedback.\nWe are marking Genome Biology's tenth birthday with some celebrations. In June 2010, at BioMed Central's fourth annual research awards ceremony (which will also mark BioMed Central's tenth birthday), there will be a special prize for the best research article published in Genome Biology in 2009, as voted for by our readers. In October, Genome Biology will hold its first conference in Boston, which promises to be an exciting meeting. Details will be announced soon. We are also making some changes that we feel will improve the look of the journal. The website and PDFs are being redesigned and this redesign will be implemented later in the year. A refreshment of our advisory board and a continued editorial presence at international conferences will help us to reach out to our readers, to continue to attract the very best genomics articles, and to stay ahead of advances in the genomics field as they happen.\nAs we look forward to the next decade in these exciting times, we would like to thank our supporters, readers, authors and referees for their support over the past decade. We couldn't have done it without you!" ]

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[ "Table of Contents\nWhat are diamond points?\nWithin the diamond trade, fractions of a carat are referred to as “points” or simply as fractions. A 50-point diamond weighs 0.5 carats or 1/2 carat. A 1-carat diamond weighs 100 points while a 1/3 is also 0.3 carats or 30 points. Diamonds come in all shapes and sizes, along with colours and purities.\nHow is diamond weight measured?\nCarat is the unit of measurement for the physical weight of diamonds. One carat equals 0.200 grams or 1/5 gram and is subdivided into 100 points.\nWhat does .50 ct tw mean?\nCTTW stands for carat (CT) and total weight (TW). In a piece of jewelry that has more than one diamond, it’s the weight of all the diamonds, added together.\nWhat is a 20 point diamond?\nThere are 100 points in a carat. A point is 1/100 of a carat. A 20-point diamond equals 20/100 of a carat.\nWhat is a 50 point diamond?\nA diamond’s carat number is based on a point system where 100 points equates to one carat. This means that a 50 point diamond equates to a half-carat diamond, and so on. The use of the point system means that a diamond can be weighed using exceptionally precise measurements, rather than just whole numbers.\nWhat is 40 point diamond?\nA carat is divided into 100 points. Some may identify a diamond that is under a carat by referencing the amount of points the diamond has. For example, a 40-point diamond weighs 0.40 carats. The color or lack of color is what helps give a diamond its overall appeal.\nWhat is 1ct diamond?\nCarat simply refers to the weight of the diamond. 1 carat equals 200 milligrams, or 0.2 grams. To put it in perspective, a 1 Carat Diamond weighs roughly the same as a quarter of a raisin. All diamonds are priced per carat.\nHow do you read a diamond size?\nMEASUREMENTS Diamond dimensions listed as “minimum diameter – maximum diameter x depth” for round diamonds and “length x width x depth” for fancy-shaped diamonds. 5. CARAT WEIGHT Weight given in carats, recorded to the nearest hundredth of a carat. One carat is equal to 1/5 of a gram.\nWhat is TDW diamond mean?\ntotal diamond weight\nThe abbreviation TDW describes the total diamond weight, or the total weight of the diamonds in a piece of jewellery where more than one diamond is used. For example, a ring made up of four . 25ct diamonds has a TDW of 1ct.\nWhat is CTTW diamond mean?\ncarat total weight\nA helpful hint when shopping online: the abbreviation CT TW means carat total weight, and is used to express the total weight of multiple diamonds used in a piece of jewelry. A smaller diamond is still beautiful, and the sentiment behind it is really the most important.\nHow many carats is a 50 point diamond?\nDiamond carat refers to the weight of the cut stone, rather than the size. A diamond’s carat number is based on a point system where 100 points equates to one carat. This means that a 50 point diamond equates to a half-carat diamond, and so on.\nIs 0.50 carat diamond good?\nYes, absolutely. In fact, it’s a very good size for engagement rings – not too big and not too small. Just right, as Goldilocks would say. A large proportion of diamond engagement rings are around the half-carat mark.\nHow to measure diamond weight in carats and points?\nTo measure the carats and points of a diamond, you need to weigh the stone in grams or milligrams (or ounces), and then express its weight in terms of points and carats. (Text continues below ad.) Advertisement\nHow are the quality and value of diamonds measured?\nThe quality and value of diamonds are measured by four characteristics known as the 4C’s. The 4C’s relate to a diamond’s cut, colour, clarity and carat weight.\nWhich is the highest grade for a diamond?\nMany systems have been used to grade diamond color alphabetically from D (totally colorless) to Z (yellow) . D (Colorless) – Highest color grade your diamond can achieve. This color emits unequaled brilliance, and is extremely rare. E (Colorless) – Containing minute traces of color.\nWhich is bigger a carat or a point?\nCarats and points are units of mass commonly used to measure the weight of diamonds and other gemstones. One carat is equal to 200 milligrams, or 0.2 grams. One point is equal to 1/100th of a carat. So, it follows that one point equals 2 milligrams, or 0.002 grams." ]

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[ "Dr. Osso Negro\n04 April 2010\nChild Observation Project\nI will be observing a seven-year-old child for my project. What I have learned from being a parent and watching my kids as they grow up the social emotional, physical and intellectual changes that occur in children between birth and the end of adolescence are that they all progress at individual intervals from dependency to increasing individualism. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the built in parenting skills we all possess. When children are born they have no sense of fear but quickly develop a fear of what is a perceived danger. There is a lot I still need to learn and no one area I could pin point.\nA seven year old child’s physical developments would be characterized by an increase in height at an average of 2 inches per year. (Potter, 148) Also Aaron would be able to hold a pencil adeptly and print letters and words. (Potter, 148) Children of this age also start to develop their more permanent teeth. Cognitively Aaron should be able to use symbols to carry out operations in thought rather than in action. (Potter, 148) According to Erikson’s Psychosocial Model kids of this age are in the industry vs. inferiority. Children strive to acquire competence and skills necessary for them to function as adults. (Potter, 148) This child that I observed is on target for their age group, physically this child is in the 90% for growth. Intellectually they are able to solve basic problems without writing them out. Socially and emotionally this child is on target in that he is able to interact confidently with other children.\nAaron is a seven years and seven months old. He weighs 54 pounds and is 55 inches tall. His home life is fairly normal. His mother is divorced from the father. In school he is in regular classes and has a... [continues]\nCite This Essay\n(2010, 09). Child Observation 2. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 09, 2010, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Child-Observation-2-395260.html\n\"Child Observation 2\" StudyMode.com. 09 2010. 09 2010 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Child-Observation-2-395260.html>.\n\"Child Observation 2.\" StudyMode.com. 09, 2010. Accessed 09, 2010. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Child-Observation-2-395260.html." ]

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[ "This colorful subtraction printable will give your first grader a breath of fresh air, containing bright colors and space to check his work with tally marks.\nYour first grader's take-away practice will take off with this charming subtraction printable!\nIf your first grader dreads math practice, this worksheet is for him! Its bright colors and non-intimidating single-digit problems serve to make subtraction fun.\nIntroduce your child to basic subtraction with this 1st grade math worksheet. He'll solve single-digit problems, then rewrite his answers as tally marks.\nGive your first grader the subtraction help she needs--without the aggravation of the same boring worksheets--with this colorful printable!\nGet your 1st grader excited about subtraction with this colorful beginning subtraction worksheet.\nIf you want to give your first grader some extra assistance with subtraction, but don't want to completely bore her, this is a great resource for you!\nThis fun, colorful printable gives your first grader some space to check her subtraction solving with tally marks!\nThis colorful worksheet provides a perfect opportunity for your first grader to practicing solving single-digit subtraction, painlessly.\nRather than boring your first grader with the same monotonous worksheets, provide him with a breath of fresh air with this subtraction printable!\nLooking to spark your first grader's interest in subtraction? This charming printable makes math practice fun!\nIs your first grader in need of a subtraction surprise? This colorful worksheet will make him want to practice math!\nGive your first grader a fun way to practice subtraction! He'll complete a slew of single-digit subtraction, and then check his work using tally marks.\nYour first grader won't mind math practice time, and least when it involves this colorful subtraction worksheet.\nDo your first grader's subtraction skills need a boost? Give her a fun way to practice subtraction with this colorful worksheet!\nDownload this cheerful math worksheet to introduce your first grader to beginning subtraction.\nSubtraction may seem difficult to your 1st grader, but with a little help from this worksheet he'll understand the concept in no time.\nThis colorful math worksheet will invigorate your first grader's at-home subtraction practice with new life!\nWant to see your first grader's subtraction skills skyrocket? This worksheet will do the trick.\nHelp your first grader learn her subtraction facts with this fun math worksheet, filled with bright colors and room for checking her work with tally marks.\nGive your child this colorful math worksheet to set him on the road to beginning subtraction mastery.\nHelp your first grader practice subtraction with a colorful worksheet that's fun to look at and complete!\nGive your first grader a subtraction surprise with this colorful math worksheet!\nReinforce math lessons learned in school with this at-home 1st grade enrichment worksheet offering practice in beginning single-digit subtraction." ]

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[ "Guests: Angela Russell, Health Equity Coordinator for Public Health Madison and Dane County; Colleen Butler, Director, YWCA Racial Justice and Restorative Justice Programs\n“…many of our anti-discrimination policies focus on finding the bad apples who are explicitly prejudiced. In fact, the serious discrimination is implicit, subtle and nearly universal,” says New York Times columnist David Brooks. The stark disparities that separate the black and white communities in Dane County were well documented in the 2013 Race to Equity Report.\nOn this program, Angela Russell and Colleen Butler describe how unconscious bias presents itself, the differences between inequality and inequity, the layers of racism, and what we can do to change the pattern.\nIn preparation for the program, why not test your unconscious bias? Take Harvard University’s Implicit Bias Assessment – https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/" ]

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[ "Nature of Work: The legal system affects nearly every aspect of our society, from buying a home to crossing the street. Lawyers form the backbone of this vital system, linking it to society in numerous ways.\nProfessional Training: The required college and law school education usually takes 7 years of full-time study after high school—4 years of undergraduate study, followed by 3 years of law school. Law school applicants must have a bachelor’s degree to qualify for admission.\nPreparation: Although there is no recommended “prelaw” major, prospective lawyers should develop proficiency in writing and speaking, reading, researching, analyzing, and thinking logically—skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Regardless of major, a multidisciplinary background is recommended. Courses in English, foreign languages, public speaking, government, philosophy, history, economics, mathematics, and computer science, among others, are useful. Acceptance by most law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through good grades, the Law School Admission Test (LSAT), and the quality of the applicant’s undergraduate schooling and prior work experience." ]

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[ "Medieval > Second War of Scottish Independence\nBATTLE OF HALIDON HILL (1333)\nHaving overthrown Roger Mortimer and established himself as the ruler of England, Edward III was keen to demonstrate his military credentials and did so in spectacular fashion at the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333). Here he decimated a larger Scottish army experimenting with tactics he would later use at Crécy.\nSkip to >\nThe first War of Scottish Independence was still raging when Edward II of England was deposed in 1327 by Roger Mortimer, Earl of March. The war had been going wrong for the English since the death of the warrior King Edward I in 1307 but following the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn (1314) a state of almost perpetual war had existed in Northumberland. Despite being militarily ineffective, Edward II refused to negotiate a truce but, once overthrown, Mortimer sought peace and compelled the new English King, Edward III, to sign the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton (1328) ending the first War of Scottish Independence.\nPeace didn’t last long though; in 1330, Edward III engineered the downfall of Mortimer and took substantive control the Government. His attention turned towards Scotland and his Grandfather’s plan to make it a vassal Kingdom. The death of Robert I (the Bruce) of Scotland in 1329 afforded him the opportunity to resume the war. Robert had died leaving his seven year old son David (II) as his heir and Edward saw an opportunity to overthrow this child monarch. In 1332 he covertly supported the claim of Edward Balliol, son of the former King John of Scotland, over and above David. Balliol was crowned but he was deposed a few months later and fled to Carlisle. He requested support from Edward III and pledged to cede Berwick-upon-Tweed to the English King. Edward took up the challenge and moved his army north.\nEdward’s forces arrived at Berwick in Spring 1333 and he imposed a close siege around the town including a sea blockade. An agreement was struck with the town that they would surrender if not relieved by 11 July 1333 and provided hostages to this effect. The Scottish meanwhile, under the command of Sir Archibald Douglas, had recruited a significant army. He invaded northern England and advanced towards Bamburgh Castle where Queen Philippa, Edward’s wife, was resident. Doubtless entirely content with the strength of Bamburgh's defences, Edward remained firmly in situ at Berwick. En route however the Scottish army had managed to insert a small party of soldiers into the town via a partially destroyed bridge over the Tweed. This prompted Sir Alexander Seton to withdraw his offer of surrender prompting fury from Edward III; the hostages, include Seton’s own son, were hung at the rate of two a day until the town surrendered. To stop the bloodshed, Seton made a new agreement with Edward that they would surrender if, by the 19 July 1333, the Scottish had not:\n1. Won a pitched battle or,\n2. Effected a crossing of an agreed stretch of the River Tweed or,\n3. Inserted a force of at least 200 soldiers into the town.\nThe Scottish army was around 14,000 strong versus around 10,000 English. However the latter were well equipped.\nDouglas delayed taking any action until the 19 July 1333 - the very last day before the agreement between the English and Seton expired.\n- Stage 1: Deployment\nThe Scottish force initially drew up on the higher ground, the Witches’ Knowe, immediately to the north of Halidon Hill. This was a strong position but the onus was on the Scots to attack; Edward would win just by remaining stationary. To fight the English, Douglas would need to lead his forces downhill, transit through boggy ground and then ascend Halidon to attack the English position. It was an unenviable task but he had more troops and, in the immediate term, only needed 200 soldiers to ‘break through’ the English lines and reach Berwick. Douglas configured his forces into three densely packed formations of spearmen (a repeat of the schiltrons so effectively used at Bannockburn). All personnel were dismounted with the horses retained at Witches’ Knowe.\nIn response the English, having left a sufficient force to sustain the close siege of Berwick, moved to occupy Haildon Hill which was the highest ground immediately to the north of the town. By controlling this position they commanded all road access to Berwick and any advancing force would have to fight them to gain entry. Accordingly Edward drew up his army in a defensive formation; three divisions of infantry were each flanked by archers who were arranged in a projecting wedge allowing a withering crossfire to be delivered against advancing forces. All personnel were dismounted and the horses kept to the rear.\n- Stage 2: Scottish Attack\nThe battle seems to have commenced around midday with a challenge of single combat; a ‘giant’ Scotsman called Turnball fought but lost to a Norfolk Knight, Robert Benhale. Following this, the Scottish forces then began their attack with all three schiltrons descending from Witches’s Knowe and entering the bog that separated them from the English position.\n- Stage 3: English Attack\nThe muddy ground slowed the advance of the Scots and made them an easy target for the English archers who started their deadly barrage. As the arrows hit home at speeds of around 90mph, casualties amongst the Scottish ranks mounted.\n- Stage 4: Scottish Target Balliol\nDespite the hailstorm of arrows the Scottish forces pressed on. It was the Scottish right, under the Earl of Moray, who were first to connect with the English ranks – having seen Edward Balliol’s banner on the left of the English line they pushed hard to it. But they suffered heavily from the archer’s assault with contemporary writers describing that many “turned their faces away” from the hailstorm of arrows. Whatever force finally made it to Balliol’s men-at-arms was quickly broken.\n- Stage 5: Scottish Right Breaks\nThe central divisions of the Scottish army fared little better. Running the gauntlet of the archers they sustained huge casualties before meeting the forces directly under Edward’s command.\n- Stage 6: Scottish Rout\nThe Scottish left, under Sir Archibald Douglas himself, seems to have included additional men; either incorporated into the main division or as a fourth group. It is most likely these were the contingency; if the Scots failed to overwhelm the English, these are the men that would break-through and arrive at Berwick to augment the garrison and satisfy the agreement between Edward and the town. Fierce fighting ensued but, as casualties mounted, the remaining Scottish troops broke into rout.\nThe Scots fled downhill with the nobility hoping to get back to the Witches' Knowe to mount their horses and escape. However the dismounted English Knights now left their infantry positions, mounted their own steeds and charged the fleeing Scots. It was a total rout with vast numbers of Scottish troops, nobility and commoner alike, killed. Those Scottish Knights who made it back to Witches’ Knowe found their aides had fled with their horses leaving them to their fate. Casualties have been widely exaggerated by chroniclers but likely accounted for the greater part of the original Scottish force.\nHalidon Hill was a decisive English victory that left Berwick in English hands and Scotland defenceless. But Edward’s ambitions were in France and he did not consolidate his victory with a full scale attempt to subdue the Scots; Balliol’s government was never accepted and in the longer term Halidon Hill simply marked a successful start to an ultimately unsuccessful strategy. However, in a wider context, it was also the first battle fought by Edward III and proved the effectiveness of the English Longbow and dismounted men-at-arms; a configuration he would use to great effect at the Battle of Crécy (1346) and which later would be repeated at the Battles of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415).\nBeresford, M.W and St Joseph, J.K.S (1979). Medieval England - An Aerial Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.\nBurns, W (1874). The Scottish War of Independence Its Antecedents and Effects. James Maclehose, Glasgow.\nCauldwell, D.H (1998). Scotland's Wars and Warriors: Winning against the Odds. Historic Scotland, Edingburgh.\nClark, D (1996). Battlefield walks : Scotland. Sutton Publishing, Stroud.\nCyprien, M and Fairbairn, N (1983). A Traveller's Guide to the Battlefields of Britain. Evans Brothers Ltd, London.\nDodds, G.L (1996). Battles in Britain 1066-1746. Arms & Armour, London.\nDouglas, D.C and Myers, A.R (ed) (1975). English Historical Documents Vol 5 (1327-1485). Routledge, London.\nDunbar, A. H (1899). Scottish Kings: A Revised Chronology of Scottish History 1005-1625. David Douglas, Edinburgh.\nGreen, H (1973). Guide to the Battlefields of Britain and Ireland. Constable, London.\nKinross, J (1979). The Battlefields of Britain. London.\nLancaster, J.H.D (2014). Halidon Hill: Battlefield visit notes and observations. CastlesFortsBattles.co.uk.\nMatthews, R (2003). England versus Scotland, The Great British Battles. Leo Cooper, Barnsley.\nMortimer, I (2008). The Perfect King. Vintage, London.\nMortimer, I (2010). The Greatest Traitor. Vintage, London.\nOrdnance Survey (2015). Northumberland. 1:1250. Southampton.\nPrestwich, M (1996). Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience. Yale.\nSmurthwaite, D (1993). The Complete Guide to the Battlefields of Britain. Michael Joseph, London.\nThere is a small monument on the roadside and a plaque in the car park. The battlefield walk offers the visitor good access to battlefield enabling the dominant position of the English to be fully appreciated.\nView from the English Position. The Scots advanced from the Witches' Knowe - the high ground in the picture above.\nBerwick-upon-Tweed. The battlefield dominated the approach to Berwick-upon-Tweed.\nBattlefield car park is found on an unnamed road off the A1. No sign-posts but the car park itself is fairly substantial and even proceeding no further gives a good perspective of Berwick and the dominating position which Edward adopted." ]

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[ "Betula jacquemontii (Betula utilus var. jacquemontii)\nWhitebarked Himalayan Birch\n- Deciduous tree, 30-50+ ft (9-15+ m), pyramidal, upward branches, white \"paper\" bark on trunk and often on young branches. Leaves alternate, simple, 5-7.5 cm long, rounded or slightly cuneate (wedge-shaped with straight sides) at base,\nmargin double serrated, dark green above, glandular below, pubescent on veins, 7-9 vein pairs.\n- Light to part shade, especially afternoon shade. Best in cool, moist, well-drained soil; like other birches, the roots are shallow, so it is not for high traffic areas. Listed as having \"some borer resistance\" in the Sunset Western Garden Book, but other authorities (e.g., Univ. Minnesota, Extension) consider it \"highly susceptible\" to the bronze birch borer. This pest is common east of the Cascades but was essentially unknown in western Oregon before 2003; now it is becoming an increasing problem in the Portland area and Corvallis.\n- See Dirr (1998, p. 140) for a discussion on this plant.\n- Hardy to USDA Zone 5 Native to the western Himalayas\n- jacquemontii: after Victor Jacquemont, French naturalist.\n- Oregon State Univ. campus: west of Owen Hall; in parking lot north of Finley drom." ]

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[ "The report, the fifth in UNEP's 'rapid response assessment' series, looks beyond forests and the REDD debates to the potential of natural and agricultural ecosystems to capture and store carbon. It examines the potential for gaining multiple benefits for livelihoods and ecosystem services through managing ecosystem carbon and considers the implications for policy.Resource Type: Reports\nThis report presents a synthesis and integration of the findings concerning biodiversity contained in the reports of the four Millennium Assessment Working Groups (Condition and Trends, Scenarios, Responses, and Sub-global Assessments).Resource Type: Reports\nThe Last Stand of the Orangutan was prepared by a Rapid Response Team at UNEP/GRID-Arendal and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre as a broad collaborative effort, involving contributors from the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia, and partners of the Great Apes Survival Project (GRASP).Resource Type: Reports\nUNEP-WCMC produces regular outputs of net trade in wild-collected fauna and flora listed on CITES Appendix II as part of the CITES Review of Significant Trade process.\nUNEP-WCMC also produced Reviews of Significant Trade for the species selected for review following CoP14 for recent Animals and Plants Committee meetings (including AC25, PC19 and AC26).Resource Type: Reports\nAlthough trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been widely promoted as an approach to rural development, recent research has indicated that NTFP commercialisation is often not successful. Analysis of the factors influencing success of NTFP commercialisation has been hindered by the lack of an appropriate analytical approach for comparison of case studies. We tested and further developed a methodology recently developed by CIFOR, by examining 16 NTFP case studies in two workshops held in Mexico and Bolivia involving a variety of stakeholders involved in NTFP commercialisation.Resource Type: Journal Papers\nBiodiversity conservation is increasingly expected to reduce poverty where the two coincide. Yet conservation and poverty are multifaceted concepts and the linkages between them are complex and variable; whether and how conservation contributes to poverty reduction in practice will depend on the specific nature of those linkages.\nTo unravel this complexity we explored the portfolio of Fauna & Flora International, an international conservation organization operating in some of the poorest countries and regions. We examined reports from 88 projects and categorized the rationales, approaches and outcomes of a sample of 34 livelihoods-focused projects.\nThe success of protected areas as a tool for conservation is based around the assumption that they are managed to protect the values that they contain. To be effective, management should be tailored to the particular demands of the site, given that each protected area has a variety of biological and social characteristics, pressures and uses. Achieving effective management is not an easy task – it requires adopting appropriate management objectives and governance systems, adequate and appropriate resourcing and the timely implementation of appropriate management strategie and processes. It is unlikely to be achieved fully without an approach to management that is inquiring an reflective – that seeks to understand how effective the current management regime is and how it could be improved. Information on management effectiveness is thus a cornerstone of good management.\nCommercialization of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been widely promoted as a means of sustainably developing tropical forest resources, in a way that promotes forest conservation while supporting rural livelihoods. However, in practice, NTFP commercialization has often failed to deliver the expected benefits. Progress in analyzing the causes of such failure has been hindered by the lack of a suitable framework for the analysis of NTFP case studies, and by the lack of predictive theory.\nWe address these needs by developing a probabilistic model based on a livelihood framework, enabling the impact of NTFP commercialization on livelihoods to be predicted.Resource Type: Journal Papers\nThis briefing considers the implications for biodiversity conservation and local people’s livelihoods of the current discussion on reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries (RED-DC, henceforth RED) under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The potential for RED to deliver multiple benefits for biodiversity conservation, livelihoods and other ecosystem services is well documented (UNEP-WCMC 2007). But it is important to note that RED could also have negative impacts on biodiversity and local livelihoods, for example as a result of the displacement of deforestation.Resource Type: Reports\nEntrepreneurship and innovation by actors in the market for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) cannot be fully understood without a proper understanding of the position and behaviour of actors in the value chain of NTFPs. This paper places the market for NTFPs in the emerging literature on value chains which has, so far, lacked a detailed analysis of NTFPs. Our analysis reveals that certain key entrepreneurs are a driving force of success throughout several NTFP value chains in both Bolivia and Mexico. Where market information is scarce, e.g. where producers are distant from consumers, key entrepreneurs often govern entire value chains.\nRather than criticising the monopolistic position of individuals, it is important to understand how the activity of key entrepreneurs can be supported in spreading successful commercialisation further and where necessary control negative impacts of their role. Our analysis indicates that policies to support commercialisation of the case study NTFPs would also need to be tailored to each value chain.Resource Type: Journal Papers\n©2013 UNEP All rights reserved" ]

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[ "Thank You Nurses\nYesterday, May 12, was International Nurses Day, and so, today, Jewish Treats honors a woman who made a tremendous impact on the world of public health.\nLillian D. Wald (1867 – 1940) was born to middle-class, German-Jewish immigrants. In 1889, Lillian enrolled at New York Hospital’s School of Nursing. When Lillian began teaching basic nursing to immigrant families on the Lower East Side of New York four years later, she was shocked at the living conditions she discovered. But Lillian Wald had found her calling. She took up residence on Henry Street and began what she termed “public health nursing.” The Henry Street Settlement (as it came to be known) became an open resource for the community. The nurses charged on a sliding scale according to need, kept patient records and offered educational classes. By 1905 there were 18 similar centers under the Henry Street Settlement auspices. In addition to actual health care, the Henry Street Settlement also provided social activities for youth (to keep them off the street and to educate them), vocational training, and other activities that today would be provided by municipal or private social work agencies.\nLillian Wald’s other accomplishments include the initiation of the first American public school nursing program, the development of a department of nursing and health at Teachers College of Columbia University, and assuming the first presidency of the National Organization for Public Health Nursing. Wald also spoke out in defense of immigrants and raised funds from the wealthy German-Jewish community of New York to help the needy immigrants.\nLillian’s work brought worldwide recognition of the need for reforms in public health and other areas of social policy. In 1912, she received a gold medal from the National Institute of Social Sciences, and two colleges granted her honorary doctorates. A public gathering was held in honor of her 70th birthday.\nLillian Wald died in 1940.\nCopyright © 2011 National Jewish Outreach Program. All rights reserved.Email this post" ]

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[ "The impact of kindness on your mental health\nSelf-care is a popular topic at the moment, and rightly so. Taking time out to dedicate to preserving, maintaining or improving our mental health and wellbeing is always time well spent. Whether exercise, healthy food or time on your own is your go-to self-care activity, you may be missing another good way to boost your mood and wellbeing… practising kindness to others. Sounds simple? Here’s why it’s such a valuable activity.\nKindness and gratitude go hand in hand\nOne aspect that links a person’s act of kindness with an increase in their happiness is that kindness itself can foster gratitude, empathy and a strengthened sense of compassion. These are all important when we consider the crucial role that they play in allowing us to form connections with other people. The stronger our feelings of connectedness, the greater the will we have to survive and thrive – this is particularly so for individuals suffering from mental illnesses such as depression.\nA life without gratitude, or a life lived with disregard to others, can keep us on the sidelines, feeling separate and disconnected. This is why simple acts of kindness, no matter how big or small, are key to enhancing our mental health and helping us feel as though we belong.\nThere’s science to back this up: practising kindness unto others actually prompts a release of neurochemicals – so-called the ‘helper’s high’ – which reward us for our good deed(s). An activity that stimulates a release of dopamine, serotonin or oxytocin is going to be a mood booster. Therefore, despite our brains being so complex by nature, on a purely chemical level, there is an undeniable connection between practising kindness and an improved mental wellbeing.\nHow can you incorporate acts of kindness into your life? The good news is, it’s actually pretty simple! It’s true that small things really can create big change; this could be as simple as letting someone out of a junction while stuck in traffic or helping someone reach a product on the top shelf in the supermarket. Simple though it sounds, doing good makes you feel good. And it truly benefits everyone involved.\nWhat’s more, in many ways, kindness is contagious. The more we practice it, the more we encourage those around us to do the same. Think of it this way, if someone lets you out in a traffic jam, chances are you’ll feel far more inclined to do the same to someone else afterwards. We don’t, and won’t, always see the chain reaction that one small act of kindness can create, but we can certainly find comfort in knowing that we can have a positive impact – one that will often turn into something far greater down the line." ]

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[ "Diplomats from more than 190 countries agreed on a draft text on green global development on Tuesday to be approved this week at a summit in Rio de Janeiro, but environmentalists complained the agreement was too weak.\nThe summit, known as Rio+20, was supposed to hammer out aspirational, rather than mandatory sustainable development goals across core areas like food security, water and energy, but the draft text agreed upon by diplomats failed to define those goals or give clear timetables toward setting them.\nIt is “telling that nobody in that room adopting the text was happy. That is how weak it is,” EU Commissioner for Climate Action Connie Hedegaard said on social network Twitter.\nExpectations were low for the summit because politicians’ attention is more focused on the eurozone crisis, the US presidential election and turmoil in the Middle East than on the environment.\nHeads of state and ministers, including Russian President Vladimir Putin, French President Francois Hollande and US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, were scheduled to meet with diplomats representing other nations from yesterday for three days to discuss the text and possibly make some changes to its wording.\nObservers do not expect major amendments.\nUS special envoy for climate change Todd Stern told reporters on Tuesday he did not expect the document to change much after heads of state meet to discuss it.\n“We do not have anything that we are expecting to try to drive into the document that is not there yet,” he said.\nEnvironmental groups criticized the text, saying it omitted or watered down important proposals and challenged heads of state to act urgently to respond to climate change.\nThe draft text omitted a clause calling for governments to phase out fossil fuel subsidies, which have nearly tripled since 2009, despite a pledge by G20 countries to eliminate them.\nPhasing out fossil fuel subsidies by 2020 would reduce annual global energy demand by 5 percent and carbon dioxide emissions by nearly 6 percent, according to the International Energy Agency.\nAn eagerly awaited decision on a governance structure for the high seas was also postponed for three years, after the US, Japan, Canada, Russia and Venezuela opposed strong language to implement it.\n“There is no commitment — it’s like telling your girlfriend you promise to decide in three years whether or not to decide, whether or not to get married,” said Susanna Fuller of the High Seas Alliance, a coalition of NGOs.\nOthers were slightly more optimistic.\n“The document represents a positive step forward. While it is not the major breakthrough we had 20 years ago it puts us on the pathway to sustainable development,” Barbados diplomat Selwyn Hart said.\nSeparately, in a meeting of big-city mayors at an old fortress in Rio, New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and colleagues from around the world sought to show how cities can make progress even if a multinational agreement is not possible.\nCities are responsible for up to three-quarters of global greenhouse gases.\nMeasures already under way in major cities, the mayors said, are on track to reduce their combined emission of greenhouse gases by 248 million tonnes by 2020, an amount equal to the current annual emissions of Mexico and Canada together.\nThe measures, the mayors said, include everything from better waste management to more efficient lighting and would include biofuel and electric-powered municipal transport." ]

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[ "(See also Approach to the Patient With a Sleep or Wakefulness Disorder Approach to the Patient With a Sleep or Wakefulness Disorder Almost half of all people in the US report sleep-related problems. Disordered sleep can cause emotional disturbance, memory difficulty, poor motor skills, decreased work efficiency, and increased... read more .)\nThe cause of narcolepsy is unknown. In Europe, Japan, and the US, incidence is 0.2 to 1.6/1000. Narcolepsy is equally common in both sexes.\nNarcolepsy is strongly associated with specific human leukocyte antigen (HLA) haplotypes, but the cause is not thought to be genetic. Concordance in twins is low (25%), suggesting a prominent role for environmental factors, which often trigger the disorder. The neuropeptide hypocretin-1 is deficient in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of narcoleptic animals and most human patients, suggesting that the cause may be HLA–associated autoimmune destruction of hypocretin-containing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.\nNarcolepsy features dysregulation of the timing and control of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Therefore, REM sleep intrudes into wakefulness and into the transition from wakefulness to sleep. Many symptoms of narcolepsy result from postural muscle paralysis and vivid dreaming, which characterize REM.\nThere are 2 types:\nType 1: Narcolepsy due to hypocretin deficiency and accompanied by cataplexy (momentary muscular weakness or paralysis evoked by sudden emotional reactions)\nType 2: Narcolepsy with normal hypocretin levels and without cataplexy\nThe Kleine-Levin syndrome, a very rare disorder in adolescent boys, resembles narcolepsy. The Kleine-Levin syndrome causes episodic hypersomnia (excessive daytime sleepiness) and hyperphagia. Etiology is unclear but may be an autoimmune response to an infection.\nSymptoms and Signs of Narcolepsy\nThe main symptoms of narcolepsy are\nExcessive daytime sleepiness (EDS)\nHypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations\nDisturbed nocturnal sleep (due to increased arousals)\nAbout 10% of patients have all 5 of these symptoms.\nSymptoms usually begin in adolescents or young adults without prior illness, although onset can be precipitated by an illness, a stressor, or a period of sleep deprivation. Once established, narcolepsy persists throughout life; life span is unaffected.\nExcessive daytime sleepiness\nEDS is the primary symptom and can occur anytime. Sleep episodes vary from few to many per day, and each may last minutes or hours. Patients can resist the desire to sleep only temporarily but can be roused as readily as from normal sleep. Sleep tends to occur during monotonous conditions (eg, reading, watching television, attending meetings) but may also occur during complex tasks (eg, driving, speaking, writing, eating).\nPatients may also experience sleep attacks—episodes of sleep that strike without warning. Patients may feel refreshed when they awaken yet fall asleep again in a few minutes.\nNighttime sleep may be unsatisfying with frequent arousals and interrupted by vivid, frightening dreams.\nConsequences include low productivity, breaches in interpersonal relationships, poor concentration, low motivation, depression, a dramatic reduction in quality of life, and potential for physical injury (particularly due to motor vehicle collisions).\nMomentary episodes of muscular weakness or paralysis occur without loss of consciousness and usually last < 2 minutes;they are evoked by sudden emotional reactions, such as laughter, anger, fear, joy, or, often, surprise.\nWeakness may be confined to the limbs (eg, patients may drop the rod when a fish strikes their line) or may cause a limp fall during hearty laughter (as in “weak with laughter”) or sudden anger. Cataplexy can also affect other muscles: The jaw may droop, facial muscles may flicker, eyes may close, the head may nod, and speech may be slurred. Vision may be blurred. These attacks resemble the loss of muscle tone that occurs during REM sleep.\nClinically significant cataplexy occurs in about 20% of patients.\nPatients are momentarily unable to move as they are just falling asleep or immediately after they awaken. These episodes may be very frightening. They resemble the motor inhibition that accompanies REM sleep.\nSleep paralysis occurs in about 25% of patients but also in some healthy children and, less commonly, in healthy adults.\nHypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations\nParticularly vivid auditory or visual illusions or hallucinations may occur when just falling asleep (hypnagogic) or, less often, immediately after awakening (hypnopompic). They are difficult to distinguish from intense reverie and are somewhat similar to vivid dreams, which are normal in REM sleep.\nHypnagogic hallucinations occur in about 30% of patients, are common among healthy young children, and occasionally occur in healthy adults.\nDisturbed nocturnal sleep\nSleep is often also disturbed by increased arousals in patients with narcolepsy, potentially worsening EDS.\nDiagnosis of Narcolepsy\nMultiple sleep latency testing\nA delay of 10 years from onset of symptoms to diagnosis of narcolepsy is common.\nA history of cataplexy strongly suggests narcolepsy in patients with EDS.\nIn patients with EDS, nocturnal polysomnography, followed by multiple sleep latency testing (MSLT), can confirm a diagnosis of narcolepsy when the findings include the following:\nSleep-onset REM episodes during at least 2 of 5 daytime nap opportunities or one during daytime nap opportunities plus one during the preceding nocturnal polysomnogram\nAverage sleep latency (time to fall asleep) of ≤ 8 minutes\nNo other diagnostic abnormalities on nocturnal polysomnography\nNarcolepsy type 1 is diagnosed if patients also have cataplexy; type 2 is diagnosed if patients do not have cataplexy. EDS occurs in patients with narcolepsy type 1 or type 2.\nThe maintenance of wakefulness test does not help with diagnosis but does help monitor treatment efficacy.\nOther disorders that can cause chronic EDS are usually suggested by the history and physical examination; brain imaging and blood and urine tests can confirm the diagnosis. These disorders include space-occupying lesions affecting the hypothalamus or upper brain stem, increased intracranial pressure, and certain forms of encephalitis. Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism is thyroid hormone deficiency. Symptoms include cold intolerance, fatigue, and weight gain. Signs may include a typical facial appearance, hoarse slow speech, and dry skin. Diagnosis... read more , hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia, or low plasma glucose level can result in sympathetic nervous system stimulation, and central nervous system dysfunction. In patients with diabetes who take insulin or antihyperglycemic... read more , anemia, uremia, hypercapnia Ventilatory Failure Ventilatory failure is a rise in PaCO2 (hypercapnia) that occurs when the respiratory load can no longer be supported by the strength or activity of the system. The most common causes are severe... read more , hypercalcemia Hypercalcemia Hypercalcemia is a total serum calcium concentration > 10.4 mg/dL (> 2.60 mmol/L) or ionized serum calcium > 5.2 mg/dL (> 1.30 mmol/L). Principal causes include hyperparathyroidism... read more , hepatic failure Acute Liver Failure Acute liver failure is caused most often by drugs and hepatitis viruses. Cardinal manifestations are jaundice, coagulopathy, and encephalopathy. Diagnosis is clinical. Treatment is mainly supportive... read more , and seizure disorders Seizure Disorders A seizure is an abnormal, unregulated electrical discharge that occurs within the brain’s cortical gray matter and transiently interrupts normal brain function. A seizure typically causes altered... read more can also cause EDS with or without hypersomnia. Acute, relatively brief EDS and hypersomnia commonly accompany acute systemic disorders such as influenza. Hypersomnia also occurs in patients with meningoencephalitis due to African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), which is transmitted by the tsetse fly.\nTreatment of Narcolepsy\nModafinil or armodafinil\nNarcolepsy may not require treatment if patients have occasional episodes of sleep paralysis or hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations, infrequent and partial cataplexy, and mild EDS. For others, wake-promoting drugs and anticataplectic drugs are used. Patients should also get enough sleep at night and take brief naps (< 30 minutes) at the same time every day (typically afternoon). Patients with cataplexy should avoid precipitating factors (eg, laughter, anger, fear).\nFor type 1 narcolepsy, oxybates (sodium oxybate or a combination drug that contains calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium oxybates) or pitolisant should be used for cataplexy, and if EDS persists, modafinil should be added.\nFor type 2 narcolepsy, modafinil should be first-line treatment, with solriamfetol as 2nd-line for EDS. Pitolisant can also be used to treat EDS.\nModafinil, a long-acting wake-promoting drug, can help patients with EDS. The mechanism of action is unclear. Typically, modafinil 100 to 200 mg orally is given in the morning. Dose is increased to 400 mg as needed. If effects do not last into the evening, a small 2nd dose (eg, 100 mg) at noon or 1 pm may be used, although this dose sometimes interferes with nocturnal sleep.\nAdverse effects of modafinil include nausea and headache, which are mitigated by lower initial doses and slower titration. Modafinil can lower the effectiveness of oral contraceptives and has abuse potential, although it is low. Rarely, serious rashes and Stevens-Johnson syndrome Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS) and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN) Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis are severe cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions. Drugs, especially sulfa drugs, antiseizure drugs, and antibiotics, are the most common... read more have developed in patients taking modafinil. If serious reactions develop, the drug should be stopped permanently. Modafinil should not be used during pregnancy because it may cause severe fetal congenital anomalies, including cardiac anomalies.\nArmodafinil, the R-enantiomer of modafinil, has similar benefits and adverse effects but is longer-acting; dosage is 150 or 250 mg orally once in the morning.\nSolriamfetol is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. It is indicated to treat EDS (but not cataplexy) in patients with narcolepsy or obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). The starting dose is 75 mg orally once a day, which can be doubled every 3 days to a maximum 150 mg once a day. Dose adjustment is required for patients with renal impairment, and solriamfetol should not be used in patients with end-stage renal disease. In clinical trials, solriamfetol was well-tolerated and significantly relieved symptoms of excessive sleepiness (documented by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale and maintenance of wakefulness testing) in adults with narcolepsy and in those with OSA and EDS. The most common adverse effects are insomnia, headache, nausea, decreased appetite, and diarrhea. There are no interactions with oral contraceptives.\nPitolisant is a histamine-3 receptor inverse agonist, which is indicated for treatment of EDS and cataplexy in patients with narcolepsy. The dosage varies between 8.9 to 35.6 mg in the morning. Pitolisant is started at 8.9 mg orally once a day (taken on awakening) and increased to 17.8 mg once a day at week 2. The dose may be increased to a maximum of 35.6 mg once a day if needed. Dose adjustment is required for patients with renal or hepatic impairment, and pitolisant should not be used in patients with end-stage renal disease. Adverse effects include headache, irritability, anxiety, and nausea. It interacts with oral contraceptives, making them less effective.\nSodium oxybates or a combination drug that contains calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium oxybate salts can also be used to treat EDS and cataplexy. The dose of both drugs is 2.25 g taken orally at bedtime while in bed, followed by the same dose 2.5 to 4 hours later. The maximum dose is 9 g a night. Adverse effects include headache, nausea, dizziness, nasopharyngitis, somnolence, vomiting, urinary incontinence, and sometimes sleepwalking. Oxybates are schedule III drugs and have the potential for abuse and dependence. They are contraindicated in patients with succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency. Sodium oxybate should be used cautiously in patients with untreated respiratory disorders, hypertension, or heart failure (because sodium oxybate contains more sodium than the combination drug that contains several different oxybate salts).\nTricyclic antidepressants (particularly clomipramine, imipramine, and protriptyline) and SSRIs (eg, venlafaxine, fluoxetine) have been used in the past to treat cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations; however, data about the effectiveness of these drugs are limited. These drugs should be used only if pitolisant and oxybates are ineffective.\nMethylphenidate or amphetamine derivatives can be used if patients do not respond to or cannot tolerate wake-promoting drugs. However, all stimulants should be considered 3rd- or 4th line after modafinil, armodafinil, solriamfetol, and pitolisant. If stimulants are prescribed for patients > 40 years, an exercise stress test should be done to determine whether patients have underlying cardiovascular disease.\nMethylphenidate: 5 to 15 mg orally 2 or 3 times a day\nMethamphetamine: 5 to 20 mg orally 2 times a day\nDextroamphetamine 5 mg orally 2 times a day to 20 mg orally 3 times a day\nMethylphenidate and amphetamine derivatives are available in long-acting preparations and therefore can be dosed once a day in many patients. However, these stimulants have significant adverse effects, including agitation, hypertension, tachycardia, myocardial infarction (secondary to vasoconstriction), changes in appetite, and mood changes (eg, manic reactions). Abuse potential is high.\nNarcolepsy may be caused by autoimmune destruction of hypocretin-containing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.\nThe main symptoms are excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), cataplexy, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations, sleep paralysis, and disturbed nocturnal sleep.\nConfirm the diagnosis by polysomnography and multiple sleep latency testing.\nEDS usually responds to modafinil or another wake-promoting drug; cataplexy responds to pitolisant or oxybates.\nDrugs Mentioned In This Article\n|Drug Name||Select Trade|\n|Effexor, Effexor XR, Venlafaxine|\n|Prozac, Prozac Weekly, Sarafem, Selfemra|\n|Adhansia XR, Aptensio XR, Concerta, Cotempla XR, Daytrana, Jornay, Metadate CD, Metadate ER, Methylin, QuilliChew ER, Quillivant XR, RELEXXII, Ritalin, Ritalin LA, Ritalin SR|\n|Adzenys, Adzenys XR, Dyanavel XR, Evekeo|\n|Dexedrine, Dexedrine Spansule, DextroStat, Liquadd , ProCentra , XELSTRYM, Zenzedi|" ]

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[ "Increased use of online learning promotes education equity in China\nThe COVID-19 outbreak has accelerated development of internet infrastructure, public services and technology in underdeveloped areas driven by national strategies such as ‘Internet plus education’ strategy. Schools in more than 30 provincial-level regions across China are having online classes in virtual classrooms. Online learning platforms have allowed some people in lower-tier cities to access high-quality educational resources for the first time. Also, many universities have opened their teaching and academic resources to the public, narrowing the education gap between developed and underdeveloped regions of China." ]

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[ "The Echo Command\nThe echo command takes a text string as a parameter, and writes (echos) it straight back to the screen. At first glance, this may seem a useless command, which is true when working directly with the CDI. When writing batch files (files containing multiple commands) however, it is the only way to display a progress update on screen as the batch file is processed. One trick that always puzzles new users of this command is the syntax to produce a blank line. Typing the echo command without any parameters may sound like the correct way to do this, but in fact suffixing echo with a full stop (echo.) is the only way to produce a blank line.\nThe cryptic Echo is on reply to the first command actually has little to do with the echo command, and more to do with batch files. Batch files are discussed later in this chapter, however to prevent a batch file from printing each command to the screen before executing it, type @echo off as the first command in the file.\nEcho has one further use, in a technique known as piping. It is possible to pipe the output of echo to a file, device or even as input to a program. Using the > symbol followed by a filename after an echo statement will allow you to pipe the output of the echo into the filename specified. For example, typing echo test > out.txt into the CDI will create a file named out.txt, with the word test inside.\nAlmost all CDI commands allow for piping, which can be exceptionally useful when tracking changes. The classic use of piping is with the dir command if you need a directory listing of every file and folder on the hard drive saved to a file, do not purchase third party tools to do it. Simply type dir c: /s > dirlist.txt (the /s parameter tells the dir command to iterate through all sub directories) at the CDI prompt, and the job is done!\nHome - Table Of Contents - Contact Us\nCertiGuide to A+ (A+ 4 Real) (http://www.CertiGuide.com/apfr/) on CertiGuide.com\nVersion 1.0 - Version Date: March 29, 2005\nAdapted with permission from a work created by Tcat Houser et al.\nCertiGuide.com Version © Copyright 2005 Charles M. Kozierok. All Rights Reserved.\nNot responsible for any loss resulting from the use of this site." ]

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[ "What is philosophical semantics?\nGeneral semantics, a philosophy of language-meaning that was developed by Alfred Korzybski (1879–1950), a Polish-American scholar, and furthered by S.I. Hayakawa, Wendell Johnson, and others; it is the study of language as a representation of reality. Korzybski’s theory was intended to improve the habits of response to environment. Drawing upon such varied disciplines as relativity theory, quantum mechanics, and mathematical logic, Korzybski and his followers sought a scientific, non-Aristotelian basis for clear understanding of the differences between symbol (word) and reality (referent) and the ways in which words themselves can influence (or manipulate) and limit human ability to think.\nA major emphasis of general semantics has been in practical training, in methods for establishing better habits of evaluation, e.g., by indexing words, as “man1, ” “man2, ” and by dating, as “Roosevelt1930, ” “Roosevelt1940, ” to indicate exactly which man or which stage of time one is referring to.\nKorzybski’s major work on general semantics is Science and Sanity (1933; 5th ed., 1994). The Institute of General Semantics (founded 1938) publishes a quarterly, ETC: A Review of General Semantics.\nYou might also like\nDer Tod als Text und Signum: Der literarische Todesdiskurs in geistlich-didaktischen Texten des Mittelalters (Deutsche Literatur von den Anfängen bis 1700) (German Edition)\nBook (Peter Lang)" ]

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[ "Ever wonder what’s going on inside of your toddler’s brain? A lot. In fact, from birth to age five a child’s brain grows and develops more than any other time in their lives. That’s why nurturing your child’s brain from the start is vital! Check out these 5 activities to give your toddler’s brain a boost.\n- Break out the blocks. Blocks are one toy that have truly stood the test of time. Not only do blocks help with color and shape recognition, they also help to boost creativity and imagination. Children can build towers, roads, or make music by clinking two blocks together. Block building also help with developing motor skills.The possibilities are endless!\n- Engage in sensory play. Sensory play, including the exploration of textures like scratchy sand, smooth shaving cream, or cold water, help to engage the 5 senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing). This type of play builds nerve connections in the brain’s pathways and opens the gates for more complex learning tasks!\n- Play pretend. Imaginative play including dress up, playing house, grocery store, or even superheroes helps to develop a child’s imagination, creative thinking, social skills, and even impulse control.\n- Hide and seek. Finding a place to hide? Doing so helps toddlers learn how to think strategically. Seeking out a hider? A toddler has to think of potential places where someone could hide which demonstrates spatial awareness. Who knew hide and seek could build so much brain power!\n- Clean up, clean up, everybody everywhere! Before your child is old enough for chores, encourage them to assist you in tidying up their toys. Not only can this be a great way to practice categorization (everything has its place) it can also help to teach responsibility.\nPrograms at The Little Gym are purposefully designed to help children 4 months through 12 years grow and develop social, cognitive, and motor skills." ]

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[ "What Is Search Engine Optimization Or Seo\nBy sandeep tyagi What is Search engine Optimization or SEO\nSearch engine Optimization (SEO) is a process to improve your site visibility in search engines like Google, yahoo, MSN, AltaVista etc….\nWhy to optimize for search engines.\nSearch engine Optimisation (seo) helps in getting targeted visitors to your site who can be potential buyers of your products or services. If you want to sell your products or services online search engines are one of the best ways to attract the targeted traffic. Most of the buyers use search engines to find what they are interested in and on an average they don’t go beyond 3 pages of search results so if your site is not showing within 3 pages of the SERPS (Search engine results pages) you might be loosing 95% of your targeted visitors.Search engine Optimization process and Strategy\nprocess it starts form choosing your domain name a domain that represents the product or service you want to offer on your website.\nEG: if a firm called xyz is selling widgets in UK then a friendly domain name can be something like xyzwidgets.co.uk or xyz-widgets.co.uk\nWeb design: Web design: After choosing a good domain name friendly web design is an important part of the search engine optimisation (SEO) process. The web design included the following elements.\n1. Making it W3C compliant (HTML compliant, CSS compliant)\n2. No use of frames within the website\n3. Minimizing or no use of Flash content\n4. Complying with web accessibility standards\n5. Keyword rich filenames\n6. Use of Anchor Text for hyperlinks and images\n7. Use of hyphen (-) in the page name as compare to space or underscores(_).\n8. HTML and XML sitemaps\n9. User friendly site navigation Content:\nUnique content is must to achieve good rankings in the top search engines it is the factor that drives your consumer to make that first important step in contacting you for your services. If you are using content from some articles\nor any other sites then it may not just land you in legal trouble if it is copyrighted and it will be counted as duplicate content by search engines. So always remember for good search engine rankings quality counts not the quantity. If you have unique and informative content then it can also help you in getting back links as well as driving targeted visitors to your site. And finally more traffic means more customers\nlink building can be of three types reciprocal, one way and paid\nfind sites which are relevant to your website contact them and request for a link exchange between your website and his site. This is called reciprocal link exchange\nyou don’t need to add link to other site they will add link to your site it may be paid or free.\nUsing unique and relevant title to name each page\nIncreasing the amount of unique content on the site.\nUsing a reasonably-sized, accurate description meta tag without excessive use of keywords, exclamation marks or off topic terms\nEnsuring that all pages are accessible via anchor tag hyperlinks.\nAllowing search engine spiders to crawl pages without having to accept session IDs or cookies.\nWriting useful, informational articles under a Creative Commons or other open source license, in exchange for attribution to the author by hyperlink.\nUK Based Search Engine Optimization Firm\nSearch engine optimization experts London, UK. Our services include web design optimization, keyword analysis, link building, on-page optimization, off-page optimization, traffic analysis reporting and traffic monitoring." ]

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[ "National Network for Child Care's Connections Newsletter\nChristine M. Todd, Ph. D.\nChild Development Specialist\nHuman Development and Family Studies\nUniversity of Illinois Cooperative Extension\nMaking children feel welcome in the child care setting is especially important as you begin the new year. It is equally important to help them understand the rules they must live by.\nChildren find great comfort in rules. Sometimes they will actually misbehave to force adults to show them where the boundaries are. Set clear expectations for children when they arrive, and you will prevent some misbehavior from occurring.\nHere are some principles to follow when establishing rules.\nRULES SHOULD BE NECESSARY. The goal is to have as few rules as possible. It is hard for children to remember many rules. And school-age children will rebel if there is a rule for everything. Before the first class session, look over your room. Are there any changes you could make so you would need fewer rules? Perhaps room dividers would eliminate the need for a \"No running in the room\" rule. Maybe you will need to buy more markers or Leggos so you won't have to spend so much time teaching children to share or wait their turn. It is important to help children learn both these concepts. There will still be plenty of occasions, though, to teach these ideas without children constantly fighting over limited materials and supplies. Label shelves with pictures or words telling where the toys and supplies go. This will help children return things to their proper places more easily. By carefully arranging the environment, you can avoid the need for some rules.\nRULES SHOULD BE REALISTIC. Select rules that the children have the ability to follow. A rule such as \"No talking in line\" will be very difficult for most children to follow. Why establish a rule you know they will break? A more reasonable rule would be \"Talk softly in line.\"\nRULES SHOULD BE POSITIVE IN NATURE. The purpose of rules is to help children act correctly. Therefore, the best rules will tell children what to do rather than what not to do. A rule such as \"Don't leave games on the table\" tells the children nothing about what they should do with the games. In contrast, a rule such as \"Put games on the shelf when you are done\" lets children know exactly what is expected of them.\nRULES SHOULD BE UNDERSTANDABLE. Be sure to use words that children understand. Older school-age children may understand rules such as \"Respect property.\" However, kindergarten students and first- and second-graders may have no idea what you mean by these words. \"Respect\" is an abstract concept that is difficult for younger children to understand. Similarly, many younger children will not understand that \"property\" can refer to the possessions of others, materials, and supplies, even the couch in the quiet corner. Because this rule covers so many different situations, you may still wish to use it. However, be sure to discuss what the words mean. Use many concrete examples that even young children will understand.\nCHILDREN SHOULD UNDERSTAND THE REASONS FOR RULES. It is possible for you to \"control\" children's behavior through rules. But the real goal is to help children develop self-control. Children should not follow rules because they are hoping for a reward or because they are afraid of a punishment. Rather, they should follow rules because they believe in the rules. When adults explain why rules are important, children are more likely to develop self-control. They are also more sensitive to the needs of others.\nSchool-age children understand the world in terms of their own past experiences. Asking children to draw a picture or talk about a time when someone called them a name or hit them will help them better understand why a rule is important. Older children will also benefit from discussions of what will be expected of them as adults. Have they ever seen two adults fighting on the playground? No. Adults are not allowed to hit one another. Have they ever seen their parents butt in line ahead of someone at the grocery store? Of course not. Adults don't do those sorts of things. Older children want to be more like adults. Help them understand what the standards are for grown-ups.\nRULES SHOULD BE ENFORCED CONSISTENTLY. Of all the \"rules\" about rules, this is probably the most important. Children find great comfort in predictability. Establish clear consequences for breaking the rules and always enforce them. However, don't expect children to automatically accept the rule or the consequence for breaking the rule. That is not the nature of school-age children. They may argue about the rule or stomp off in a huff. If you calmly enforce the rule in spite of their defiance, you are helping them learn what is expected of them.\nIt is especially important to enforce rules consistently during the beginning of the year. In our efforts to establish warm relationships with children, we are often tempted to \"bend\" the rules during the first few weeks. Instead of promoting strong relationships, this actually leads to more misbehavior. It also weakens our relationship with the children. Failing to enforce rules is confusing for children. It sends the message that they can't trust what you say. When you consistently enforce the rules, using a calm, solution-oriented manner, children will act appropriately.\nWhen a problem does arise, ask children to explain what happened. Then ask them to identify the rule they broke. Ask them why the rule is important. Also ask them to tell you several acceptable things they could have done. For example, in response to a hitting episode on the playground you might have the following dialogue.\n\"Jerry was bothering me on the playground.\"\n\"What did you do?\"\n\"He kept bothering me, so I hit him.\"\n\"Are you allowed to hit here?\"\n\"What is the rule that we have about hitting?\"\n\"We aren't allowed to hurt other people.\"\n\"Why is it important that we not hit other people?\"\n\"Because they could get hurt, because adults aren't allowed to hit others, because other people won't like us.\"\n\"If someone is bothering you on the playground, what could you do besides hitting them?\"\n\"Walk away, ask them to stop, tell a teacher.\"\nThen, ask the child to identify the consequence for breaking the rule and request that they follow the consequence.\nFor example, you might say, \"What happens here when people hit?\"\n\"They have to have a 15 minute time-out.\"\n\"OK, let me know when you are done with your 15 minutes.\"\nChildren need to understand what is expected of them. This will happen if you establish effective rules, help children understand why they are important, and consistently enforce them." ]

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[ "|1.||Also called: cuticle the thin protective outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified epithelial tissue|\n|2.||the outer layer of cells of an invertebrate|\n|3.||the outer protective layer of cells of a plant, which may be thickened by a cuticle|\n|[C17: via Late Latin from Greek, from |\nepidermis ep·i·der·mis (ěp'ĭ-dûr'mĭs)\nThe nonvascular outer protective layer of the skin, covering the dermis.\n|epidermis (ěp'ĭ-dûr'mĭs) Pronunciation Key\nThe outside layers of the skin.\nin zoology, protective outermost portion of the skin. There are two layers of epidermis, the living basal layer, which is next to the dermis, and the external stratum corneum, or horny layer, which is composed of dead, keratin-filled cells that have migrated outward from the basal layer. The melanocytes, responsible for skin colour, are found in the basal cells. The epidermis has no blood supply and depends on diffusion from the dermal cells for its metabolic needs. The dead-cell layer of the stratum corneum provides the protection from water loss that allows vertebrates to dwell on land. Keratin, produced in migrating epidermal cells, forms the basis of nails, feathers, beaks, and other epidermal derivatives. In humans, epidermal fragments are constantly shed, but the \"skin,\" or stratum corneum, of a snake is ordinarily shed all at once in a period of ecdysis.\nLearn more about epidermis with a free trial on Britannica.com." ]

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[ "Every child has the right to education. Yet children with disabilities often face barriers and discrimination when it comes to exercising their right to learn.\nAccording to the World Health Organization, there are 150 million children with disabilities in the world today. In many developing countries, children with disabilities are less likely to attend school due to a myriad of barriers including lack of accessibility, adequate transportation and stigma from teachers and peers.\nThat’s why Plan International works in communities around the world to help the most marginalized and excluded children access their rights – especially children with disabilities.\nKatherine, 12, was born with clubfoot – a condition that causes a tremendous amount of pain.\n“It hurts a lot when I walk,” says Katherine. “They were so twisted. My feet were twisted.”\nAs a Plan International sponsored child for the past 4 years, Katherine has seen the impact sponsorship has had on her community through helping children and families access their rights to education, healthcare, livelihood and clean water.\nIn fact, there are over 6,300 sponsored children just like Katherine in Honduras. Child Sponsorship helps to fund scholarships for girls, as well as provide children with the tools they need to attend school. In Katherine’s case, she needed surgery to walk to and from school without discomfort.\n“She suffered because she had a lot of pain and the worst part was when she tried to walk – she fell down,” says Jesusita, Katherine’s mother.\nBut thanks to the support of child sponsors like you, Plan International was able to provide Katherine with 2 surgeries that have increased her mobility and enabled her to attend school without pain. This support for children with disabilities is part of our programming to ensure that all children can exercise their right to education.\n“Now I can run. Now I can walk. Now I can enjoy!” exclaims Katherine, adding that she can now play hide and seek with her cousins.\nA brighter future ahead\nNow that Katherine is able to attend school without worry, her mother, Jesusita, is hoping she will continue her studies and inspire others to do the same.\n“She can show the people if you want, you can do it,” says Jesusita.\nAnd Katherine is incredibly grateful to Plan International supporters who are helping children in her community exercise their right to education.\n“Thank you Plan International,” she says, with a smile. “I am happy.”\nEducation for all children\nWith the Sustainable Development Goals specifically calling out the need to create equal, accessible societies for ALL people by 2030, Plan International is committed to ensuring girls and boys of all abilities are empowered to reach their full potential.\nBut we can’t do it without your support. Child sponsors like you help create a brighter future for children, families and entire communities by ensuring access to essentials like education, clean water, sanitation, healthcare and livelihood.\nIf you want to change lives and have a far-reaching impact then consider becoming a child sponsor today!" ]

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[ "Homeowners plant birch trees (Betula spp.) for their interesting bark and graceful foliage. Many birch species and cultivars find a place in western backyards, including natives paper birch (Betula papyrifera) with its white, papery bark, and river birch (Betula nigra), whose peeling outer-bark exposes tones of tan, pink, orange and dark red beneath. Although healthy birches in the wild live for some 50 years, a backyard birch's life expectancy can be less than 20 years. Taking appropriate steps when planting a birch sapling significantly increases its chance for a long life.\nSelect an appropriate location to replant your birch sapling, where the tree's leaves can get full sun most of the day while its base and roots are in shade. Inspect your proposed site in mid-afternoon on a sunny day to see whether the ground is shady. Locate the planting on the east or north side of a house rather than south or west, if possible.\nChoose a replanting location for your birch with well-drained, acidic soil, and a pH range of 5 to 6.5. Avoid planting near areas that are compacted, like patios, since birch roots are very near the surface and very sensitive. Be sure there are no obstructions overhead, like power lines, as many birches grow to 40 to 50 feet tall.\nKeep your birch away from structures on your property. The Sacramento Tree Foundation suggests that a birch be planted 25 feet from other trees, 15 feet from a building foundation, swimming pool or septic system, and 8 feet from driveways.\nClear weeds and grass on the planting site and work the soil with a shovel. Dig a hole as deep as the birch's root system -- as deep as the container if the tree is in a container -- and a foot wider. Put the birch root ball into the planting hole. Refill the hole with excavated soil. Water generously after planting.\nDig a basin around the birch about twice as wide as the root ball to allow water to soak through to the roots. Use the remaining soil to build a ridge around the edges of the basin.\nMulch your birch tree to keep the shallow roots cool and moist, especially during hot periods. Use wood chips, shredded bark or leaf compost, and apply 2 to 3 inches, keeping it several inches away from the tree trunk. Increase the mulched area as the tree grows; birch roots spread quickly.\nHelp your birch avoid transplant shock by watering frequently. Soak the root area of the birch at least one a week and perhaps more often depending on what type of birch you planted and the amount of rainfall. If you are not sure whether the birch needs water, dig down 1 inch below the mulch; dry soil there means it is time to water.\nInsert two stakes at a right angle to the prevailing wind, if your tree requires staking. Add a cross-tie at ground level to stabilize the assembly. Attach the birch to the stakes at about 2 inches below the stake top. Tie sufficiently tightly that the tree cannot rub against the stakes.\nThings You Will Need\n- There is no need to fertilize when you replant your birch tree.\n- Water is the single most important gift you can give your birch. Birches need water; this is why you see so many birches growing near rivers or lakes. According to the University of Saskatchewan College of Agriculture and Bioresources, during a typical day, a large birch will extract enough water from the soil to fill about ten bathtubs.\n- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images" ]

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[ "Islam meaning peace becomes an important point in the discussion of inner peace; Muslims believe the religion of Islam is a source of inner peace, citing various Qur’anic verses and hadith in support of this notion. However, very little is found on the topic of inner peace from an Islamic perspective. This puts Nursi’s work in a unique position since he emphasises that Islam well and truly gives its adherents inner peace. According to Nursi, attaining inner peace is a process. The process commences with belief and knowledge of God with great emphasis on the names of God while remaining focused on the oneness of God (tawhid). This is followed by knowledge of self. The final part of the process is the tawhid-centric worldview, particularly in relation to suffering and calamities. Based on this process, inner peace is attained when the world is decoded through the names of God, so life and events can be given meaning in a way that satisfies the heart and mind. Simply put, it is giving life and events a tawhid-centric meaning.\n|Place of Publication||Singapore|\n|Number of pages||141|\n|Publication status||Published - 01 Sept 2021|" ]

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[ "The shipping industry used to be very archaic in its practices and procedures. Much of the industry relied on paper processes that have been around for many centuries. In addition, the industry has always been very fragmented in its processes, which gave way to many instances of financial loss, slow turnaround times, and overall customer dissatisfaction. That is until recently when there has been a significant push for modernization and digitization within the industry.\nModernization of the industry means that many of its processes and systems are updated, streamlined, and have migrated online. For example, platformization creates entire ecosystems where stakeholders such as carriers, shippers, and logistics companies have an open platform to engage with each other 24/7, creating less room for error and significantly improving customer service. Business owners can now buy new shipping containers online or directly from a manufacturer, all at the click of a button.\nThis article will focus on the various areas of modernization and digitization within the shipping industry and how this has changed the way shipping companies operate.\nA Fragmented Industry\nHistorically, shipping a container would consist of several phases. Even after modernization, there are still several stages, but they are not quite as fragmented as before. This process used to consist of a tremendous amount of manual paperwork and communication between different parties. There wasn’t a single platform where all relevant parties to the process could communicate with each other. All of the communication was conducted via telephone or faxing. This often led to many delays and left a lot of room for error and miscommunication.\nLet’s take a look at what the process previously entailed:\nA shipper has cargo that needs to be transported from one destination/port to another destination/port. The shipper makes contact with a carrier to book space on a vessel if the cargo needs to be transported internationally, via sea freight. The shipper needs to physically go to the carrier’s location to book a container. This step could not be done online previously.\nThe carrier issues the shipper with a confirmation booking while the shipper provides the carrier with the instructions for shipping. These instructions would typically include information such as the weight of the cargo, its pickup and dropoff locations, the container size that’s required, and the pickup and delivery dates, among other data.\nThe carrier draws up a bill of lading. The bill of lading is a legal document between the two parties and outlines the specifics of the agreement. The cargo is to be picked up and transported to the container where it is transferred into the container. This responsibility is outlined in the bill of lading but generally falls on the carrier. Additional transportation is booked to move the carrier to the port and load it onto the vessel.\nAgain, depending on the contract, either the shipper or the carrier makes arrangements for the customs clearance paperwork. While the cargo is in transit, there is no way to actively view its location until it arrives at the international port. During this process, various parties engage with each other via telephone for faxing. This left a lot of room for error, delays, and losses, both financial and cargo.\nMany containers would sit idle during the process. It was challenging for carriers to keep track of where the containers were at any given time and turnaround times for containers were very slow.\nImproving The Process\nSo how has platformization transformed the industry? Absolutely!\nIntroducing platforms into the industry has revolutionized the way cargo is shipped globally. What was once a very fragmented system has transformed into an entire ecosystem of stakeholders who have instant access to each other in a single location. Platforms connect shippers, carriers, clients, and logistics companies in one single location.\nOne of the primary changes this technology has brought to the industry is transparency. From the moment cargo is booked for shipment to the moment it is delivered to its final destination, all relevant parties can track the cargo in real-time through the app to its almost precise location, regardless of where in the system it is. Transparency allows carriers to better monitor inventory and cargo and to substantially improve delivery times.\nContainers can be tracked to determine where in the process the container is, when each container is scheduled to be returned, and if it is possibly standing idle somewhere. Transparency also helps carriers and shippers identify any delays in the process and allows relevant stakeholders to address these delays in a timely fashion. This is what is known as supply chain visibility.\nFrom a carrier’s perspective, platforms allow for much better inventory management. Carriers who monitor containers can view where each container is on a global scale and manage turnaround times for containers while keeping containers in rotation and use. The effective use of containers is significantly improved.\nBottlenecks can quickly be identified and containers can quickly be rerouted to improve efficiency.\nAlthough the industry was initially slow to change, it has started to embrace technology that has streamlined the systems and processes, making the shipping process a lean and optimized process.\nBusiness owners can log into the system, book their cargo, book a container, and arrange for pickup and shipment of their cargo on a platform that connects all the major players in the game.\nCustomer satisfaction is greatly enhanced through this optimized process." ]

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[ "Bladder Health | Keep Your Bladder Healthy\nMaintaining Good Bladder Health\nBladder health is an important subject for keeping your body in good physical condition. Did you know, the bladder is the organ in your body that gets the least attention when it comes to health? However, bladder health conditions are very common. Simple lifestyle changes including exercise can prevent your bladder from becoming a target of urological conditions, which can result in bladder health complications.\nPractical Ways to Avoid Urological Conditions and Maintain a Good Bladder Health\nImprove Bladder Health by Emptying Your Bladder\nMany urological conditions involve bacterial infections from urination. When urinating, make sure that you empty your bladder completely to expel any bacteria that may cause an infection in the process of urinating. Tightening your muscles to stop urinating too soon will force the remaining urine back into the bladder, which can bring bacteria back into your system, affecting your bladder health.\nDrink the Right Amount of Fluids to Improve Your Bladder Health\nDrinking adequate amounts of fluids, approximately six to eight glasses a day, can drain bacteria out of your urinary tract and further prevent bladder health infections. Processed drinks, such as carbonated sodas and coffee, will only make you urinate more, so it’s recommended to avoid these as well.\nBladder Health Improves With an Active Lifestyle\nA sedentary lifestyle leads to a fluid build up in your legs. Overnight, your body works to expel any fluid retained in your body that needs to be eliminated. Thus, people with sedentary lifestyles tend to have an overly-active bladder during the night time. Exercise your legs to maintain regular bladder activity throughout the day to help improve your bladder health.\nTake Caution During Sexual Intercourse to Improve Bladder Health\nSexual intercourse can be a source of bacterial infection, especially for women. In women, the urethra is located in an area where bacteria is usually located. Proper cleaning of the genital area before intercourse is necessary to prevent a bacterial infection. Urinating before and after intercourse is also a good practice to expel bacteria off of the genital area thus bringing you a higher probability of maintaining a good bladder health.\nSmoking Can Directly Affect Bladder Health\nAside from lung cancer, smoking is also a major contributor to bladder cancer risks. Every year, 50,000 patients are diagnosed with the cancer. Tobacco smokers are 2-3 times more likely to be diagnosed with bladder cancer than non-smokers.\nBy maintaining proper hygiene, you can effectively reduce the risks for most infections. With proper exercise, healthy choices, and good hygiene, you’ll not only maintain good bladder health, but an overall healthier body." ]

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[ "650 million people worldwide still lack access to clean water according to the latest report by WaterAid. The study, “Water: At What Cost? The State of the World’s Water,” was released today to coincide with World Water Day.\nIt’s often assumed that the poorest people lack water because they can’t afford it, but WaterAid’s report shows that they are already paying for water, and often much more than people residing in wealthier countries.\nFor a minimum wage earner in a developed nation like the UK, less than 0.1% of their income is spent on water. In contrast, people living in the poorest countries could spend up to half their income to meet their daily minimum water needs.\nPoor people living in these countries end up paying the most for their water. Here are six of the most expensive countries to drink water:\n1) Papua New Guinea\nPapua New Guinea: The world's most expensive places to buy water https://t.co/HXtQMoFDBUpic.twitter.com/lqZuWMywB9— Topunitedgist (@topunitedgist) March 22, 2016\nIn Papua New Guinea, the poorest of the poor pay as much as $2.60 USD, or 54% of their daily earnings, for about 50 liters of water from a delivery service. 50 liters is the minimum daily amount recommended by the World Health Organization to meet basic needs. 60% of the country’s 7.3 million population lives without safe water.\nDrinking water shipped in to Banteay Meanchey as 600 families suffer from shortage https://t.co/yXjgAdkl4v#Cambodiapic.twitter.com/paWrCaUExj— The Phnom Penh Post (@phnompenhpost) February 17, 2016\nIn the past 15 years, Cambodia has greatly improved access to safe water. The capital, Phnom Penh, enjoys almost universal water access. But 80% of Cambodia’s population live in rural areas, where the poorest spend up to a staggering 108% of their income on water.\nFamilies in Ethiopia wait to get clean water. The drought is threatening children’s lives & futures. #WorldWaterDaypic.twitter.com/iiIxQOZRCi— UNICEF (@UNICEF) March 22, 2016\nLow-ranking government employees in Ethiopia have daily salaries are around $0.92 USD. For them water costs can be up to 15% of their daily income -- only if they carry the water home themselves. The price can go up to 150% of their income if they have the water delivered. Middle-class households who have access to utility company provided water pay almost 20 times less for their water.\nYoung girls in Madagascar leave school early to get water for their families. #InternationalWomensDay#EarthMonthCApic.twitter.com/Hu2PqeounA— Aveda Canada (@AvedaCanada) March 9, 2016\nIn Madagascar, people will spend as much as 45% of their daily income to get their daily 50 liters of water, leaving many people no choice but to collect water from unsafe rivers. Almost half of the population lacks access to safe water.\n#WorldWaterDay: India home to highest number without clean water.https://t.co/pvPclYyknypic.twitter.com/PWxnRXQ7m3— The Quint (@TheQuint) March 22, 2016\nFor the poorest Indians, water costs $0.71 USD, or 17% of their daily income. India also has the most number of people without access to safe water: 75.8 million. Each year, 140,000 Indian children die from diarrhea because they lack access to clean water.\nWe had water delivered in the roof tank of Josy's Ofankor house, cost are 40 Ghana Cedi, or some 10 Euro pic.twitter.com/8c4Q3uAEVk— Dick de Jong (@dijoh2o) March 8, 2016\nIn Ghana, where piped water supplies are variable or non-existent, poor people pay up to 25% of their salary for water from tanker trucks. Middle-class homeowners who can afford a household water tank pay 3 times less.\nWhy do the poorest pay such a high price?\nDespite progress, inequalities persist even in nations that have made great improvements in access to water. Lack of access to safe water does more than just impact people’s health, it can easily swallow up their income and livelihood. Poor management of water resources have resulted in millions of people getting insufficient or poor quality water.\nThose living in extreme poverty often don’t have access to a government-backed water source. They have no choice but to purchase water from unofficial or illegal sources, including water delivery trucks or vendors that inflate prices for the scarce resource.\nWaterAid’s report notes that installing and maintaining basic water and toilet facilities can cost as little as $99 USD per person and every $1 invested in water and sanitation returns an average of at least $4 in increased productivity, improved health and more time to work.\nAs the world celebrates the progress been made in helping an unprecedented amount of people gain access to clean water on World Water Day, WaterAid is reminding governments that the promise of the Global Goal 6 to to reach everyone, everywhere with clean water and access to sanitation by 2030.\nRead the full report by WaterAid here." ]

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[ "Geometry & specifically circles are tested multiple times in all CAT previous year paper. CAT 2019 question paper is no different with its share of these tough questions. Our recommendation would be for you to include Geometry in your CAT Preparation plan as these questions can be cracked with adequate preparation. Spend enough time grasping the concepts and then move on to practicing with CAT Previous Year Paper.\nQuestion 21 : AB is a diameter of a circle of radius 5 cm. Let P and Q be two points on the circle so that the length of PB is 6 cm, and the length of AP is twice that of AQ. Then the length, in cm, of QB is nearest to\nWe know that angle APB = AQB = 90o\nWe know PB = 6, AB = 10 and AP = 2AQ\nFrom using Pythagorean triplet, we find that AP = 8 cms\nSo, AQ = 4cms\nAQ2 + QB2 = AB2\n16 + QB2 = 100\nQB2 = 84\nQB = 9.3\nThe question is \"AB is a diameter of a circle of radius 5 cm. Let P and Q be two points on the circle so that the length of PB is 6 cm, and the length of AP is twice that of AQ. Then the length, in cm, of QB is nearest to \"\nChoice C is the correct answer.\nClassroom Batches Starting Now! @Gopalapuram\nAttend a Demo Class\nCAT Questions | Ratios, Mixtures, Averages\nCAT Questions | Time Speed and Distance, Races\nCAT Questions | Logarithms & Exponents\nCAT Questions | Pipes Cisterns, Work Time\nCAT Questions | Coordinate-Geometry\nCAT 2017 DILR Slot 2 | Pizzeria\nCAT 2017 DILR Slot 2 | Electives\nVerbal Ability for CAT | CAT Reading Comprehension\nVerbal Ability for CAT| CAT Para Jumble\nVerbal Ability for CAT | CAT Sentence Elimination\nVerbal Ability for CAT | CAT Paragraph Completion\nCopyrights © All Rights Reserved by 2IIM.com - A Fermat Education Initiative.\nCAT® (Common Admission Test) is a registered trademark of the Indian Institutes of Management. This website is not endorsed or approved by IIMs.\n2IIM Online CAT Coaching\nA Fermat Education Initiative,\n58/16, Indira Gandhi Street,\nKaveri Rangan Nagar, Saligramam, Chennai 600 093\nMobile: (91) 99626 48484 / 94459 38484\nWhatsApp: WhatsApp Now\nTANCET Coaching Centres in Chennai\nTANCET Previous Year Question Papers\nNCERT Solution for Class 10 Maths\nCBSE Sample Papers for class 10" ]

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[ "WILD CAPE GOOSEBERRY\nA plant of wild cape\nIndian names: kupanti, budda, budamma (Andhra Pradesh); ban tipariya (Bengal); parpoti, popti (Gujrat); rasbhary (Himachal Pradesh); tulati pati (Hindi); gudde hannu (Karnataka); njodi njotta (Kerala); chirboti, dhan mori (Maharashtra); tholtakalli (Tamilnadu).\nWild Cape gooseberry is commonly found on the bunds of the fields, wastelands, around the houses, on roadsides, etc., where the soil is porous and rich in organic matter. It is an annual herbaceous plant having a very delicate stem and leaves. It is found growing in the sub-Himalayas up to altitudes of 1,650 metres. It is also reported to grow in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, tropical Africa, Australia. Ceylon, etc.\nA small, delicate, erect, annual, pubescent herb, 1.5 metres tall; internodal length, 8.2 cm; more or less the whole plant is pubescent.\npetiolate (4.1 cm long), ovate to cordate, pubescent, delicate,\nexstipulate, acuminate, having reticulate palmate venation and undulate\nmargins; dorsal surface of the leaves, dark green and the ventral\nsurface, light green; 9.7 cm long and 8.1 cm broad.\ncape gooseberry foliage\npedicellate having 1.2 cm long pedicel, hermaphrodite, complete,\nsolitary, small companulate, 1.2 to 1.4 cm in diameter; calyx;\ngamosepalous, 5-toothed, actinomorphic, green, persistent, downy;\ncorolla, gamopetalous with five petals, the petal cup, 1.1 to 1.3 cm\nlong, yellow, having five black spots on yellow ground in the middle of\nthe corolla cup; stamens, five, epipetalous, 6 to 7 mm long, having a\nblack filament and greenish-yellow anther lobes; style, black, 9 min\nlong, having a yellowish stigma at the top and a yellowish round ovary\nat the base.\nflower of wild cape gooseberry\nberry, enclosed within the enlarged, 10-ribbed, reticulately veined\ncalyx, which is 4.1 cm long and 2.5 cm broad; berries, stalked (stalk,\n2.2 cm long), almost round having a pinhead-sized depression at the end;\ndiameter, 1.4 to 1.6 cm; weight, 2.15 g; volume, 1.32 ml; fully mature\nfruits primrose yellow 601/2 at full maturity.\nfruits of wild cape gooseberry\nSeeds, globose, Dresden yellow 64/3; weight and volume of l00 seeds, 113 mg and 197 microlitres respectively.\nThe flowering and fruiting season\nThe flowers appear in acropetal succession, i.e. the lower flowers appear and form fruits earlier than the upper ones, which emerge as well as set fruit later. In this way, the flowering and fruiting season of this plant starts from March-April and continues up to the end of November. The fruiting starts from the middle of August and continues till the end of November. The peak fruiting season in the Solan area, however, is October.\nThe average yield from a plant covering 2.5 square metres was found to be 545 g.\nChemical composition of the fruit\nThe fruit is juicy, containing 61.4 per cent extractable juice and 76.7 per cent moisture. The total soluble solids content of the juice is 12.5 per cent. The acidity of the juice is 1.84 per cent. The fruits contain 5.97 per cent total sugars, 3 per cent reducing sugars, 2.81 per cent non-reducing sugars, 0.64 per cent tannins and 0.52 percent pectin. They contain a good amount of vitamin C which is 24.45 mg per 100 ml of juice.\nThe mineral content of the fruit, as represented by its ash, is 1.216 per cent. The protein content of the fruit is 2.75 per cent. The content of some of the important minerals of the fruits, viz. phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron is 0.108. 0.613, 0.024, 0.056 and 0.006 per cent respectively.\nThe plants of Physalis minima Linn. are reported to in Ayurveda to be bitter, appetizing, tonic, diuretic, laxative, useful in inflammations, enlargement of the spleen and abdominal troubles. The fruit is considered to be a tonic, diuretic and purgative in the Punjab. The mundas (a tribe) of Chhota Nagpur mix the juice of the leaves with water and mustard oil and use it as a remedy against earache.\nThe fruits are juicy, mildly astringent and sweet with a pleasant blend of acid. The overall quality of the fruit is good.\nThe fruits are covered by the persistent calyx which protects them from external injury. They are eaten and liked by all. They are juicy and, as is evident from their chemical composition, they are a good source of vitamin C. The raw fruit can also be used as a vegetable.\nThis plant is highly resistant to insect pests and diseases. Its cultivation should be developed and the techniques for making squash and jam from its fruits should be standardized." ]

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[ "Tools are a special type of Instance used to implement weapons, tools, and other interactive objects in Robllox.\nA Tool is a container Instance, much like a Model. To create a new Tool, right click in the Workspace, select Insert Object, and then Tool.\nAgain, a Tool is just a container so it won’t show up in the 3D view if it is empty. Right click on the Tool and insert a new Part. The tool will now show up in the 3D view. In order to pick up a Tool, it needs to have a Part inside it called Handle. Rename the Part in the Tool to Handle. Now if you run the game your character will be able to pick up the Tool.\nA Tool can have as many parts in it as you like. Keep in mind that only one part should be called Handle, as this part is where the tool will attach to your character’s hand. A couple of tips when building tools:\nExample of a tool built from multiple parts:\nIn the above example the white part is the Handle. The other parts are connected together using welds.\nIt is possible to make a tool without a handle or any geometry. In this case the tool simply becomes an interface to player input without any visual representation in the 3D view. To make a tool like this, simply turn off the RequiresHandle property of the Tool.\nTools can be equipped in a variety of ways. The most simple way is to have the tool in the Workspace and having a player collide with it. When this happens, the tool automatically get added to the Player’s backpack. The tool will automatically equip itself if the player does not have anything currently equipped. Note that this will only work if the RequiresHandle property of the Tool is set to true.\nYou can also use the StarterPack to give tools to players. Whenever a player spawns, all of the contents of StarterPack gets copied into the player’s backpack. If you want to make sure players all start with certain equipment, the StarterPack is the best place to do this.\nYou can also use a Script to give a tool to a certain player. The script can put the tool (or a copy of the tool) into the player’s backpack.\nlocal copy = game.Workspace.Tool:Clone() copy.Parent = game.Players.Player1.Backpack\nYou can also force the player to equip a tool by parenting the tool into the player’s character.\nlocal copy = game.Workspace.Tool:Clone() copy.Parent = game.Players.Player1.Character\nBy default, a player can drop a tool by pressing the ← Backspace key (Delete on OSX). You can prevent this behavior by setting CanBeDropped of the Tool to false.\nWhen a tool is in a player’s backpack, it will show up on the bottom of their screen in an action bar. You can customize both the tooltip and icon for a Tool in this bar. The tooltip can be set by editing the Tooltip property of the Tool.\nThe icon of the Tool can be set with the TextureId property. You can set the image for this property the same way you can for a Decal as seen in Making a Painting.\nThe purpose of tools is to provide an interface to player input, so there are many functions and events associated with them. Tools are also unique in that they can run both regular Scripts and Local Scripts. Because of their complicated relationship with scripts, it is important to understand the fundamentals of how to script with Tools.\nBoth Scripts and LocalScripts can listen to the same events and call the same functions on a Tool, so when is it important to use one over the other? Here are some general guidelines:\nYou should use a Script if the code:\nYou should use a LocalScript if the code:\nThere are four Tool specific events that scripts can listen to:\nRemember, both Scripts and LocalScripts can listen to these events. Here is code for either script to hook into these events:\n-- This code assumes the script is directly inside the tool. If the script is elsewhere, you will have to change the path the next variable is pointing to. local tool = script.Parent local function onEquip() end local function onUnequip() end local function onActivate() end local function onDeactivate() end tool.Equipped:connect(onEquip) tool.Unequipped:connect(onUnequip) tool.Activated:connect(onActivate) tool.Deactivated:connect(onDeactivate)\nIn this example we will walk through making a simple tool that creates parts when the tool’s holder clicks their mouse. We will use both a Script and LocalScript to illustrate the duties each one should perform.\nWe’ll start with a simple tool as seen in #Custom Tool Geometry, but any tool with a part called Handle will suffice. Insert a Script, LocalScript, and RemoteEvent into the tool. Rename the RemoteEvent to ClickEvent. The purpose of each of these elements will be made clear in the following steps.\nThe Activated event will fire whenever the user clicks their mouse, but it does not contain information about the mouse’s information. We want our tool to create a part where the user clicks, so it is important for us to know where that click occurred. To get the mouse position, we will need to use our LocalScript, as the regular Script will be running on the Server, which doesn’t know anything about the user’s mouse.\n-- Local Script local tool = script.Parent local player = game.Players.LocalPlayer local mouse = player:GetMouse() local function onActivate() local clickLocation = mouse.Hit end tool.Activated:connect(onActivate)\nWe start off the script by making variables for the tool, player, and the player’s mouse. Then, in the onActivate function, we store the location of the click in a variable.\nNow that we know where the player clicked, we need to create a part. Which script should handle this? It’s tempting to create the part right after we get the location in the LocalScript. The problem with this however is that the LocalScript is running only on tool’s player’s machine. If you have Experimental Mode off (which is highly recommended for security purposes!), then any part created by that LocalScript won’t be copied to the server, thus making it so no one else would see the part! We want all the other players to be able to see and interact with these new parts, so we have to create the part on the Server using our Script.\n-- Server Script local function createPart(location) local part = Instance.new('Part') part.CFrame = location part.Parent = workspace end\nWe now have the ability to get the mouse click location, and the ability to create a new part at an arbitrary location. But these are in different scripts! We need to get our Script and LocalScript communicating so they can work together. To do this, we will use the RemoteEvent we created earlier.\nRemoteEvents are special objects we can use to send information between Scripts and LocalScripts. Each script has an event listener they can subscribe to in order to call a function when the event is fired. There are also functions used to fire the event.\nLet’s start with the listener on the server Script.\n-- Server Script local tool = script.Parentlocal clickEvent = tool.ClickEventlocal clickEventConnection local function createPart(location) local part = Instance.new('Part') part.CFrame = location part.Parent = workspace end local function onClick(player, clickLocation) createPart(clickLocation)end local function onEquip() clickEventConnection = clickEvent.OnServerEvent:connect(onClick)end local function onUnequip() clickEventConnection:disconnect()end tool.Equipped:connect(onEquip)tool.Unequipped:connect(onUnequip)\nThere are quite a few things we’ve added, so let’s go through them one at a time. First of all, we declare variables for the Tool and the RemoteEvent. We also create the variable clickEventConnection which we will use to store the event connection.\nWe then declare the function onClick which will be called when the listener hears the event fire. This function has two arguments, the player who fired the event and the location the player clicked (which we will pass in from the LocalScript later).\nIn the onEquip function, we connect the onClick function to the RemoteEvent’s OnServerEvent event. This way, whenever the RemoteEvent fires, it will call onClick. Lastly, we call disconnect on the clickEventConnection in the onUnequip function so the event won’t fire when the player doesn’t have the tool out.\nNow that we have the Script setup, we just need to modify the LocalScript a bit to get it to fire the RemoteEvent.\n-- Local Script local tool = script.Parent local player = game.Players.LocalPlayer local mouse = player:GetMouse() local clickEvent = tool.ClickEvent local function onActivate() local clickLocation = mouse.Hit clickEvent:FireServer(clickLocation)end tool.Activated:connect(onActivate)\nTo get the LocalScript to fire the RemoteEvent, we call FireServer. This function can take any number of arguments we want. In this case, we just want to pass the location where the player clicked.\nNow when we equip our tool, we can click to create parts!" ]

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[ "A couple weeks ago, I got to lead a storytelling training with presidents of community colleges from around the country and their board chairs. They were a refreshingly lively group!\nAs these board presidents shared, many of them told stories of students who’d attended their institutions and done fabulous things. The stories were powerful because they were:\n- about one person—people can connect with one person so they get into the story much easier\n- about overcoming odds—stories are more compelling if there’s conflict in them\n- and they were rich in details—each president talked about specific details of students (what building they had a key conversation in, what routine a student used to successfully complete her degree, how children responded to a parent going back to school)\nAs they were rediscovering stories to help with fundraising, you could see them grow in confidence and enthusiasm. It was as though they were saying, “Of course people want to give to help make that happen for more people!”\nThe Phrase That Pays\nAs I listened to them, I was reminded of a concept I learned from Doug Stevenson, called “the phrase that pays.” He teaches organizations to look for a phrase that can be used to make the ask.\nFor example, one of the stories was about a man how worked construction but decided he wanted to become a doctor. The president talked about the man walking into the construction supervisors’ office to give notice. He could’ve easily added a detail like, “Juan went into the office, put down his hammer, and gave notice.”\nThen when he was done the story, he could turn the to the person he was addressing and say, “Now will you help other Juans put down their hammer too? Would you consider a gift of $10,000?”\nUsing a “phrase that pays” reinforces the story and invites the listener to become an active participant in the story. And it doesn’t feel like you’re changing gears. It doesn’t feel like a bait-and-switch. The ask naturally flows from the story.\nWhat is your phrase that pays?\nTake a moment today to think about the last story you used for fundraising (whether in a letter or in a talk). What action oriented phrase could you use to easily lead to an ask?\nPlease share your insights in the comments!" ]

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[ "Green paints? What exactly makes a paint green and why should you care? Traditionally paints have included chemicals that are actually harmful to you at home, as well as the environment. Most people recognize the smell of a freshly painted room. What you may not realize is the smell comes from the release of chemicals into the air, chemicals that aren't healthy. These chemicals collectively are called Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs).\nNew paint formulas are coming on the market with reduced or no VOCs. Today you have a choice but eventually the sale of paint with VOCs will be banned just the way paint today no longer includes lead.\n… by Julie Hiltabiddle, Samarra Faux Painting\nA simple coat of paint can transform a dull, lifeless room into a restful oasis. But did you know that same paint emits toxic fumes, even long after the paint is dry to the touch?\nAlong with many other items in your home, including carpets, cleaning supplies and personal care products, paint emits toxic VOCs, Volatile Organic Compounds. But imagine you could transform your uninspiring space to unbelievable using less paint and it would be better for your family's health and the environment. With the public's growing interest in sustainable design and the increasingly strict governmental regulations, painting manufacturers are developing new paint formulas that are healthier for you and the environment, and more effective than most standard latex paints.\nWhy Paint Contains VOCs?\nThe paint and emulsions industry has historically used various VOC's to create solvents and pigments. That overpowering odor that invades your senses when you paint? You guessed it – VOC's. The smell is the solvents evaporating; a process called off-gassing, that continues long after the paint is dry, emitting toxic vapors into your home. Oil-based paints have the highest level of VOC's but they are also present to a lesser degree in latex paints. Exposure to VOC's can cause eye and throat irritation, nausea, dizziness, headaches, and even trigger asthma attacks. Long term exposure has been linked to cancer and kidney disease. No wonder the EPA named indoor air as one of the top five health risks!\nThe good news is that high quality, easy to use paints are now available in Low to Zero VOC's in a large selection of colors and finishes. These paints emit fewer fumes while you are painting and none after the paint dries. Samarra's favorite? Benjamin Moore's Aura Interior paint. A low-VOC acrylic paint (Moore uses California's regulation – under 50 grams per liter – the most stringent in the country); the paint contains primer, provides complete coverage in one coat, and dries fast. The advanced technology used to create Aura makes it more fade and stain resistant as well.It has little odor, no off-gassing, and it's easy to cleanup. Plus, adding color to the paint does not add VOC's as it does with other brands. Aura costs more than a regular gallon but you don't need primer or multiple coats, plus the health benefits certainly outweigh the costs, because you'll apply fewer coatings Low VOC's means fewer chemicals polluting your home and your landfill.\nBut how do you know how many VOC's your favorite paint contains? Check the literature. VOC is listed as grams per liter, from 5 to 200 – the lower the number, the lower the health risks. Plus, check for EPA registration. Generally, if a product is registered with the EPA, it is being measured for toxicity and may not be safe for you or the environment.\nHow to Paint Greener\nIn addition to purchasing low VOC paints, you can reduce the environmental impact of your painting project by following these guidelines:\nPurchase only the amount of paint you need: Measure the room (height x width), plan on covering about 400 square feet per gallon of paint color. Don't worry! There's plenty of calculators online and your paint vendor will also be happy to offer advice if you need help figuring it out.\nDon't wash your tools until your'e done: If your project lasts longer than a day, wrap brushes in plastic instead of cleaning them.\nDon't throw left-over paint: Save it for touch-ups. Store tightly sealed, upside down in cool, dry place.\nProperly dispose of containers: Open the empty cans in a well-ventilated place (preferably outdoors) so solvents will evaporate before adding the cans to your garbage.\nWhile it is impossible to eliminate VOC's and other toxic chemicals from our homes and the environment, we can limit their usage. It is an exciting time in the painting industry as more and more high quality, environmentally friendly products and finishes are being developed and introduced into marketplace. As sustainable design becomes more prevalent, what is now a trend will become second nature to consumers and vendors, resulting in more eco-friendly, health conscious and ultimately less expensive products. For now though, there's enough low-VOC paint available to transform your living space from blah to beautiful!\nJulie Hiltabiddle is the owner of the award-winning Samarra Faux Painting. Samara specializes in interior painting, faux design, and color consulting for residential and commercial clients. The all-female crew, now seven members strong, consists of formally trained and experienced artists. For more information, call 978-499-0801 or visit them online at www.SamarraFaux.com.\nLeave a Reply" ]

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[ "It's true that canola oil (also known as 'rapeseed') is high (55-65%) in monounsaturates, and between 28-35% polyunsaturated fat, with only a low percentage of saturated fat. But there are more problems with canola than there are health benefits.\nLike corn and soy, canola is highly processed and refined, is largely GE and GMO (genetically engineered/genetically modified organism which contains toxins and have no nutritional value), and is highly unstable under pressure, heat and light, which increases free radicals (unstable molecules) in your body. These unstable molecules set off inflammatory responses in the body which can lead to weight gain, heart disease, and other degenerative diseases.\nCanola is refined using high heat, pressure and highly toxic petroleum solvents (hexane), and goes through a process of refining, degumming, bleaching and deodorization -- all using high heat and chemicals. High heat and high pressure forces some of the omega-3's in canola oil to turn to trans fats. So you see, canola isn't any better than corn or soybean oils, which are also highly processed and largely GE and GMO.\nBy comparison, olive and other oils are cold-pressed without the use of heat and solvents during extraction. Use for lower temperature cooking, but olive oil is best used on salads.\nVirgin coconut oil is stable enough for high heat, is a great source of good saturated fats and supports immune function.\nSo now that you have better choices, just say NO to caNOla!" ]

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[ "Six Day War Project\nHistorical Documentaries • 36m\nGet a play-by-play of the incredible Six Day War in 1967, including the ins and outs of Israel’s strategy, leadership, and impressive military feats. But more than that, it opens the door to important questions and issues that Israel faced in the aftermath of the war, and still does to this day.\nThis program may contain strong language, nudity, and/or violence. Viewer discretion is advised.\nProducer: OpenDor Media\nUp Next in Historical Documentaries\nNarratives - The Palestinian Story Ex...\nOpenDor Media explores the challenging concept of \"narratives\" — how different people and groups can have different perspectives about historical events. Here they delve into the establishment of the State of Israel, which opens the door for big questions about Israel’s story, people, and future....\nThe Driving Spirit\nMenora Hazani, the film's director, embarks on a revealing journey with her father Benny Katzover and his pioneering friends, the leaders of the Jewish settlements in Judea and Samaria. Together they unfold the unique story of how a small number of resolved and determined young men decided and fi...\nLong Live King David\nIs the Biblical story of David's Kingdom indeed true? This question divides the academic world. Typical of the Holy Land, this academic argument has come to involve politics, religion, and many emotions. The film sets out on a journey to find the answer, and reveals unexpected findings about the ..." ]

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[ "Federal Mandates for Healthcare to Implement Standards\nNational standards for culturally and linguistically appropriate services in health and healthcare, otherwise referred to as the national CLAS principles were designed specifically to strengthen health justness, advance the quality of healthcare, and ensure that healthcare inequalities are eradicated in the state. This would be achieved through the provision of an outline for individuals and healthcare organizations. Through this, realizing ethnically and linguistically suitable services would be possible.\nThe central government dedicates a number of responsibilities to each federal government in the United States. Some of these mandates pertain to healthcare, meaning that each federal government is expected to look into the affairs of citizens as far as health and healthcare issues are concerned. The standard principle of the CLAS standards suggests that each state has the role in offering efficient, reasonable, comprehensible, and considerate quality care and services that are receptive to varied cultural health values and practices, favored languages, wellbeing literacy, and other communication requirements. Based on this, the type of leadership, communication, and engagement should reflect the wishes of each group to prevent conflicts.\nOne of the federal government mandates is to adopt electronic medical records. This is considered critical as far as maintenance of Medicare reimbursement levels is concerned. The newly introduced bill referred to as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act gives the federal governments the mandate to give healthcare organizations incentives that are meant to boost the adoption of technology in record keeping. In this regard, the mandate is said to support the CLAS standards owing to the fact that the federal government has to sponsor the healthcare sector to realize the desired achievements. The health insurance policy, which is one of the mandates of the federal government, is considered a disadvantage in the implementation of the CLAS standards." ]

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[ "Translated from the Latin by Lieutenant John Clarke\nText written in 390 A.D. British translation published in 1767. Copyright Expired\nEtext version by Mads Brevik (2001)\n(This introduction was written for a British 1940 reprint of DE RE MILITARI. Author unknown.)\nThe most influential military treatise in the western world from Roman times to the 19th Century was Vegetius' DE RE MILITARI. Its impressions on our own traditions of discipline and organization are everywhere evident.\nThe Austrian Field Marshal, Prince de Ligne, as late as 1770, called it a golden book and wrote: \"A God, said Vegetius, inspired the legion, but for myself, I find that a God inspired Vegetius.\" Richard Coeur de Lion carried DE RE MILITARI everywhere with him in his campaigns, as did his father, Henry II of England. Around 1000 A. D. Vegetius was the favorite author of Foulques the Black, the able and ferocious Count of Anjou. Numerous manuscript copies of Vegetius circulated in the time of Charlemagne and one of them was considered a necessity of life by his commanders. A manuscript Vegetius was listed in the will of Count Everard de Frejus, about 837 A. D., in the time of Ludwig the Just.\nIn his Memoirs, Montecuculli, the conqueror of the Turks at St. Gotthard, wrote: \"However, there are spirits bold enough to believe themselves great captains as soon as they know how to handle a horse, carry a lance at charge in a tournament, or as soon as they have read the precepts of Vegetius.\" Such was the reputation of Vegetius for a thousand years.\nManuscript copies dating from the 10th to the 15th centuries are extant to the number of 150. DE RE MILITARI was translated into English, French, and Bulgarian before the invention of printing. The first printed edition was made in Utrecht in 1473. It was followed in quick succession by editions in Cologne, Paris and Rome. It was first published in English by Caxton, from an English manuscript copy, in 1489.\nFlavius Vegetius Renatus was a Roman of high rank. In some manuscripts he is given the title of count. Raphael of Volterra calls him a Count of Constantinople. Little is known of his life. It is apparent from his book that he had not had extensive practical experience as a soldier.. He states quite frankly that his purpose was to collect and synthesize from ancient manuscripts and regulations the military customs and wisdom that made ancient Rome great. According to his statement, his principal sources were Cato the Elder, Cornelius Celsus, Paternus, Frontinus, and the regulations and ordinances of Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian.\nThe Emperor Valentinian, to whom the book is dedicated, is believed to be the second emperor of that name. He evidently was not Valentinian I since his successor, Gratian, is named in the book. Between the reign of Valentinian II and Valentinian III, Rome was taken and burned by Alaric, King of the Goths, an event that unquestionably would have been mentioned had it occurred before the book was written. Vegetius mentions the defeat of the Roman armies by the Goths, but probably refers to the battle of Adrianople where Valens, the colleague of Valentinian I, was killed.\nIt is a paradox that DE RE MILITARI, which was to become a military bible for innumerable generations of European soldiers, was little used by the Romans for whom it was written. The decay of the Roman armies had progressed too far to be arrested by Vegetius' pleas for a return to the virtues of discipline and courage of the ancients. At the same time Vegetius' hope for a revival of the ancient organization of the legion was impracticable. Cavalry had adopted the armor of the foot soldier and was just commencing to become the principal arm of the military forces. The heavy armed foot-soldier, formerly the backbone of the legion, was falling a victim of his own weight and immobility, and the light-armed infantry, unable to resist the shock of cavalry, was turning more and more to missile weapons. By one of the strange mutations of history, when later the cross-bow and gun-powder deprived cavalry of its shock-power, the tactics of Vegetius again became ideal for armies, as they had been in the times from which he drew his inspiration.\nVegetius unceasingly emphasized the importance of constant drill and severe discipline and this aspect of his work was very tiresome to the soldiers of the middle ages, the feudal system lending itself but poorly to discipline. \"Victory in war,\" he states in his opening sentence, \"does not depend entirely upon numbers or mere courage; only skill and discipline will insure it.\" His first book is devoted to the selection, training and discipline of recruits. He insists upon the utmost meticulousness in drill. \"No part of drill is more essential in action than for soldiers to keep their ranks with the greatest exactness.\" His description of the many arms which the Roman soldier was required to become expert in reminds one of the almost innumerable duties of the present day infantryman. Recruits were to be hardened so as to be able to march twenty miles in half a summer's day at ordinary step and twenty-four miles at quick step. It was the ancient regulation that practice marches of this distance must be made three times a month.\nThe second book deals with the organization and officers of the legion, the ancient system of promotion, and how to form the legion for battle. We find the Romans provided for soldier's deposits, just as is done in the American army today; that guard and duty rosters were kept in those days as now; and that the Roman system of guard duty is only slig.htly different from our manual for interior guard duty. The field music is described and is an ornamental progenitor of that in use in United States. The legion owed its success, according to Vegetius, to its arms and its machines, as well as to the bravery of its soldiers. The legion had fifty-five ballista for throwing darts and ten onagri, drawn by oxen, for throwing stones. Every legion carried its ponton equipment, \"small boats hollowed out of a single piece of cimber, with long cables or chains to fasten them together.\" And in addition were \"whatever is necessary for every kind of service, that the encampments may have all the strength and conveniences of a fortified city.\" Trains of workmen were provided to perform all the duties now performed by the various services in armies.\nThe third book deals with tactics and strategy and it was this portion of Vegetius that influenced war in the Middle Ages so greatly. He explains the use of reserves, attributing this invention to the Spartans, from whom the Romans adopted it. \"It is much better to have several bodies of reserves than to extend your front too much\" - an injunction as good today as when it was written. Encircling pursuit is described. The terrain is not overlooked. \"The nature of the ground is often of more consequence than courage.\" The enemy should be estimated carefully. \"It is essential to know the character of the enemy and of their principal officers-whether they be rash or cautious, enterprising or timid, whether they fight from careful calculation or from chance.\"\nVegetius' work is filled with maxims that have become a part of our everyday life. \"He, therefore, who aspires to peace should prepare for war.\" \"The ancients preferred discipline to numbers.\" \"In the midst of peace, war is looked upon as an object too distant to merit consideration.\" \"Few men are born brave; many become so through training and force of discipline.\"\nVegetius was a reformer who attempted to restore the degenerate Romans of the 4th Century to the military virtues of the ancients, whom he never ceases to laud. His little book was made short and easy to read, so as not to frighten, by a too arduous text, the readers whom he hoped to convince. He constantly gives the example of the \" Ancients\" to his contemporaries. The result is a sort of perfume of actuality, which had much to do with his success. It still is interesting reading and still is the subject of modern commentaries. No less than forty have appeared in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries. Revue Mititare Generate (France) and our own Infantry Journal carried articles on Vegetius in 1938. Dankfried Schenk published an interesting article in Klio in 1930, which gives Vegetius the highest place among the writers of his time.\nThe present edition includes the first three books of Vegetius' work, omitting only repetitions. The fourth and fifth books, both very brief, deal with the attack and defense of fortified places and with naval operations. These are of interest only to military antiquarians and for that reason have not been included. The present translation was made by Lieutenant John Clarke and published in London in 1767. It is the best available in English and has been edited only to the minimum extent necessary to conform to modern usage.\nAn excellent discussion of Vegetius can be found in Warfare, by Spaulding, Nickerson and Wright, page 294, et sequens, Harcourt Brace & Co., 1925. Delpech, La Tactique au 13me Siecte, Paris, 1886, gives the best account of the influence of Vegetius on European military thought. Hans Delbruck's discussion of Vegetius in Geschichte der Kriegskunft, Vol. II, Berlin, 1921, although brief, is very acute.\nTo the Emperor Valentinian\nIt has been an old custom for authors to offer to their Princes the fruits of their studies in belles letters, from a persuasion that no work can be published with propriety but under the auspices of the Emperor, and that the knowledge of a Prince should be more general, and of the most important kind, as its influence is felt so keenly by all his subjects. We have many instances of the favorable reception which Augustus and his illustrious successors conferred on the works presented to them; and this encouragement of the Sovereign made the sciences flourish. The consideration of Your Majesty's superior indulgence for attempts of this sort, induced me to follow this example, and makes me at the same time almost forget my own inability when compared with the ancient writers. One advantage, however, I derive from the nature of this work, as it requires no elegance of expression, or extraordinary share of genius, but only great care and fidelity in collecting and explaining, for public use, the instructions and observations of our old historians of military affairs, or those who wrote expressly concerning them.\nMy design in this treatise is to exhibit in some order the peculiar customs and usages of the ancients in the choice and discipline of their new levies. Nor do I presume to offer this work.to Your Majesty from a supposition that you are not acquainted with every part of its contents; but that you may see that the same salutary dispositions and regulations which your own wisdom prompts You to establish for the happiness of the Empire, were formerly observed by the founders thereof; and that Your Majesty may find with ease in this abridgement whatever is most useful on so necessary and important a subject.\nVictory in war does not depend entirely upon numbers or mere courage; only skill and discipline will insure it. We find that the Romans owed the conquest of the world to no other cause than continual military training, exact observance of discipline in their camps and unwearied cultivation of the other arts of war. Without these, what chance would the inconsiderable numbers of the Roman armies have had against the multitudes of the Gauls? Or with what success would their small size have been opposed to the prodigious stature of the Germans? The Spaniards surpassed us not only in numbers, but in physical strength. We were always inferior to the Africans in wealth and unequal to them in deception and stratagem. And the Greeks, indisputably, were far superior to us in skill in arts and all kinds of knowledge.\nBut to all these advantages the Romans opposed unusual care in the choice of their levies and in their military training. They thoroughly understood the importance of hardening them by continual practice, and of training them to every maneuver that might happen in the line and in action. Nor were they less strict in punishing idleness and sloth. The courage of a soldier is heightened by his knowledge of his profession, and he only wants an opportunity to execute what he is convinced he has been perfectly taught. A handful of men, inured to war, proceed to certain victory, while on the contrary numerous armies of raw and undisciplined troops are but multitudes of men dragged to slaughter.\nTo treat our subject with some method, we shall first examine what provinces or nations are to be preferred for supplying the armies with recruits. It is certain that every country produces both brave men and cowards; but it is equally as certain that some nations are naturally more warlike than others, and that courage, as well as strength of body, depends greatly upon the influence of the different climates.\nWe shall next examine whether the city or the country produces the best and most capable soldiers. No one, I imagine, can doubt that the peasants are the most fit to carry arms for they from their infancy have been exposed to all kinds of weather and have been brought up to the hardest labor. They are able to endure the greatest heat of the sun, are unacquainted with the use of baths, and are strangers to the other luxuries of life. They are simple, content with little, inured to all kinds of fatigue, and prepared in some measure for a military life by their continual employment in their country-work, in handling the spade, digging trenches and carrying burdens. In cases of necessity, however, they are sometimes obliged to make levies in the cities. And these men, as soon as enlisted, should be taught to work on entrenchments, to march in ranks, to carry heavy burdens, and to bear the sun and dust. Their meals should be coarse and moderate; they should be accustomed to lie sometimes in the open air and sometimes in tents. After this, they should be instructed in the use of their arms. And if any long expedition is planned, they should be encamped as far as possible from the temptations of the city. By these precautions their minds, as well as their bodies, will properly be prepared for the service.\nI realize that in the first ages of the Republic, the Romans always raised their armies in the city itself, but this was at a time when there were no pleasures, no luxuries to enervate them. The Tiber was then their only bath, and in it they refreshed themselves after their exercises and fatigues in the field by swimming. In those days the same man was both soldier and farmer, but a farmer who, when occasion arose, laid aside his tools and put on the sword. The truth of this is confirmed by the instance of Quintius Cincinnatus, who was following the plow when they came to offer him the dictatorship. The chief strength of our armies, then, should be recruited from the country. For it is certain that the less a man is acquainted with the sweets of life, the less reason he has to be afraid of death.\nIf we follow the ancient practice, the proper time for enlisting youth into the army is at their entrance into the age of puberty. At this time instructions of every kind are more quickly imbibed and more lastingly imprinted on the mind. Besides this, the indispensable military exercises of running and leaping must be acquired before the limbs are too much stiffened by age. For it is activity, improved by continual practice, which forms the useful and good soldier. Formerly, says Sallust, the Roman youth, as soon as they were of an age to carry arms, were trained in the Strictest manner in their camps to all the fatigues and exercises of war. For it is certainly better that a soldier, perfectly disciplined, should, through emulation, repine at his not being yet arrived at a proper age for action, than have the mortification of knowing it is past. A sufficient time is also required for his instruction in the different branches of the service. It is no easy matter to train the horse or foot archer, or to form the legionary soldier to every part of the drill, to teach him not to quit his post, to keep ranks, to take a proper aim and throw his missile weapons with force, to dig trenches, to plant palisades, how to manage his shield, glance off the blows of the enemy, and how to parry a stroke with dexterity. A soldier, thus perfect in his business, so far from showing any backwardness to engage, will be eager for an opportunity of signaling himself.\nWe find the ancients very fond of procuring the tallest men they could for the service, since the standard for the cavalry of the wings and for the infantry of the first legionary cohorts was fixed at six feet, or at least five feet ten inches. These requirements might easily be kept up in those times when such numbers followed the profession of arms and before it was the fashion for the flower of Roman youth to devote themselves to the civil offices of state. But when necessity requires it, the height of a man is not to be regarded so much as his strength; and for this we have the authority of Homer, who tells us that the deficiency of stature in Tydeus was amply compensated by his vigor and courage.\nThose employed to superintend new levies should be particularly careful in examining the features of their faces, their eyes, and the make of their limbs, to enable them to form a true judgment and choose such as are most likely to prove good soldiers. For experience assures us that there are in men, as well as in horses and dogs, certain signs by which their virtues may be discovered. The young soldier, therefore, ought to have a lively eye, should carry his head erect, his chest should be broad, his shoulders muscular and brawny, his fingers long, his arms strong, his waist small, his shape easy, his legs and feet rather nervous than fleshy. When all these marks are found in a recruit, a little height may be dispensed with, since it is of much more importance that a soldier should be strong than tall.\nIn choosing recruits regard should be given to their trade. Fishermen, fowlers, confectioners, weavers, and in general all whose professions more properly belong to women should, in my opinion, by no means be admitted into the service. On the contrary, smiths, carpenters, butchers, and huntsmen are the most proper to be taken into it. On the careful choice of soldiers depends the welfare of the Republic, and the very essence of the Roman Empire and its power is so inseparably connected with this charge, that it is of the highest importance not to be intrusted indiscriminately, but only to persons whose fidelity can be relied on. The ancients considered Sertorius' care in this point as one of the most eminent of his military qualifications. The soldiery to whom the defense of the Empire is consigned and in whose hands is the fortune of war, should, if possible, be of reputable families and unexceptionable in their manners. Such sentiments as may be expected in these men will make good soldiers. A sense of honor, by preventing them from behaving ill, will make them victorious.\nBut what good can be expected from a man by nature a coward, though ever so well disciplined or though he has served ever so many campaigns? An army raised without proper regard to the choice of its recruits was never yet made good by length of time; and we are now convinced by fatal experience that this is the source of all our misfortunes. So many defeats can only be imputed to the effects of a long peace which has made us negligent and careless in the choice of our levies and to the inclination so prevalent among the better sort in preferring the civil posts of the government to the profession of arms and to the shameful conduct of the superintendents, who, through interest or connivance, accept many men which those who are obliged to furnish substitutes for the army choose to send, and admit such men into the service as the masters themselves would not even keep for servants. Thus it appears that a trust of such importance should be committed to none but men of merit and integrity.\nThe recruit, however, should not receive the military mark* as soon as enlisted. He must first be tried if fit for service; whether he has sufficient activity and strength; if he has capacity to learn his duty; and whether he has the proper degree of military courage. For many, though promising enough in appearance, are found very unfit upon trial. These are to be rejected and replaced by better men; for it is not numbers, but bravery which carries the day.\nAfter their examination, the recruits should then receive the military mark, and be taught the use of their arms by constant and daily exercise. But this essential custom has been abolished by the relaxation introduced by a long peace. We cannot now expect to find a man to teach what he never learned himself. The only method, therefore, that remains of recovering the ancient customs is by books, and by consulting the old historians. But they are of little service to us in this respect, as they only relate the exploits and events of wars, and take no notice of the objects of our present enquiries, which they considered as universally known.\nThe first thing the soldiers are to be taught is the military step, which can only be acquired by constant practice of marching quick and together. Nor is anything of more consequence either on the march or in the line than that they should keep their ranks with the greatest exactness. For troops who march in an irregular and disorderly manner are always in great danger of being defeated. They should march with the common military step twenty miles in five summer-hours, and with the full step, which is quicker, twenty-four miles in the same number of hours. If they exceed this pace, they no longer march but run, and no certain rate can be assigned.\nBut the young recruits in particular must be exercised in running, in order to charge the enemy with great vigor; occupy, on occasion, an advantageous post with greater expedition, and prevent the enemy in their designs upon the same; that they may, when sent to reconnoiter, advance with speed, return with greater celerity and more easily come up with the enemy in a pursuit.\nLeaping is another very necessary exercise, to enable them to pass ditches or embarrassing eminences of any kind without trouble or difficulty. There is also another very material advantage to be derived from these exercises in time of action; for a soldier who advances with his javelin,.running and leaping, dazzles the eyes of his adversary, strikes him with terror, and gives him the fatal stroke before he has time to put himself on his defense. Sallust, speaking of the excellence of Pompey the Great in these particulars, tells us that he disputed the superiority in leaping with the most active, in running with the most swift, and in exercises of strength with the most robust. Nor would he ever have been able to have opposed Serrorius with success, if he had not prepared both himself and his soldiers for action by continual exercises of this sort.\nEvery young soldier, without exception, should in the summer months be taught to swim; for it is sometimes impossible to pass rivers on bridges, but the flying and pursuing army both are often obliged to swim over them. A sudden melting of snow or fall of rain often makes them overflow their banks, and in such a situation, the danger is as great from ignorance in swimming as from the enemy. The ancient Romans, therefore, perfected in every branch of the military art by a continued series of wars and perils, chose the Field of Mars as the most commodious for their exercises on account of its vicinity to the Tiber, that the youth might therein wash off the sweat and dust, and refresh themselves after their fatigues by swimming. The cavalry also as well as the infantry, and even the horses and the servants of the army should be accustomed to this exercise, as they are all equally liable to the same accidents.\nWe are informed by the writings of the ancients that, among their other exercises, they had that of the post. They gave their recruits round bucklers woven with willows, twice as heavy as those used on real service, and wooden swords double the weight of the common ones. They exercised them with these at the post both morning and afternoon.\nThis is an invention of the greatest use, not only to soldiers, but also to gladiators. No man of either profession ever distinguished himself in the circus or field of battle, who was not perfect in this kind of exercise. Every soldier, therefore, fixed a post firmly in the ground, about the height of six feet. Against this, as against a real enemy, the recruit was exercised with the above mentioned arms, as it were with the common shield and sword, sometimes aiming At the head or face, sometimes at the sides, at others endeavoring to strike at the thighs or legs. He was instructed in what manner to advance and retire, and in short how to take every advantage of his adversary; but was thus above all particularly cautioned not to lay himself open to his antagonist while aiming his stroke at him.\nThey were likewise taught not to cut but to thrust with their swords. For the Romans not only made a jest of those who fought with the edge of that weapon, but always found them an easy conquest. A stroke with the edges, though made with ever so much force, seldom kills, as the vital parts of the body are defended both by the bones and armor. On the contrary, a stab, though it penetrates but two inches, is generally fatal. Besides in the attitude of striking, it is impossible to avoid exposing the right arm and side; but on the other hand, the body is covered while a thrust is given, and the adversary receives the point before he sees the sword. This was the method of fighting principally used by the Romans, and their reason for exercising recruits with arms of such a weight at first was, that when they came to carry the common ones so much lighter, the greater difference might enable them to act with greater security and alacrity in time of action.\nThe new levies also should be taught by the masters at arms the system of drill called armatura, as it is still partly kept up among us. Experience even at this time convinces us that soldiers, perfect therein, are of the most service in engagements. And they afford certain proofs of the importance and effects of discipline in the difference we see between those properly trained in this branch of drill and the other troops. The old Romans were so conscious of its usefulness that they rewarded the masters at arms with a double allowance of provision. The soldiers who were backward in this drill were punished by having their allowance in barley. Nor did they receive it as usual, in wheat, until they had, in the presence of the prefect, tribunes, or other principal officers of the legion, showed sufficient proofs of their knowledge of every part of their study.\nNo state can either be happy or secure that is remiss and negligent in the discipline of its troops. For it is not profusion of riches or excess of luxury that can influence our enemies to court or respect us. This can only be effected by the terror of our arms. It is an observation of Cato that. misconduct in the common affairs of life may be retrieved, but that it is quite otherwise in war, where errors are fatal and without remedy, and are followed by immediate punishment. For the consequences of engaging an enemy, without skill or courage, is that part of the army is left on the field of battle, and those who remain receive such an impression from their defeat that they dare not afterwards look the enemy in the face.\nBesides the aforementioned exercise of the recruits at the post, they were furnished with javelins of greater weight than common, which they were taught to throw at the same post. And the masters at arms were very careful to instruct them how to cast them with a proper aim and force. This practice strengthens the arm and makes the soldier a good marksman.\nA third or fourth of the youngest and fittest soldiers should also be exercised at the post with bows and arrows made for that purpose only. The masters for this branch must be chosen with care and must apply themselves diligently to teach the men to hold the bow in a proper position, to bend it with strength, to keep the left hand steady. to draw the right with skill, to direct both the attention and the eye to the object, and to take their aim with equal certainty either on foot or on horseback. But this is not to be acquired without great application, nor to be retained without daily exercise and practice.\nThe utility of good archers in action is evidently demonstrated by Cato in his treatise on military discipline. To the institution of a body of troops of this sort Claudius owed his victory over an enemy who, till that time, had constantly been superior to him. Scipio Africanus, before his battle with the Numantines, who had made a Roman army ignominiously pass under the yoke, thought he could have no likelihood of success except by mingling a number of select archers with every century.\nRecruits are to be taught the art of throwing stones both with the hand and sling. The inhabitants of the Balearic Islands are said to have been the inventors of slings, and to have managed them with surprising dexterity, owing to the manner of bringing up their children. The children were not allowed to have their food by their mothers till they had first struck it with their sling. Soldiers, notwithstanding their defensive armor, are often more annoyed by the round stones from the sling than by all the arrows of the enemy. Stones kill without mangling the body, and the contusion is mortal without loss of blood. It is universally known the ancients employed slingers in all their engagements. There is the greater reason for instructing all troops, without exception, in this exercise, as the sling cannot be reckoned any incumbrance, and often is of the greatest service, especially when they are obliged to engage in stony places, to defend a mountain or an eminence, or to repulse an enemy at the attack of a castle or city.\nThe exercise of the loaded javelins, called martiobarbuli, must not be omitted. We formerly had two legions in lllyricum, consisting of six thousand men each, which from their extraordinary dexterity and skill in the use of these weapons were discingui.shed by the same appellation. They supported for a long time the weight of all the wars and distinguished themselves so remarkably that the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian on their accession honored them with the titles of Jovian and Herculean and preferred them before all the other legions. Every soldier carries five of these javelins in the hollow of his shield. And thus the legionary soldiers seem to supply the place of archers, for they wound both the men and horses of the enemy before they come within reach of the common missile weapons.\nThe ancients strictly obliged both the veteran soldiers and recruits to a constant practice of vaulting. It has indeed reached our cimes, although little regard is paid to it at present. They had wooden horses for that purpose placed in winter under cover and in summer in the field. The young soldiers were taught to vault on them at first without arms, afterwards completely armed. And such was their attention to this exercise that they were accustomed to mount and dismount on either side indifferently, with their drawn swords or lances in their hands. By assiduous practice in the leisure of peace, their cavalry was brought to such perfection of discipline that they mounted their horses in an instant even amidst the confusion of sudden and unexpected alarms.\nTo accustom soldiers to carry burdens is also an essential part of discipline. Recruits in particular should be obliged frequently to carry a weight of not less than sixty pounds (exclusive of their arms), and to march with it in the ranks. This is because on difficult expeditions they often find themselves under the necessity of carrying their provisions as well as their arms. Nor will they find this troublesome when inured to it by custom, which makes everything easy. Our troops in ancient times were a proof of this, and Virgil has remarked it in the following lines:\nThe Roman soldiers, bred in war's alarms,\nBending with unjust loads and heavy arms,\nCheerful their toilsome marches undergo,\nAnd pitch their sudden camp before the foe.\nThe manner of arming the troops comes next under consideration. But the method of the ancients no longer is followed. For though after the example of the Goths, the Alans and the Huns, we have made some improvements in the arms of the cavalry, yet it is plain the infantry are entirely defenseless. From the foundation of the city till the reign of the Emperor Gratian, the foot wore cuirasses and helmets. But negligence and sloth having by degrees introduced a total relaxation of discipline, the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on. They first requested leave from the Emperor to lay aside the cuirass and afterwards the helmet. In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the Goths were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows. Nor was the necessity of obliging the infantry to resume their cuirasses and helmets discovered, notwithstanding such repeated defeats, which brought on the destruction of so many great cities.\nTroops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without cuirass or helmet, who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? The foot soldier finds the weight of a cuirass and even of a helmet intolerable. This is because he is so seldom exercised and rarely puts them on.\nBut the case would be quite different, were they even heavier than they are, if by constant practice he had been accustomed to wear them. But it seems these very men, who cannot support the weight of the ancient armor, think nothing of exposing themselves without defense to wounds and death, or, which is worse, to the shame of being made prisoners, or of betraying their country by flight; and thus to avoid an inconsiderable share of exercise and fatigue, suffer themselves ignominiously to be cut in pieces. With what propriety could the ancients call the infantry a wall, but that in some measure they resembled it by the complete armor of the legionary soldiers who had shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves of iron on the right leg; and the archers who had gauntlets on the left arm. These were the defensive arms of the legionary soldiers. Those who fought in the first line of their respective legions were called principes, in the second hastati, and in third triarii.\nThe triarii, according to their method of discipline, rested in time of action on one knee, under cover of their shields, so that in this position they might be less exposed to the darts of the enemy than if they stood upright; and also, when there was a necessity for bringing them up, that they might be fresh, in full vigor and charge with the greater impetuosity. There have been many instances of their gaining a complete victory after the entire defeat of both the principes and hastati.\nThe ancients had likewise a body of light infantry, slingers, and ferentarii (the light troops), who were generally posted on the wings and began the engagement. The most active and best disciplined men were selected for this service; and as their number was not very great, they easily retired in case of a repulse through the intervals of the legion, without thus occasioning the least disorder in the line.\nThe Pamonian leather caps worn by our soldiers were formerly introduced with a different design. The ancients obliged the men to wear them at all times so that being constantly accustomed to have the head covered they might be less sensible of the weight of the helmet.\nAs to the missile weapons of the infantry, they were javelins headed with a triangular sharp iron, eleven inches or a foot long, and were called piles. When once fixed in the shield it was impossible to draw them out, and when thrown with force and skill, they penetrated the cuirass without difficulty. At present they are seldom used by us, but are the principal weapon of the barbarian heavy-armed foot. They are called bebrae, and every man carries two or three of them to battle.\nIt must be observed that when the soldiers engage with the javelin, the left foot should be advanced, for, by this attitude the force required to throw it is considerably increased. On the contrary, when they are close enough to use their piles and swords, the right foot should be advanced, so that the body may present less aim to the enemy, and the right arm be nearer and in a more advantageous position for striking. Hence it appears that it is as necessary to provide soldiers with defensive arms of every kind as to instruct them in the use of offensive ones. For it is certain a man will fight with greater courage and confidence when he finds himself properly armed for defense.\nRecruits are to be instructed in the manner of entrenching camps, there being no part of discipline so necessary and useful as this. For in a camp, well chosen and entrenched, the troops both day and night lie secure within their works, even though in view of the enemy. It seems to resemble a fortified city which they can build for their safety wherever they please. But this valuable art is now entirely lost, for it is long since any of our camps have been fortified either with trenches or palisades. By this neglect our forces have been often surprised by day and night by the enemy's cavalry and suffered very severe losses. The importance of this custom appears not only from the danger to which troops are perpetually exposed who encamp without such precautions, but from the distressful situation of an army that, after receiving a check in the field, finds itself without retreat and consequently at the mercy of the enemy. A camp, especially in the neighborhood of an enemy, must be chosen with great care. Its situation should be strong by nature, and there should be plenty of wood, forage and water. If the army is to continue in it any considerable time, attention must be had to the salubrity of the place. The camp must not be commanded by any higher grounds from whence it might be insulted or annoyed by the enemy, nor must the location be liable to floods which would expose the army to great danger. The dimensions of the camps must be determined by the number of troops and quantity of baggage, that a large army may have room enough, and that a small one may not be obliged to extend itself beyond its proper ground. The form of the camps must be determined by the site of the country, in conformity to which they must be square, triangular or oval. The Praetorian gate should either front the east or the enemy. In a temporary camp it should face the route by which the army is to march. Within this gate the tents of the first centuries or cohorts are pitched, and the dragons* and other ensigns planted.\nThe Decumane gate is directly opposite to the Praetorian in the rear of the camp, and through this the soldiers are conducted to the place appointed for punishment or execution.\nThere are two methods of entrenching a camp. When the danger is not imminent, they carry a slight ditch round the whole circuit, only nine feet broad and seven deep. With the turf taken from this they make a kind of wall or breastwork three feet high on the inner side of the ditch. But where there is reason to be apprehensive of attempts of the enemy, the camp must be surrounded with a regular ditch twelve feet broad and nine feet deep perpendicular from the surface of the ground. A parapet is then raised on the side next the camp, of the height of four feet, with hurdles and fascines properly covered and secured by the earth taken out of the ditch. From these dimensions the interior height of the intrenchment will be found to be thirteen feet, and the breadth of the ditch twelve. On the top of the whole are planted strong palisades which the soldiers carry constantly with them for this purpose. A sufficient number of spades, pickaxes, wicker baskets and tools of all kinds are to be provided for these works.\nThere is no difficulty in carrying on the fortifications of a camp when no enemy is in sight. But if the enemy is near, all the cavalry and half the infantry are to be drawn up in order of battle to cover the rest of the troops at work on the entrenchments and be ready to receive the enemy if they offer to attack. The centuries are employed by turns on the work and are regularly called to the relief by a crier till the whole is completed. It is then inspected and measured by the centurions, who punish such as have been indolent or negligent. This is a very important point in the discipline of young soldiers, who when properly trained to it will be able in an emergency to fortify their camp with skill and expedition.\nNo part of drill is more essential in action than for soldiers to keep their ranks with the greatest exactness, without opening or closing too much. Troops too much crowded can never fight as they ought, and only embarrass one another. If their order is too open and loose, they give the enemy an opportunity of penetrating. Whenever this happens and they are attacked in the rear, universal disorder and confusion are inevitable. Recruits should therefore be constantly in the field, drawn up by the roll and formed at first into a single rank. They should learn to dress in a straight line and to keep an equal and just distance between man and man. They must then be ordered to double the rank, which they must perform very quickly, and instantly cover their file leaders. In the next place, they are to double again and form four deep. And then the triangle or, as it is commonly called, the wedge, a disposition found very serviceable in action. They must be taught to form the circle or orb; for well-disciplined troops, after being broken by the enemy, have thrown themselves into this position and have thereby prevented the total rout of the army. These evolutions, often practiced in the field of exercise, will be found easy in execution on actual service.\nIt was a constant custom among the old Romans, confirmed by the Ordinances of Augustus and Hadrian, to exercise both cavalry and infantry three times in a month by marches of a certain length. The foot were obliged to march completely armed the distance of ten miles from the camp and return, in the most exact order and with the military step which they changed and quickened on some part of the march. Their cavalry likewise, in troops and properly armed, performed the same marches and were exercised at the same time in their peculiar movement and evolutions; sometimes, as if pursuing the enemy, sometimes retreating and returning again with greater impetuosity to the charge. They made these marches not in plain and even ground only, but both cavalry and infantry were ordered into difficult and uneven places and to ascend or descend mountains, to prepare them for all kinds of accidents and familiarize them with the different maneuvers that the various situations of a country may require.\nThese military maxims and instructions, invincible Emperor, as a proof of my devotion and zeal for your service, I have carefully collected from the works of all the ancient authors on the subject. My design herein is to point out the certain method of forming good and serviceable armies, which can only be accomplished by an exact imitation of the ancients in their care in the choice and discipline of their levies. Men are not degenerated in point of courage, nor are the countries that produced the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians, the Marsians, the Samnites, the Peligni and even the Romans themselves, yet exhausted. Did not the Epirots acquire in former times a great reputation in war? Did not the Macedonians and Thessalians, after conquering the Persians, penetrate even into India? And it is well known that the warlike dispositions of the Dacians, Moesians and Thracians gave rise to the fable that Mars was born among them.\nTo pretend to enumerate the different nations so formidable of old, all which now are subject to the Romans, would be tedious. But the security established by long peace has altered their dispositions, drawn them off from military to civil pursuits and infused into them a love of idleness and ease. Hence a relaxation of military discipline insensibly ensued, then a neglect of it, and it sunk at last into entire oblivion. Now will it appear surprising that this alteration should have happened in latter times, if we consider that the peace, which lasted about twenty years or somewhat more after the first Punic war, enervated the Romans, before everywhere victorious, by idleness and neglect of discipline to such a degree, that in the second Punic war they were not able to keep the field against Hannibal. At last, after the defeat of many consuls and the loss of many officers and armies, they were convinced that the revival of discipline was the only road to victory and thereby recovered their superiority. The necessity, therefore, of discipline cannot be too often inculcated, as well as the strict attention requisite in the choice and training of new levies. It is also certain that it is a much less expense to a State to train its own subjects to arms than to take foreigners into its pay.\n* This mark was imprinted on the hands of the soldiers, either with a hot iron, or in some other manner. It was indelible.\n* The dragon was the particular ensign of each cohort.\nTo the Emperor Valentinian\nSuch a continued series of victories and triumphs proved incontestably Your Majesty's full and perfect knowledge of the military discipline of the ancients. Success in any profession is the most certain mark of skill in it. By a greatness of mind. above human comprehension Your Majesty condescends to seek instruction from the ancients, notwithstanding your own recent exploits surpass antiquity itself. On receiving Your Majesty's orders to continue this abridgement, not so much for your instruction as convenience, I knew not how to reconcile my devotion to Your commands with the respect due to Your Majesty. Would it not be the greatest height of presumption to pretend to mention the art of war to the Lord and Master of the world and the Conqueror of all the barbarous nations, unless it were to describe his own actions? But disobedience to the will of so great a Prince would be both highly criminal and dangerous. My obedience, therefore, made me presumptuous, from the apprehensions of appearing more so by a contrary conduct. And in this I was not a little encouraged by the late instance of Your Majesty's indulgence. My treatise on the choice and discipline of new levies met with a favorable reception from Your Majesty, and since a work succeeded so well, composed of my own accord, I can have no fears for one undertaken by your own express commands.\nThe military establishment consists of three parts, the cavalry, infantry and marine. The wings of cavalry were so called from their similitude to wings in their extension on both sides of the main body for its protection. They are now called vexillations from the kind of standards peculiar to them. The legionary horse are bodies particularly annexed to each legion, and of a different kind; and on their model were organized the cavalry called Ocreati, from the light boots they wear. The fleet consists of two divisions, the one of men of war called Liburnae, and the other of armed sloops. The cavalry are designed for plains. Fleets are employed for the protection of seas and rivers. The infantry are proper for the defense of eminences, for the garrisons of cities and are equally serviceable in plain and in uneven ground. The latter, therefore, from their facility of acting everywhere, are certainly the most useful and necessary troops to a state exclusively of the consideration of their being maintained at a less expense. The infantry are divided into two corps, the legions and auxiliaries, the latter of which are furnished by allies or confederates. The peculiar strength of the Romans always consisted in the excellent organization of their legions. They were so denominated ab eligendo, from the care and exactness used in the choice of the soldiers. The number of legionary troops in an army is generally much more considerable than that of the auxiliaries.\nThe Macedonians, the Greeks and the Dardanians formed their troops into phalanxes of eight thousand men each. The Gauls, Celtiberians and many other barbarous nations divided their armies into bodies of six thousand each. The Romans have their legions usually six thousand strong, sometImes more.\nWe shall now explain the difference between the legions and the auxiliaries. The latter are hired corps of foreigners assembled from different parts of the Empire, made up of different numbers, without knowledge of one another or any tie of affection. Each nation has its own peculiar discipline, customs and manner of fighting. Little can be expected from forces so dissimilar in every respect, since it is one of the most essential points in military undertakings that the whole army should be put in motion and governed by one and the same order. But it is almost impossible for men to act in concert under such varying and unsettled circumstances. They are, however, when properly trained and disciplined, of material service and are always joined as light troops with the legions in the line. And though the legions do not place their principal dependence on them, yet they look on them as a very considerable addition to their strength.\nBut the complete Roman legion, in its own peculiar cohorts, contains within itself the heavy-armed foot, that is: the principes, hastati, triarii, and antefignani, the lightarmed foot, consisting of the ferentarii, archers, slingers, and balistarii, together with the legionary cavalry incorporated with it. These bodies, all actuated with the same spirit, are united inseparably in their various dispositions for forming, encamping and fighting. Thus the legion is compact and perfect in all its parts and, without any foreign assistance, has always been superior to any force that could be brought against it. The Roman greatness is a proof of the excellence of their legions, for with them they always defeated whatever numbers of the enemy they thought fit, or their circumstances gave them an opportunIty to engage.\nThe name of the legion remains indeed to this day in our armies, but its strength and substance are gone, since by the neglect of our predecessors, honors and preferments, which were formerly the recompenses of merit and long services, were to be attained only by interest and favor. Care is no longer taken to replace the soldiers, who after serving their full time, have received their discharges. The vacancies continually happening by sickness, discharges, desertion and various other casualties, if not supplied every year or even every month, must in time disable the most numerous army. Another cause of the weakness of our legions is that in them the soldiers find the duty hard, the arms heavy, the rewards distant and the discipline severe. To avoid these inconveniences, the young men enlist in the auxiliaries, where the service is less laborious and they have reason to expect more speedy recompenses.\nCato the Elder, who was often Consul and always victorious at the head of the armies, believed he should do his country more essential service by writing on military affairs, than by all his exploits in the field. For the consequences of brave actions are only temporary, while whatever is committed to writing for public good is of lasting benefit. Several others have followed his example, particularly Frontinus, whose elaborate works on this subject were so well received by the Emperor Trajan. These are the authors whose maxims and institutions I have undertaken to abridge in the most faithful and conclse manner.\nThe expense of keeping up good or bad troops is the same; but it depends wholly on You, most August Emperor, to recover the excellent discipline of the ancients and to correct the abuses of later times. This is a reformation the advantages of which will be equally felt by ourselves and our posterity.\nAll our writers agree that never more than two legions, besides auxiliaries, were sent under the command of each consul against the most numerous armies of the enemies. Such was the dependence on their discipline and resolution that this number was thought sufficient for any war they were engaged in. I shall therefore explain the organization of the ancient legion according to the military constitution. But if the description appear obscure or imperfect, it is not to be imputed to me, but to the difficulty of the subject itself, which is therefore to be examined with the greater attention. A prince, skilled himself in military affairs, has it in his power to make himself invincible by keeping up whatever number of well disciplined forces he thinks proper.\nThe recruits having thus been carefully chosen with proper attention to their persons and dispositions, and having been daily exercised for the space of four months at least, the legion is formed by the command and under the auspices of the Emperor. The military mark, which is indelible, is first imprinted on the hands of the new levies, and as their names are inserted in the roll of the legions they take the usual oath, called the military oath. They swear by God, by Christ and by the Holy Ghost; and by the Majesty of the Emperor who, after God, should be the chief object of the love and veneration of mankind. For when he has once received the title of August, his subjects are bound to pay him the most sincere devotion and homage, as the representative of God on earth. And every man, whether in a private or military station, serves God in serving him faithfully who reigns by His authority. The soldiers, therefore, swear they will obey the Emperor willingly and implicitly in all his commands, that they will never desert and will always be ready to sacrifice their lives for the Roman Empire.\nThe legion should consist of ten cohorts, the first of which exceeds the others both in number and quality of its soldiers, who are selected to serve in it as men of some family and education. This cohort has the care of the eagle, the chief ensign in the Roman armies and the standard of the whole legion, as well as of the images of the emperors which are always considered as sacred. It consists of eleven hundred and five foot and one hundred and thirty-two horse cuirassiers, and is distinguished by the name of the Millarian Cohort. It is the head of the legion and is always first formed on the right of the first line when the legion draws up in order of battle.\nThe second cohort contains five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse, and is called the Quingentarian Cohort. The third is composed of five hundred and fiftyfive foot and sixty-six horse, generally chosen men, on account of its situation in the center of the first line. The fourth consists of the same number of five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse. The fifth has likewise five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse, which should be some of the best men, being posted on the left flank as the first cohort is on the right. These five cohorts compose the first line.\nThe sixth includes five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse, which should be the flower of the young soldiers as it draws up in the rear of the eagle and the images of the emperors, and on the right of the second line. The seventh contains five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse. The eighth is composed of five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse, all selected troops, as it occupies the center of the second line. The ninth has five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse. The tenth consists of the same number of five hundred and fifty-five foot and sixty-six horse and requires good men, as it closes the left flank of the second line. These ten cohorts form the complete legions, consisting in the whole of six thousand one hundred foot and seven hundred and twenty-six horses. A legion should never be composed of a less number of men, but it is sometimes stronger by the addition of other Millarian Cohorts.\nHaving shown the ancient establishment of the legion, we shall now explain the names of the principal soldiers or, to use the proper term, the officers, and their ranks according to the present rolls of the legions. The first tribune is appointed by the express commission and choice of the Emperor. The second tribune rises to that rank by length of service. The tribunes are so called from their command over the soldiers, who were at first levied by Romulus out of the different tribes. The officers who in action commanded the orders or divisions are called Ordinarii. The Augustales were added by Augustus to the Ordinarii; and the Flaviales were appointed by Flavius Vespasian to double the number of the Augustales. The eagle-bearers and the image-bearers are those who carry the eagles and images of the Emperors. The Optiones are subaltern officers, so denominated from their being selected by the option of their superior officers, to do their duty as their substitutes or lieutenants in case of sickness or other accident. The ensign-bearers carry the ensigns and are called Draconarii. The Tesserarii deliver the parole and the orders of the general to the different messes of the soldiers. The Campignei or Antefignani are those whose duty it is to keep the proper exercises and discipline among the troops. The Metatores are ordered before the army to fix on the ground for its encampments. The Beneficiarii are so named from their owing their promotion to the benefit or interest of the Tribunes. The Librarii keep the legionary accounts. The Tubicines, Cornicines, and Buccinatores derive their appellations from blowing the trumpet, cornet, and buccina. Those who, expert in their exercises, receive a double allowance of provisions, are called Armaturae Duplares, and those who have but a single portion, Simplares. The Mensores mark out the ground by measure for the tents in an encampment, and assign the troops their respective quarters in garrison. The Torquati, so denominated from the gold collars given them in reward for their bravery, had besides this honor different allowances. Those who received double were called Torquati Duplares, and those who had only single, Simplares. There were, for the same reason, Candidatii Duplares, and Candidatii Simplares. These are the principal soldiers or officers distinguished by their rank and privileges thereto annexed. The rest are called Munifices, or working soldiers, from their being obliged to every kind of military work without exception. Formerly it was the rule that the first Princeps of the legion should be promoted regularly to the rank of Centurion of the Primiple. He not only was entrusted with the eagle but commanded four centuries, that is, four hundred men in the first line. As head of the legion he had appointments of great honor and profit. The first Hastatus had the command of two centuries or two hundred men in the second line, and is now called Ducenarius. The Princeps of the first cohort commanded a century and a half, that is, one hundred and fifty men, and kept in a great measure the general detail of the legion. The second Hastatus had likewise a century and a half, or one hundred and fifty men. The first Triarius had the command of one hundred men. Thus the ten centuries of the first cohort were commanded by five Ordinarii, who by the ancient establishment enjoyed great honors and emoluments that were annexed to this rank in order to inspire the soldiers of the legions with emulation to attain such ample and considerable rewards. They had also Centurions appointed to each century, now called Centenarii and Decani, who commanded ten men, now called heads of messes. The second cohort had five Centurions; and all the rest to the tenth inclusively the same number. In the whole legion there were fiftyfive.\nLieutenants of consular dignity were formerly sent to command in the armies under the general, and their authority extended over both the legions and auxiliaries in peace and war. Instead of these officers, persons of high rank are now substituted with the title of Masters of the Forces. They are not limited to the command of two legions only, but have often a greater number. But the peculiar officer of the legion was the Praefect, who was always a count of the first order. On him the chief command devolved in the absence of the lieutenant. The Tribunes, Centurions, and all the soldiers in general were under his orders: He gave out the parole and order for the march and for the guards. And if a soldier committed a crime, by his authority the Tribune adjudged him to punishment. He had charge of the arms, horses, clothing and provisions. It was also his duty to keep both the legionary horse and foot in daily exercise and to maintain the strictest discipline. He ought to be a careful and diligent officer, as the sole charge of forming the legion to regularity and obedience depended on him and the excellence of the soldiers redounded entirely to his own honor and credit.\nThe Praefect of the camp, though inferior in rank to the former, had a post of no small importance. The position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them; and he regulated the expenses relative thereto. He had the charge of providing carriages, bathorses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae and all the other engines of war under his direction. This post was always conferred on an officer of great skill, experience and long service, and who consequently was capable of instructing others in those branches of the profession in which he had distinguished himself.\nThe legion had a train of joiners, masons, carpenters, smiths, painters, and workmen of every kind for the construction of barracks in the winter-camps and for making or repairing the wooden towers, arms, carriages and the various sorts of machines and engines for the attack or defense of places. They had also traveling workshops in which they made shields, cuirasses, helmets, bows, arrows, javelins and offensive and defensive arms of all kinds. The ancients made it their chief care to have every thing for the service of the army within the camp. They even had a body of miners who, by working under ground and piercing the foundations of walls, according to the practice of the Beffi, penetrated into the body of a place. All these were under the direction of the officer called the praefect of the workmen.\nWe have observed that the legions had ten cohorts, the first of which, called the Millarian Cohort, was composed of men selected on account of their circumstances, birth, education, person and bravery. The tribune who commanded them was likewise distinguished for his skill in his exercises, for the advantages of his person and the integrity of his manners. The other cohorts were commanded, according to the Emperor's pleasure, either by tribunes or other officers commissioned for that purpose. In former times the discipline was so strict that the tribunes or officers abovementioned not only caused the troops under their command to be exercised daily in their presence, but were themselves so perfect in their military exercises as to set them the example. Nothing does so much honor to the abilities or application of the tribune as the appearance and discipline of the soldiers, when their apparel is neat and clean, their arms bright and in good order and when they perform their exercises and evolutions with dexterity.\nThe chief ensign of the whole legion is the eagle and is carried by the eagle-bearer. Each cohort has also its own peculiar ensign, the Dragon, carried by the Draconarius. The ancients, knowing the ranks were easily disordered in the confusion of action, divided the cohorts into centuries and gave each century an ensign inscribed with the number both of the cohort and century so that the men keeping it in sight might be prevented from separating from their comrades in the greatest tumults. Besides the centurions, now called centenarii, were distinguished by different crests on their helmets, to be more easily known by the soldiers of their respective centuries. These precautions prevented any mistake, as every century was guided not only by its own ensign but likewise by the peculiar form of the helmet of its commanding officers. The centuries were also subdivided into messes of ten men each who lay in the same tent and were under orders and inspection of a Decanus or head of the mess. These messes were also called Maniples from their constant custom of fighting together in the same company or division.\nAs the divisions of the infantry are called centuries, so those of the cavalry are called troops. A troop consists of thirty-two men and is commanded by a Decurion. Every century has its ensign and every troop its Standard. The centurion in the infantry is chosen for his size, strength and deXterity in throwing his missile weapons and for his skill in the use of his sword and shield; in short for his expertness in all the exercises. He is to be vigilant, temperate, accive and readier to execute the orders he receives than to talk; Strict in exercising and keeping up proper discipline among his soldiers, in obliging them to appear clean and well-dressed and to have their arms constantly rubbed and bright. In like manner the Decurion is to be preferred to the command of a troop for his activity and address in mounting his horse completely armed; for his skill in riding and in the use of the lance and bow; for his attencion in forming his men to all the evolutions of the cavaIry; and for his care in obliging them to keep their cuirasses, lances and helmets always bright and in good order. The splendor of the arms has no inconsiderable effect in striking terror into an enemy. Can that man be reckoned a good soldier who through negligence suffers his arms to be spoiled by dirt and rust? In short, it is the duty of the Decurion to be attentive to whatever concerns the health or discipline of the men or horses in his troop.\nWe shall exemplify the manner of drawing up an army in order of battle in the instance of one legion, which may serve for any number. The cavalry are posted on the wings. The infantry begin to form on a line with the :first cohort on the right. The second cohort draws up on the left of the first; the third occupies the center; the fourth is posted next; and the fifth closes the left flank. The ordinarii, the other officers and the soldiers of the first line, ranged before and round the ensigns, were called the principes. They were all heavy armed troops and had helmets, cuirasses, greaves, and shields. Their offensive weapons were large swords, called spathae, and smaller ones called semispathae together with five loaded javelins in the concavity of the shield, which they threw at the first charge. They had likewise two other javelins, the largest of which was composed of a staff five feet and a half long and a triangular head of iron nine inches long. This was formerly called the pilum, but now it is known by the name of spiculum. The soldiers were particularly exercised in the use of this weapon, because when thrown with force and skill it often penetrated the shields of the foot and the cuirasses of the horse. The other javelin was of smaller size; its triangular point was only five inches long and the staff three feet and one half. It was anciently called verriculum but now verutum.\nThe first line, as I said before, was composed of the principes; the hastati formed the second and were armed in the same manner. In the second line the sixth cohort was posted on the right flank, with the seventh on its left; the eighth drew up in the center; the ninth was the next; and the tenth always closed the left flank. In the rear of these two lines were the ferentarii, light infantry and the troops armed with shields, loaded javelins, swords and common missile weapons, much in the same manner as our modern soldiers. This was also the post of the archers who had helmets, cuirasses, swords, bows and arrows; of the slingers who threw stones with the common sling or with the fustibalus; and of the tragularii who annoyed the enemy with arrows from the manubalistae or arcubalistae.\nIn the rear of all the lines, the triarii, completely armed, were drawn up. They had shields, cuirasses, helmets, greaves, swords, daggers, loaded javelins, and two of the common missile weapons. They rested during the acnon on one knee, so that if the first lines were obliged to give way, they might be fresh when brought up to the charge, and thereby retrieve what was lost and recover the victory. All the ensigns though, of the infantry, wore cuirasses of a smaller sort and covered their helmets with the shaggy skins of beasts to make themselves appear more terrible to the enemy. But the centurions had complete cuirasses, shields, and helmets of iron, the crest of which, placed transversely thereon, were ornamented with silver that they might be more easily distinguished by their respective soldiers.\nThe following disposition deserves the greatest attention. In the beginning of an engagement, the first and second lines remained immovable on their ground, and the trairii in their usual positions. The light-armed\ntroops, composed as above mentioned, advanced in the front of the line, and attacked the enemy. If they could make them give way, they pursued them; but if they were repulsed by superior bravery or numbers, they retired behind their own heavy armed infantry, which appeared like a wall of iron and renewed the action, at first with their missile weapons, then sword in hand. If they broke the enemy they never pursued them, least they should break their ranks or throw the line into confusion, and lest the enemy, taking advantage of their disorder, should return to the attack and destroy them without difficulty. The pursuit therefore was entirely left to the light-armed troops and the cavalry. By these precautions and dispositions the legion was victorious without danger, or if the contrary happened, was preserved without any considerable loss, for as it is not calculated for pursuit, it is likewise not easily thrown into disorder.\nLest the soldiers in the confusion of battle should be separated from their comrades, every cohort had its shields painted in a manner peculiar to itself. The name of each soldier was also written on his shield, together with the number of the cohort and century to which he belonged. From this description we may compare the legion, when in proper order, to a well fortified city as containing within itself every thing requisite in war, wherever it moved. It was secure from any sudden attempt or surprise of an enemy by its expeditious method of entrenching its camp even in the open plains and it was always provided with troops and arms of every kind. To be victorious, therefore, over our enemies in the field, we must unanimously supplicate heaven to dispose the Emperor to reform the abuses in raising our levies and to recruit our legions after the method of the ancients. The same care in choosing and instructing our young soldiers in all military exercises and drills will soon make them equal to the old Roman troops who subdued the whole world. Nor let this alteration and loss of ancient discipline in any way affect Your Majesty, since it is a happiness reserved for You alone both to restore the ancient ordinances and establish new ones for the public welfare. Every work before the attempt carries in it an appearance of difficulty; but in this case, if the levies are made by careful and experienced officers, an army may be raised, disciplined and rendered fit for service in a very short time; for the necessary expenses once provided, diligence soon effects whatever it undertakes.\nSeveral posts in the legion requiring men of some education, the superintendents of the levies should select some recruits for their skill in writing and accounts, besides the qualification to be attended to in general, such as size, strength and proper disposition for the service. For the whole detail of the legion, including the lists of the soldiers exempted from duty on private accounts, the rosters for their tour of military duties and their pay lists, is daily entered in the legionary books and kept we may almost say, with greater exactness than the regulations of provisions or other civil matters in the registers of the police. The daily guards in time of peace, the advanced guards and outposts in time of war, which are mounted regularly by the centuries and messes in their turns, are likewise punctually kept in rolls for that purpose, with the name of each soldier whose tour is past, that no one may have injustice done him or be excused from his duty by favor.\nThey are also exact in entering the time and limitation of furloughs, which formerly were never granted without difficulty and only on real and urgent business. They then never suffered the soldiers to attend on any private person or to concern themselves in private occupations, thinking it absurd and improper that the Emperor's soldiers, clothed and subsisted at the public expense, should follow any other profession. Some soldiers, however, were allowed for the service of the praefects, tribunes and even of the other officers, our of the number of the accensi or such as were raised after the legion was complete. These latter are now called supernumeraries. The regular troops were obliged to carry their wood, hay, water and straw into the camp themselves. From such kind of services they were called munifices.\nThe institution of the ancients which obliged the soldiers to deposit half of every donative they received at the colors was wise and judicious; the intent was to preserve it for their use so that they might not squander it in extravagance or idle expense. For most men, particularly the poorer sort, soon spend whatever they can get. A reserve of this kind therefore is evidently of the greatest service to the soldiers themselves; since they are maintained at the public expense, their military stock by this method is continually increasing. The soldier who knows all his fortune is deposited at his colors, entertains no thoughts of desertion, conceives a greater affection for them and fights with greater intrepidity in their defense. He is also prompted thereto by interest, the most prevailing consideration among men. This money was contained in ten bags, one for each cohort. There was an eleventh bag also for a small contribution from the whole legion, as a common fund to defray the expense of burial of any of their deceased comrades. These collections were kept in baskets in the custody of the ensigns, chosen for their integrity and capacity, and answerable for the trust and obliged to account with every man for his own proportion.\nHeaven certainly inspired the Romans with the organization of the legion, so superior does it seem to human invention. Such is the arrangement and disposition of the ten cohorts that compose it, as to appear one perfect body and form one complete whole. A soldier, as he advances in rank, proceeds as it were by rotation through the different degrees of the several cohorts in such a manner that one who is promoted passes from the first cohort to the tenth, and returns again regularly through all the others with a continual increase of rank and pay to the first. Thus the centurion of the primiple, after having commanded in the different ranks of every cohort, attains that great dignity in the first with infinite advantages from the whole legion. The chief praefect of the Praetorian Guards rises by the same method of rotation to that lucrative and honorable rank. Thus the legionary horse contract an affection for the foot of their own cohorts, notwithstanding the natural antipathy existing between the two corps. And this connection establishes a reciprocal attachment and union between all the cohorts and the cavalry and infantry of the legion.\nThe music of the legion consists of trumpets, cornets and buccinae. The trumpet sounds the charge and the retreat. The cornets are used only to regulate the motions of the colors; the trumpets serve when the soldiers are ordered out to any work without the colors; but in time of action, the trumpets and cornets sound together. The classicum, which is a particular sound of the buccina or horn, is appropriated to the commander-in-chief and is used in the presence of the general, or at the execution of a soldier, as a mark of its being done by his authority. The ordinary guards and outposts are always mounted and relieved by the sound of trumpet, which also directs the motions of the soldiers on working parties and on field days. The cornets sound whenever the colors are to be struck or planted. These rules must be punctually observed in all exercises and reviews so that the soldiers may be ready to obey them in action without hesitation according to the general's orders either to charge or halt, to pursue the enemy or to retire. F or reason will convince us that what is necessary to be performed in the heat of action should constantly be practiced in the leisure of peace.\nThe organization of the legion being thus explained, let us return to the drills. The younger soldiers and recruits went through their drills of every kind every morning and afternoon and the veterans and most expert regularly once a day. Length of service or age alone will never form a military man, for after serving many years an undisciplined soldier is still a novice in his profession. Not only those under the masters at arms, but all the soldiers in general, were formerly trained incessantly in those drills which now are only exhibited as shows in the circus for particular solemnities. By practice only can be acquired agility of body and the skill requisite to engage an enemy with advantage, especially in close fight. But the most essential point of all is to teach soldiers to keep their ranks and never abandon their colors in the most difficult evolutions. Men thus trained are never at a loss amidst the greatest confusion of numbers.\nThe recruits likewise are to be exercised with wooden swords at the post, to be taught to attack this imaginary antagonist on all sides and to aim at the sides, feet or head, both with the point and edge of the sword. They must be instructed how to spring forward to give the blow, to rise with a bound above the shield and then to sink down and shelter themselves under cover of it, and how to advance and retire. They must also throw their javelins at the post from a considerable distance in order to acquire a good aim and strengthen the arm.\nThe archers and slingers set up bundles of twigs or straw for marks, and generally strike them with arrows and with stones from the fustiablus at the distance of six hundred feet. They acquired coolness and exactness in acnon from familiar custom and exercise in the field. The slingers should be taught to whirl the sling but once about the head before they cast the stone. Formerlyall soldiers were trained to the praccice of throwing stones of a pound weight with the hand, as this was thought a readier method since it did not require a sling. The use of the common missile weapons and loaded javelins was another part of the drill strictly attended to.\nTo continue this drill without interruption during the winter, they erected for the cavalry porticos or riding halls covered with tiles or shingles, and if they were not to be procured, with reeds, rushes or thatch. Large open halls were likewise constructed in the same manner for the use of the infantry. By these means the troops were provided with places of drill sheltered from bad weather. But even in winter, if it did not rain or snow, they were obliged to perform their drills in the field, lest an intermission of discipline should affect both the courage and constitution of the soldier. In short, both legionary and auxiliary troops should continually be drilled in cutting wood, carrying burdens, passing ditches, swimming in the sea or in rivers, marching in the full step and even running with their arms and baggage, so that, inured to labor in peace, they may find no difficulty in war. For, as the well trained soldier is eager for action, so does the untaught fear it. In war discipline is superior to strength; but if that discipline is neglected, there is no longer any difference between the soldier and the peasant. The old maxim is certain that the very essence of an art consists in constant practice.\nThe legion owes its success to its arms and machines, as well as to the number and bravery of its soldiers. In the first place every century has a balista mounted on a carriage drawn by mules and served by a mess, that is by ten men from the century to which it belongs. The larger these engines are, the greater distance they carry and with the greater force. They are used not only to defend the entrenchments of camps, but are also placed in the field in the rear of the heavy armed infantry. And such is the violence with which they throw the darts that neither the cuirasses of the horse nor shields of the foot can resist them. The number of these engines in a legion is fiftyfive. Besides these are ten onagri, one for each cohort; they are drawn ready armed on carriages by oxen; in case of an attack, they defend the works of the camp by throwing stones as the balistae do darts.\nThe legion carries with it a number of small boats, each hollowed out of a single piece of timber, with long cables and sometimes iron chains to fasten them together. These boats, joined and covered with planks, serve as bridges over unfordable rivers, on which both cavalry and infantry pass without danger. The legion is provided with iron hooks, called wolves, and iron scythes fixed to the ends of long poles; and with forks, spades, shovels, pickaxes, wheelbarrows and baskets for digging and transporting earth; together with hatchets, axes and saws for cutting wood. Besides which, a train of workmen attend on it furnished with all instruments necessary for the construction of tortoises, musculi, rams, vines, moving towers and other machines for the attack of places. As the enumeration of all the particulars of this sort would be too tedious, I shall only observe that the legion should carry with it wherever it moves, whatever is necessary for every kind of service so that the encampments may have all the strength and conveniences of a fortified city.\nTo the Emperor Valentinian\nThe Athenians and Lacedaemonians were masters of Greece before the Macedonians, as history informs us. The Athenians excelled not only in war but in other arts and sciences. The Lacedaemonians made war their chief study. They are affirmed to be the first who reasoned on the events of battles and committed their observations thereon to writing with such success as to reduce the military art, before considered as totally dependent on courage or fortune, to certain rules and fixed principles. As a consequence they established schools of tactics for the instruction of youth in all the maneuvers of war. How worthy of admiration are these people for particularly applying themselves to the study of an art, without which no other art can possibly exist. The Romans followed their example, and both practiced their institutions in their armies and preserved them in their writings. These are the maxims and instructions dispersed through the works of different authors, which Your Majesty has ordered me to abridge, since the perusal of the whole would be too tedious, and the authority of only a part unsatisfactory. The effect of the Lacedaemonian skill in dispositions for general actions appears evidently in the single instance of Xantippus, who assisted the Carthaginians after the repeated ruin of their armies. And merely superior skill and conduct defeated Attilius Regulus at the head of a Roman army, till that time always victorious. Xantippus took him prisoner and thus terminated the war by a single action. Hannibal, also, before he set out on his expedition into Italy, chose a Lacedaemonian for his counsellor in military operations; and by his advice, though inferior to the Romans both in number and strength, overthrew so many consuls and such mighty legions. He, therefore, who desires peace, should prepare for war. He who aspires to victory, should spare no pains to form his soldiers. And he who hopes for success, should fight on principle, not chance. No one dares to offend or insult a power of known superiority in action.\nThe first book treats of the choice and exercises of new levies; the second explains the establishment of the legion and the method of discipline; and the third contains the dispositions for action. By this methodical progression, the following instructions on general actions and means of victory will be better understood and of greater use. By an army is meant a number of troops, legions and auxiliaries, cavalry and infantry, assembled to make war. This number is limited by judges of the profession. The defeats of Xerxes, Darius, Mithridates and other monarchs who brought innumerable multitudes into the field, plainly show that the destruction of such prodigious armies is owing more to their own numbers than to the bravery of their enemies. An army too numerous is subject to many dangers and inconveniences. Its bulk makes it slow and unwieldy in its motions; and as it is obliged to march in columns of great length, it is exposed to the risk of being continually harassed and insulted by inconsiderable parties of the enemy. The incumbrance of the baggage is often an occasion of its being surprised in its passage through difficult places or over rivers. The difficulty of providing forage for such numbers of horses and other beasts of burden is very great. Besides, scarcity of provisions, which is to be carefully guarded against in all expeditions, soon ruins such large armies where the consumption is so prodigious, that notwithstanding the greatest care in filling the magazines they must begin to fail in a short time. And sometimes they unavoidably will be distressed for want of water. But, if unfortunately this immense army should be defeated, the numbers lost must necessarily be very great, and the remainder, who save themselves by flight, too much dispirited to be brought again to action.\nThe ancients, taught by experience, preferred discipline to numbers. In wars of lesser importance they thought one legion with auxiliaries, that is, ten thousand foot and two thousand horse, sufficient. And they often gave the command to a praeter as to a general of the second rank. When the preparations of the enemy were formidable, they sent a general of consular dignity with twenty thousand foot and four thousand horse. In our times this command was given to a count of the first order. But when there happened any dangerous insurrection supported by infinite multitudes of fierce and barbarous nations, on such emergencies they took the field with two armies under two consuls, who were charged, both singly and jointly, to take care to preserve the Republic from danger. In short, by this management, the Romans, almost continually engaged in war with different nations in different parts of the world, found themselves able to oppose them in every quarter. The excellence of their discipline made their small armies sufficient to encounter all their enemies with success. But it was an invariable rule in their armies that the number of allies or auxiliaries should never exceed that of the Roman citizens.\nThe next article is of the greatest importance: the means of preserving the health of the troops. This depends on the choice of situation and water, on the season of the year, medicine, and exercise. As to the situation, the army should never continue in the neighborhood of unwholesome marshes any length of time, or on dry plains or eminences without some sort of shade or shelter. In the summer, the troops should never encamp without tents. And their marches, in that season of the year when the heat is excessive, should begin by break of day so that they may arrive at the place of destination in good time. Otherwise they will contract diseases from the heat of the weather and the fatigue of the march. In severe winter they should never march in the night in frost and snow, or be exposed to want of wood or clothes. A soldier, starved with cold, can neither be healthy nor fit for service. The water must be wholesome and not marshy. Bad water is a kind of poison and the cause of epidemic distempers.\nIt is the duty of the officers of the legion, of the tribunes, and even of the commander-in-chief himself, to take care that the sick soldiers are supplied with proper diet and diligently attended by the physicians. For little can be expected from men who have both the enemy and diseases to struggle with. However, the best judges of the service have always been of the opinion that daily practice of the military exercises is much more efficacious towards the health of an army than all the art of medicine. For this reason they exercised their infantry without intermission. If it rained or snowed, they performed under cover; and il1 fine weather, in the field. They also were assiduous in exercising their cavalry, not only in plains, but also on uneven ground, broken and cut with ditches. The horses as well as the men were thus trained, both on the above mentioned account and to prepare them for action. Hence we may perceive the importance and necessity of a strict observance of the military exercises in an army, since health in the camp and victory in the field depend on them. If a numerous army continues long in one place in the summer or in the autumn, the waters become corrupt and the air infected. Malignant and fatal distempers proceed from this and can be avoided only by frequent changes of encampments.\nFamine makes greater havoc in an army than the enemy, and is more terrible than the sword. Time and opportunity may help to retrieve other misfortunes, but where forage and provisions have not been carefully provided, the evil is without remedy. The main and principal point in war is to secure plenty of provisions and to destroy tIle enemy by famine. An exact calculation must therefore be made before the commencement of the war as to the number of troops and the expenses incident thereto, so that the provinces may in plenty of time furnish the forage, corn, and all other kinds of provisions demanded of them to be transported. They must be in more than sufficient quantity, and gathered into the strongest and most convenient cities before the opening of the campaign. If the provinces cannot raise their quotas in kind, they must commute for them in money to be employed in procuring all things requisite for the service. For the possessions of the subjects cannot be kept secure otherwise than by the defense of arms.\nThese precautions often become doubly necessary as a siege is sometimes protracted beyond expectation, the besiegers resolving to suffer themselves all the inconveniences of want sooner than raise the siege, if they have any hopes of reducing the place by famine. Edicts should be issued out requiring the country people to convey their cattle, grain, wine and all kinds of provisions that may be of service to the enemy, into garrisoned fortresses or into the safest cities. And if they do not comply with the order, proper officers are to appointed to compel them to do it. The inhabitants of the province must likewise be obliged to retire with their effects into some fortified place before the irruption of the enemy. The fortifications and all the machines of different kinds must also be examined and repaired in time. For if you are once surprised by the enemy before you are in a proper posture of defense, you are thrown into irrecoverable confusion, and you can no longer draw any assistance from the neighboring places, all communication with them being cut off. But a faithful management of the magazines and a frugal distribution of the provisions, with proper precautions taken at first, will insure sufficient plenty. When provisions once begin to fail, parsimony is ill-timed and comes too late.\nOn difficult expeditions the ancients distributed the provisions at a fixed allowance to each man without distinction of rank; and when the emergency was past, the government accounted for the full proportions. The troops should never want wood and forage in winter or water in summer. They should have corn, wine, vinegar, and even salt, in plenty at all times. Cities and fortresses are garrisoned by such mcn as are least fit for thc service of the field. They arc provided with all sorts of arnms, arrows, fustibali, slings, stones, onagri and balistae for their defense. Great caution is requisite that the unsuspecting simplicity of the inhabitants be not imposed on by the treachery or perjury of the enemy, for pretended conferences and deceitful appearance of truces have often been more fatal than force. By observing the foregoing precautions, the besieged may have it in their power to ruin the enemy by famine, if he keeps his troops together, and if he divides.them, by frequent sallies and surprises.\nAn army drawn together from different parts sometimes is disposed to mutiny. And the troops, though not inclined to fight, pretend to be angry at not being led against the enemy. Such seditious dispositions principally show themselves in those who have lived in their quarters in idleness and effeminacy. These men, unaccustomed to the necessary fatigue of the field, are disgusted at its severity. Their ignorance of discipline makes them afraid of action and inspires them with insolence.\nThere are several remedies for this evil. While the troops are yet separated and each corps continues in its respective quarters, let the tribunes, their lieutenants and the officers in genera4 make it their business to keep up so strict a discipline as to leave them no room to harbor any thoughts but of submission and obedience. Let them be constantly employed either in field days or in the inspection of their arms. They should not be allowed to be absent on furlough. They should be frequently called by roll and trained to be exact in the observance of every signal. Let them be exercised in the use of the bow, in throwing missile weapons and stones, both with the hand and sling, and with the wooden sword at the post; let all this be continually repeated and let them be often kept under arms till they are tired. Let them be exercised in running and leaping to facilitate the passing of ditches. And if their quarters are near the sea or a river, let them all, without exception, be obliged in the summer to have the frequent practice of swimming. Let them be accustomed to march through thickets, inclosures and broken grounds, to fell trees and cut out timber, to break ground and to defend a post against their comrades who are to endeavor to dispossess them; and in the encounter each party should use their shields to dislodge and bear down their antagonists. All the different kinds of troops thus trained and exercised in their quarters will find themselves inspired with emulation for glory and eagerness for action when they come to take the field. In short, a soldier who has proper confidence in his own skill and strength, entertains no thought of mutiny.\nA general should be attentive to discover the turbulent and seditious soldiers in the army, legions or auxiliaries, cavalry or infantry. He should endeavor to procure his intelligence not from informers, but from the tribunes, their lieutenants and other officers of undoubted veracity. It would then be prudent in him to separate them from the rest under pretence of some service agreeable to them, or detach them to garrison cities or castles, but with such address that though he wants to get rid of them, they may think themselves employed by preference and favor. A multitude never broke out into open sedition at once and with unanimous consent. They are prepared and excited by some few mutineers, who hope to secure impunity for their crimes by the number of their associates. But if the height of the mutiny requires violent remedies, it will be most advisable, after the manner of the ancients, to punish the ring-leaders only in order that, though few suffer, all may be terrified by the example. But it is much more to the credit of a general to form his troops to submission and obedience by habit and discipline than to be obliged to force them to their duty by the terror of punishment.\nIt is asserted by those who have made the profession their study that an army is exposed to more danger on marches than in battles. In an engagement the men are properly armed, they see their enemies before them and come prepared to fight. But on a march the soldier is less on his guard, has not his arms always ready and is thrown into disorder by a sudden attack or ambuscade. A general, therefore, cannot be too careful and diligent in taking necessary precautions to prevent a surprise on the march and in making proper dispositions to repulse the enemy, in case of such accident, without loss.\nIn the first place, he should have an exact description of the country that is. the seat of war, in which the distances of places specified by the number of miles, the nature of the roads, the shortest routes, by-roads, mountains and rivers, should be correctly inserted. We are told that the greatest generals have carried their precautions on this head so far that, not satisfied with the simple description of the country wherein they were engaged, they caused plans to be taken of it on the spot, that they might regulate their marches by the eye with greater safety. A general should also inform himself of all these particulars from persons of sense and reputation well acquainted with the country by examining them separately at first, and then comparing their accounts in order to come at the truth with certainty.\nIf any difficulty arises about the choice of roads, he should procure proper and skillful guides. He should put them under a guard and spare neither promises nor threat to induce them to be faithful. They will acquit themselves well when they know it is impossible to escape and are certain of being rewarded for their fidelity or punished for their perfidy. He must be sure of their capacity and experience, that the whole army be not brought into danger by the errors of two or three persons. For sometimes the common sort of people imagine they know what they really do not, and through ignorance promise more than they can perform.\nBut of all precautions the most important is to keep entirely secret which way or by what route the army is to march. For the security of an expedition depends on the concealment of all motions from the enemy. The figure of the Minotaur was anciently among the legionary ensigns, signifying that this monster, according to the fable, was concealed in the most secret recesses and windings of the labyrinth, just as the designs of a general should always be impenetrable. When the enemy has no intimation of a march, it is made with security; but as sometimes the scouts either suspect or discover the decampment, or traitors or deserters give intelligence thereof, it will be proper to mention the method of acting in case of an attack on the march.\nThe general, before he puts his troops in motion, should send out detachments of trusty and experienced soldiers well mounted, to reconnoiter the places through which he is to march, in front, in rear, and on the right and left, lest he should fall into ambuscades. The night is safer and more advantageous for your spies to do their business in than day, for if they are taken prisoners, you have, as it were, betrayed yourself. After this, the cavalry should march off first, then the infantry; the baggage, bat horses, servants and carriages follow in the center; and part of the best cavalry and infantry come in the rear, since it is oftener attacked on a march than the front. The flanks of the baggage, exposed to frequent ambuscades, must also be covered with a sufficient guard to secure them. But above all, the part where the enemy is most expected must be reinforced with some of the best cavalry, light infantry and foot archers.\nIf surrounded on all sides by the enemy, you must make dispositions to receive them wherever they come, and the soldiers should be cautioned beforehand to keep their arms in their hands, and to be ready in order to prevent the bad effects of a sudden attack. Men are frightened and thrown into disorder by sudden accidents and surprises of no consequence when foreseen. The ancients were very careful that the servants or followers of the army, if wounded or frightened by the noise of the action, might not disorder the troops while engaged, and also to prevent their either straggling or crowding one another too much, which might incommode their own men and give advantage to the enemy. They ranged the baggage, therefore, in the same manner as the regular troops under particular ensigns. They selected from among the servants the most proper and experienced and gave them the command of a number of servants and boys, not exceeding two hundred, and their ensigns directed them where to assemble the baggage. Proper intervals should always be kept between the baggage and the troops, that the latter may not be embarrassed for want of room in case of an attack during the march. The manner and disposition of defense must be varied according to the difference of ground. In an open country you are more liable to be attacked by horse than foot. But in a woody, mountainous or marshy situation, the danger to be apprehended is from foot. Some of the divisions being apt through negligence to move too fast, and others too slow, great care is to be taken to prevent the army from being broken or from running into too great a length, as the enemy would instantly take advantage of the neglect and penetrate without difficulty.\nThe tribunes, their lieutenants or the masters at arms of most experience, must therefore be posted at proper distances, in order to halt those who advance too fast and quicken such as move too slow. The men at too great a distance in the front, on the appearance of an enemy, are more disposed to fly than to join their comrades. And those too far behind, destitute of assistance, fall a sacrifice to the enemy and their own despair. The enemy, it may be concluded, will either plant ambuscades or make his attack by open force, according to the advantage of the ground. Circumspection in examining every place will be a security against concealed danger; and an ambuscade, if discovered and promptly surrounded, will return the intended mischief with interest.\nIf the enemy prepare to fall upon you by open force in a mountainous country, detachments must be sent forward to occupy the highest eminences, so that on their arrival they may not dare to attack you under such a disadvantage of ground, your troops being posted so much above theIr and presenting a front ready for their reception. It is better to send men forward with hatchets and other tools in order to open ways that are narrow but safe, without regard to the labor, rather than to run any risk in the finest roads. It is necessary to be well acquainted whether the enemy usually make their attempts in the night, at break of day or in the hours of refreshment or rest; and by knowledge of their customs to guard against what we find their general practice. We must also inform ourselves whether they are strongest in infantry or cavalry; whether their cavalry is chiefly armed with lances or with bows; and whether their principal strength consists in their numbers or the excellence of their arms. All of this will enable us to take the most proper measures to distress them and for our advantage. When we have a design in view, we must consider whether it will be most advisable to begin the march by day or by night; we must calculate the distance of the places we want to reach; and take such precautions that in summer the troops may not suffer for want of water on their march, nor be obstructed in winter by impassable morasses or torrents, as these would expose the army to great danger before it could arrive at the place of its destination. As it highly concerns us to guard against these inconveniences with prudence, so it would be inexcusible not to take advantage of an enemy that fell into them through ignorance or negligence. Our spies should be constantly abroad; we should spare no pains in tampering with their men, and give all manner of encouragement to deserters. By these means we may get intelligence of their present or future designs. And we should constantly keep in readiness some detachments of cavalry and light infantry, to fall upon them when they least expect it, either on the march, or when foraging or marauding.\nThe passages of rivers are very dangerous without great precaution. In crossing broad or rapid streams, the baggage, servants, and sometimes the most indolent soldiers are in danger of being lost. Having first sounded the ford, two lines of the best mounted cavalry are ranged at a convenient distance entirely across the river, so that the infantry and baggage may pass between them. The line above the ford breaks the violence of the stream, and the line below recovers and transports the men carried away by the current. When the river is too deep to be forded either by the cavalry or infantry, the water is drawn off, if it runs in a plain, by cutting a great number of trenches, and thus it is passed with ease.\nNavigable rivers are passed by means of piles driven into the bottom and floored with planks; or in a sudden emergency by fastening together a number of empty casks and covering them with boards. The cavalry, throwing off their accoutrements, make small floats of dry reeds or rushes on which they lay their rams and cuirasses to preserve them from being wet. They themselves swim their horses across the river and draw the floats after them by a leather thong.\nBut the most commodious invention is that of the small boats hollowed out of one piece of timber and very light both by their make and the quality of the wood. The army always has a number of these boats upon carriages, together with a sufficient quantity of planks and iron nails. Thus with the help of cables to lash the boats together, a bridge is instantly constructed, which for the time has the solidity of a bridge of stone.\nAs the enemy generally endeavor to fall upon an army at the passage of a river either by surprise or ambuscade, it is necessary to secure both sides thereof by strong detachments so that the troops may not be attacked and defeated while separated by the channel of the river. But it is still safer to palisade both the posts, since this will enable you to sustain any attempt without much loss. If the bridge is wanted, not only for the present transportation of the troops but also for their return and for convoys, it will be proper to throw up works with large ditches to cover each head of the bridge, with a sufficient number of men to defend them as long as the circumstances of affairs require.\nAn army on the march cannot expect always to find walled cities for quarters, and it is very imprudent and dangerous to encamp in a straggling manner without some sort of entrenchment. It is an easy matter to surprise troops while refreshing themselves or dispersed in the different occupations of the service. The darkness of night, the necessity of sleep and the dispersion of the horses at pasture afford opportunities of surprise. A good situation for a camp is not sufficient; we must choose the very best that can be found lest, having failed to occupy a more advantageous post the enemy should get possession of it to our great detriment.\nAn army should not encamp in summer near bad waters or far from good ones, nor in winter in a situation without plenty of forage and wood. The camp should not be liable to sudden inundations. The avenues should not be too steep and narrow lest, if invested, the troops should find it difficult to make their retreat; nor should it be commanded by any eminences from which it may be annoyed by the enemy's weapons. After these precautions, the camp is formed square, round, triangular or oblong, according to the nature of the ground. For the form of a camp does not constitute its goodness. Those camps, however, are thought best where the length is one third more than the depth. The dimensions must be exactly computed by the engineers, so that the size of the camp may be proportioned to the number of troops. A camp which is too confined will not permit the troops to perform their movements with freedom, and one which is too extensive divides them too much. There are three methods of entrenching a camp. The first is for the case when the army is on the march and will continue in the camp for only one night. They then throw up a slight parapet of turf and plant it with a row of palisades or caltrops* of wood. The sods are cut with iron instruments. If the earth is held strongly together by the roots of the grass, they are cut in the form of a brick a foot and one half high, a foot broad and a foot and one half long. If the earth is so loose that the turf cannot be cut in this form, they run a slight trench round the camp, five feet broad and three feet deep. The earth taken from the trench forms a parapet on the inside and this secures the army from danger. This is the second method.\nBut permanent camps, either for summer or winter, in the neighborhood of an enemy, are fortified with greater care and regularity. After the ground is marked out by the proper officers, each century receives a certain number of feet to entrench. They then range their shields and baggage in a circle about their own colors and, with. out other arms than their swords, open a trench nine, eleven or thirteen feet broad. Or, if they are under great apprehensions of the enemy, they enlarge it to seventeen feet (it being a general rule to observe odd numbers). Within this they construct a rampart with fascines or branches of trees well fastened together with pickets, so that the earth may be better supported. Upon this rampart they raise a parapet with battlements as in the fortifications of a city. The centurions measure the work with rods ten feet long and examine whether every one has properly completed the proportion assigned to him. The tribunes likewise inspect the work and should not leave the place till the whole is finished. And that the workmen may not be suddenly interrupted by the enemy, all the cavalry and that part of the infantry exempted by the privilege of their rank from working, remain in order of battle before the entrenchment to be ready to repel any assault.\nThe first thing to be done after entrenching the camp, is to plant the ensigns, held by the soldiers in the highest veneration and respect, in their proper places. After this the praetorium is prepared for the general and his lieutenants, and the tents pitched for the tribunes, who have soldiers particularly appointed for that service and to fetch their water, wood, and forage. Then the legions and auxiliaries, cavalry and infantry, have the ground distributed to them to pitch their tents according to the rank of the several corps. Four foot-soldiers of each century and four troopers of each troop are on guard every night. As it seemed impossible for a sentinel to remain a whole night on his post, the watches were divided by the hourglass into four parts, that each man might stand only three hours. All guards are mounted by the sound of trumpet and relieved by the sound of cornet. The tribunes choose proper and trusty men to visit the different posts and report to them whatever they find amiss. This is now a military office and the persons appointed to it are called officers of the rounds.\nThe cavalry furnish the grand guards at night and the outposts by day. They are relieved every morning and afternoon because of the fatigue of the men and horses. It is particularly incumbent upon the general to provide for the protection of the pastures and.of the convoys of grain and other provisions either in camp or garrison, and to secure wood, water and forage against the incursions of the enemy. This can only be effected by posting detachments advantageously in the cines or walled castles on the roads along which the convoys advance. And if no ancient fortifications are to be met with, small forts must be built in proper situations, surrounded with large ditches, for the reception of detachments of horse and foot, so that the convoys will be effectually protected. For an enemy will hardly venture far into a country where he knows his adversary's troops are so disposed as to be ready to encompass him on all sides.\nReaders of this military abridgement will perhaps be impatient for instructions relative to general engagements. But they should considerthat a battle is commonly decided in two or three hours, after which no further hopes are left for the worsted army. Every plan, therefore, is to be considered, every expedient tried and every method taken before matters are brought to this last extremity. Good officers decline general engagements where the danger is common, and prefer the employment of stratagem and finesse to destroy the enemy as much as possible in detail and intimidate them without exposing our own forces.\nI shall insert some necessary instructions on this head collected from the ancients. It is the duty and interest of the general frequently to assemble the most prudent and experienced officers of the different corps of. the army and consult with them on the state both of his own and the enemy's forces. All overconfidence, as most pernicious in its consequences, must be banished from the deliberations. He must examine which has the superiority in numbers, whether his or the adversary's troops are best armed, which are in the best condition, best disciplined and most resolute in emergencies. The state of the cavalry of both armies must be inquired into, but more especially that of the infantry, for the main strength of an army consists of the latter. With respect to the cavalry, he must endeavor to find out in which are the greatest numbers of archers or of troopers armed with lances, which has the most cuirassiers and which the best horses. Lastly he must consider the field of battle and to judge whether the ground is more advantageous for him or his enemy. If strongest in cavalry, we should prefer plains and open ground; if superior in infantry, we should choose a situation full of enclosures, ditches, morasses and woods, and sometimes mountainous. Plenty or scarcity in either army are considerations of no small importance, for famine, according to the common proverb, is an internal enemy that makes more havoc than the sword. But the most material article is to determine whether it is most proper to temporize or to bring the affair to a speedy decision by action. The enemy sometimes expect an expedition will soon be over; and if it is protracted to any length, his troops are either consumed by want,. induced to return home by the desire of seeing their families or, having done nothing considerable in the field, disperse themselves from despair of success. Thus numbers, tired out with fatigue and disgusted with the service, desert, others betray them and many surrender themselves. Fidelity is seldom found in troops disheartened by misfortunes. And in such case an army which was numerous on taking the field insensibly dwindles away to nothing.\nIt is essential to know the character of the enemy and of their principal officers-whether they be. rash or cautious, enterprising or timid, whether they fight on principle or from chance and whether the nations they have been engaged with were brave or cowardly.\nWe must know how far to depend upon the fidelity and strength of auxiliaries, how the enemy's troops and our own are affected and which appear most confident of success, a consideration of great effect in raising or depressing the courage of an army. A harangue from the general, especially if he seems under no apprehension himself, may reanimate the soldiers if dejected. Their spirits revive if any considerable advantage is gained either by stratagem or otherwise, if the fortune of the enemy begins to change or if you can contrive to beat some of their weak or poorly-armed detachments.\nBut you must by no means venture to lead an irresolute or diffident army to a general engagement. The difference is great whether your troops are raw or veterans, whether inured to war by recent service or for some years unemployed. For soldiers unused to fighting for a length of time must be considered in the same light as recruits. As soon as the legions, auxiliaries and cavalry are assembled from their several quarters, it is the duty of a good general to have every corps instructed separately in every part of the drill by tribunes of known capacity chosen for that purpose. He should afterwards form them into one body and train them in all the maneuvers of the line as for a general action. He must frequently drill them himself to try their skill and strength, and to see whether they perform their evolutions with proper regularity and are sufficiently attentive to the sound of the trumpets, the motions of the colors and to his own orders and signals. If deficient in any of these particulars, they must be instructed and exercised till perfect.\nBut though thoroughly disciplined and complete in their field exercises, in the use of the bow and javelin, and in the evolutions of the line, it is not advisable to lead them rashly or immediately to battle. A favorable opportunity must be watched for, and they must first be prepared by frequent skirmishes and slight encounters. Thus a vigilant and prudent general will carefully weigh in his council the state of his own forces and of those of the enemy, just as a civil magistrate judging between two contending parties. If he finds himself in many respects superior to his adversary, he must by no means defer bringing on an engagement. But if he knows himself inferior, he must avoid general actions and endeavor to succeed by surprises, ambuscades and stratagems. These, when skillfully managed by good generals, have often given them the victory over enemies superior both in numbers and strength.\nAll arts and trades whatever are brought to perfection by continual practice. How much more should this maxim, true in inconsiderable matters, be observed in affairs of importance! And how much superior to all others is the art of war, by which our liberties are preserved, our dignities perpetuated and the provinces and the whole Empire itself exist. The Lacedaemonians, and after them the Romans, were so aware of this truth that to this science they sacrificed all others. And the barbarous nations even at this day think only this art worth attention, believing it includes or confers everything else. In short, it is indispensably necessary for those engaged in war not only to instruct them in the means of preserving their own lives, but how to gain the victory over their enemies.\nA commander-in-chief therefore, whose power and dignity are so great and to whose fidelity and bravery the fortunes of his countrymen, the defense of their cities, the lives of the soldiers, and the glory of the state, are entrusted, should not only consult the good of the army in general, but extend his care to every private soldier in it. For when any misfortunes happen to those under his command, they are considered as public losses and imputed entirely to his misconduct. If therefore he finds his army composed of raw troops or if they have long been unaccustomed to fighting, he must carefully study the strength, the spirit, the manners of each particular legion, and of each body of auxiliaries, cavalry and infantry. He must know, if possible, the name and capacity of every count, tribune, subaltern and soldier. He must assume the most respectable authority and maintain it by severity. He must punish all military crimes with the greatest rigor of the laws. He must have the character of being inexorable towards offenders and endeavor to give public examples thereof in different places and on different occasions.\nHaving once firmly established these regulations, he must watch the opportunity when the enemy, dispersed in search of plunder, think themselves in security, and attack them with detachments of tried cavalry or infantry, intermingled with young soldiers, or such as are under the military age. The veterans will acquire fresh experience and the others will be inspired with courage by the advantages such opportunities will give him. He should form ambuscades with the greatest secrecy to surprise the enemy at the passages of rivers, in the rugged passes of mountains, in defiles in woods and when embarrassed by morasses or difficult roads. He should regulate his march so as to fall upon them while taking their refreshments or sleeping, or at a time when they suspect no dangers and are dispersed, unarmed and their horses unsaddled. He should continue these kinds of encounters till his soldiers have imbibed a proper confidence in themselves. For troops that have never been in action or have not for some time been used to such spectacles, are greatly shocked at the sight of the wounded and dying; and the impressions of fear they receive dispose them rather to fly than fight.\nIf the enemy makes excursions or expeditions, the general should attack him after the fatigue of a long march, fall upon him unexpectedly, or harass his rear. He should detach parties to endeavor to carry off by surprise any quarters established at a distance from the hostile army for the convenience of forage or provisions. F or such measures should be pursued at first as can produce no very bad effects if they should happen to miscarry, but would be of great advantage if attended with success. A prudent general will also try to sow dissention among his adversaries, for no nation, though ever so weak in itself can be completely ruined by its enemies unless its fall be facilitated by its own distraction. In civil dissensions men are so intent on the destruction of their private enemies that they are entirely regardless of the public safety.\nOne maxim must be remembered throughout this work: that no one should ever despair of effecting what has been already performed. It may be said that our troops for many years past have not even fortified their permanent camps with ditches, ramparts or palisades. The answer is plain. If those precautions had been taken, our armies would never have suffered by surprises of the enemy both by day and night. The Persians, after the example of the old Romans, surround their camps with ditches and, as the ground in their country is generally sandy, they always carry with them empty bags to fill with the sand taken out of the trenches and raise a parapet by piling them one on the other. All the barbarous nations range their carriages round them in a circle, a method which bears some resemblance to a fortified camp. They thus pass their nights secure from surprise.\nAre we afraid of not being able to learn from others what they before have learned from us? At present all this is to be found in books only, although formerly constantly practiced. Inquiries are now no longer made about customs that have been so long neglected, because in the midst of peace, war is looked upon as an object too distant to merit consideration. But former instances will convince us that the reestablishment of ancient discipline is by no means impossible, although now so totally lost.\nIn former ages the art of war, often neglected and forgotten, was as often recovered from books and reestablished by the authority and attention of our generals. Our armies in Spain, when Scipio Africanus took the command, were in bad order and had often been beaten under preceding generals. He soon reformed them by severe discipline and obliged them to undergo the greatest fatigue in the different military works, reproaching them that since they would not wet their hands with the blood of their enemies, they should soil them with the mud of the trenches. In short, with these very troops he afterwards took the city of Numantia and burned it to the ground with such destruction of its inhabitants that not one escaped. In Africa an army, which under the command of Albinus had been forced to pass under the yoke, was by Metellus brought into such order and discipline, by forming it on the ancient model, that they afterwards vanquished those very enemies who had subjected them to that ignominious treatment. The Cimbri defeated the legions of Caepio, Manilus and Silanus in Gaul, but Marius collected their shattered remnants and disciplined them so effectually that he destroyed an innumerable multitude of the Cimbri, Teutones and Ambrones in one general engagement. Nevertheless it is easier to form young soldiers and inspire them with proper notions of honor than to reanimate troops who have been once disheartened.\nHaving explained the less considerable branches of the art of war, the order of military affairs naturally leads us to the general engagement. This is a conjuncture full of uncertainty and fatal to kingdoms and nations, for in the decision of a pitched battle consists the fulness of victory. This eventuality above all others requires the exertion of all the abilities of a general, as his good conduct on such an occasion gains him greater glory, or his dangers expose him to greater danger and disgrace. This is the moment in which his talents, skill and experience show themselves in their fullest extent.\nFormerly to enable the soldiers to charge with greater vigor, it was customary to order them a moderate refreshment of food before an engagement, so that their strength might be the better supported during a long conflict. When the army is to march out of a camp or city in the presence of their enemies drawn up and ready for action, great precaution must be observed lest they should be attacked as they defile from the gates and be cut to pieces in detail. Proper measures must therefore be taken so that the whole army may be clear of the gates and form in order of battle before the enemy's approach. If they are ready before you can have quitted the place, your design of marching out must either be deferred till another opportunity or at least dissembled, so that when they begin to insult you on the supposition that you dare not appear, or think of nothing but plundering or returning and no longer keep their ranks, you may sally out and fall upon them while in confusion and surprise. Troops must never be engaged in a general action immediately after a long march, when the men are fatigued and the horses tired. The strength required for action is spent in the toil of the march. What can a soldier do who charges when out of breath? The ancients carefully avoided this inconvenience, but in later times some of our Roman generals, to say nothing more, have lost their armies by unskillfully neglecting this precaution. Two armies, one tired and spent, the other fresh and in full vigor, are by no means an equal match.\nIt is necessary to know the sentiments of the soldiers on the day of an engagement. Their confidence or apprehensions are easily discovered by their looks, their words, their actions and their motions. No great dependence is to be placed on the eagerness of young soldiers for action, for fighting has something agreeable in the idea to those who are strangers to it. On the other hand, it would be wrong to hazard an engagement, if the old experienced soldiers testify to a disinclination to fight. A general, however, may encourage and animate his troops by proper exhortations and harangues, especially if by his account of the approaching action he can persuade them into the belief of an easy victory. With this view, he should lay before them the cowardice or unskillfulness of their enemies and remind them of any former advantages they may have gained over them. He should employ every argument capable of exciting rage, hatred and indignation against the adversaries in the minds of his soldiers.\nIt is natural for men in general to be affected with some sensations of fear at the beginning of an engagement, but there are without doubt some of a more timorous disposition who are disordered by the very sight of the enemy. To diminish these apprehensions before you venture on action, draw up your army frequently in order of battle in some safe situation, so that your men may be accustomed to the sight and appearance of the enemy. When opportunity offers, they should be sent to fall upon them and endeavor to put them to flight or kill some of their men. Thus they will become acquainted with their customs, arms and horses. And the objects with which we are once familiarized are no longer capable of inspiring us with terror.\nGood generals are acutely aware that victory depends much on the nature of the field of battle. When you intend therefore to engage, endeavor to draw the chief advantage from your situation. The highest ground is reckoned the best. Weapons thrown from a height strike with greater force; and the party above their antagonists can repulse and bear them down with greater impetuosity, while they who struggle with the ascent have both the ground and the enemy to contend with. There is, however, this difference with regard to place: if you depend on your foot against the enemy's horse, you must choose a rough, unequal and mountainous situation. But if, on the contrary, you expect your cavalry to act with advantage against the enemy's infantry, your ground must indeed be higher, but plain and open, without any obstructions of woods or morasses.\nIn drawing up an army in order of battle, three things are to be considered: the sun, the dust and the wind. The sun in your face dazzles the sight: if the wind is against you, it turns aside and blunts the force of your weapons, while it assists those of your adversary; and the dust driving in your front fills the eyes of your men and blinds them. Even the most unskillful endeavor to avoid these inconveniences in the moment of making their dispositions; but a prudent general should extend his views beyond the present; he should talke such measures as not to be incommoded in the course of the day by different aspects of the sun or by contrary winds which often rise at a certain hour and might be detrimental during action. Our troops should be so disposed as to have these inconveniences behind them, while they are directly in the enemy's front.\nHaving explained the general disposition of the lines, we now come to the distances and dimensions. One thousand paces contain a single rank of one thousand six hundred and fifty-six foot soldiers, each man being allowed three feet. Six ranks drawn up on the same extent of ground will require nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-six men. To form only three ranks of the same number will take up two thousand paces, but it is much better to increase the number of ranks than to make your front too extensive. We have before observed the distance between each rank should be six feet, one foot of which is taken up by the men. Thus if you form a body of ten thousand men into six ranks they will occupy thirty-six feet. in depth and a thousand paces in front. By this calculation it is easy to compute the extent of ground required for twenty or thirty thousand men to form upon. Nor can a general be mistaken when thus he knows the proportion of ground for any fixed number of men.\nBut if the field of battle is not spacious enough or your troops are very numerous, you may form them into nine ranks or even more, for it is more advantageous to engage in close order that to extend your line too much. An army that takes up too much ground in front and too little in depth, is quickly penetrated by the enemy's first onset. After this there is no remedy. As to the post of the different corps in the right or left wing or in the center, it is the general rule to draw them up according to their respective ranks or to distribute them as circumstances or the dispositions of the enemy may require.\nThe line of infantry being formed, the cavalry are drawn up in the wings. The heavy horse, that is, the cuirassiers and troopers armed with lances, should join the infantry. The light cavalry, consisting of the archers and those who have no cuirasses, should be placed at a greater distance. The best and heaviest horse are to cover the flanks of the foot, and the light horse are posted as abovementioned to surround and disorder the enemy's wings. A general should know what part of his own cavalry is most proper to oppose any particular squadrons or troops of the enemy. For from some causes not to be accounted for some particular corps fight better against others, and those who have defeated superior enemies are often overcome by an inferior force.\nIf your cavalry is not equal to the enemy's it is proper, after the ancient custom, to intermingle it with light infantry armed with small shields and trained to this kind of service. By observing this method, even though the flower of the enemy's cavalry should attack you, they will never be able to cope with this mixed disposition. This was the only resource of the old generals to supply the defects of their cavalry, and they intermingled the men, used to running and armed for this purpose with light shields, swords and darts, among the horse, placing one of them between two troopers.\nThe method of having bodies of reserves in rear of the army, composed of choice infantry and cavalry, commanded by the supernumerary lieutenant generals, counts and tribunes, is very judicious and of great consequence towards the gaining of a battle. Some should be posted in rear of the wings and some near the center, to be ready to fly immediately to the assistance of any part of the line which is hard pressed, to prevent its being pierced, to supply the vacancies made therein during the action and thereby to keep up the courage of their fellow soldiers and check the impetuosity of the enemy. This was an invention of the Lacedaemonians, in which they were imitated by the Carthaginians. The Romans have since observed it, and indeed no better disposition can be found.\nThe line is solely designed to repulse, or if possible, break the enemy. If it is necessary to form the wedge or the pincers, it must be done by the supernumerary troops stationed in the rear for that purpose. If the saw is to be formed, it must also be done from the reserves, for if once you begin to draw off men from the line you throw all into confusion. If any flying platoon of the enemy should fall upon your wing or any other part of your army, and you have no supernumerary troops to oppose it or if you pretend to detach either horse or foot from your line for that service by endeavoring to protect one part, you will expose the other to greater danger. In armies not very numerous, it is much better to contract the front, and to have strong reserves. In short, you must have a reserve of good and well-armed infantry near the center to form the wedge and thereby pierce the enemy's line; and also bodies of cavalry armed with lances and cuirasses, with light infantry, near the wings, to surround the flanks of the enemy.\nThe post of the commander-in-chief is generally on the right between the cavalry and infantry. For from this place he can best direct the motions of the whole army and move elements with the greatest ease wherever he finds it necessary. It is also the most convenient spot to give his orders to both horse and foot and to animate them equally by his presence. It is his duty to surround the enemy's left wing opposed to him with his reserve of horse and light infantry, and attack it in the flank and rear. The second in command is posted in the center of the infantry to encourage and support them. A reserve of good and well-armed infantry is near him and under his orders. With this reserve he either forms the wedge to pierce the enemy's line or, if they form the wedge first, prepares the pincers for its reception. The post of the third in command is on the left. He should be a careful and intrepid officer, this part of the army being difficult to manage and defective, as it were, from its situation in the line. He should therefore have a reserve of good cavalry and active infantry to enable him always to extend his left in such a manner as to prevent its being surrounded.\nThe war shout should not be begun till both armies have joined, for it is a mark of ignorance or cowardice to give it at a distance. The effect is much greater on the enemy when they find themselves struck at the same instant with the horror of the noise and the points of the weapons.\nYou must always endeavor to get the start of your enemy in drawing up in order of battle, as you will then have it in your power to make your proper dispositions without obstruction. This will increase the courage of your own troops and intimidate your adversaries. For a superiority of courage seems to be implied on the side of an army that offers battle, whereas troops begin to be fearful who see their enemies ready to attack them. You will also secure another great advantage, that of marching up in order and falling upon them while forming and still in confusion. For part of the victory consists in throwing the enemy into disorder before you engage them.\nAn able general never loses a favorable opportunity of surprising the enemy either when tired on the march, divided in the passage of a river, embarrassed in morasses, struggling with the declivities of mountains, when dispersed over the country they think themselves in security or are sleeping in their quarters. In all these cases the adversaries are surprised and destroyed before they have time to put themselves on their guard. But if they are too cautious to give you an opportunity of surprising or ensnaring them, you are then obliged to engage openly and on equal terms. This at present is foreign to the subject. However military skill is no less necessary in general actions than in carrying on war by subtlety and stratagem.\nYour first care is to secure your left wing from being surrounded by the enemy's numbers or attacked in flank or rear by flying platoons, a misfortune that often happens. Nor is your right to be neglected, though less frequently in danger. There is only one remedy for this: to wheel back your wing and throw it into a circular position. By this evolution your soldiers meet the enemy on the quarter attacked and defend the rear of their comrades. But your best men should be posted on the angles of the flanks, since it is against them the enemy make their principal efforts.\nThere is also a method of resisting the wedge when formed by the enemy. The wedge is a disposition of a body of infantry widening gradually towards the base and terminating in a point towards the front. It pierces the enemy's line by a multitude of darts directed to one particular place. The soldiers call it the swine's head. To oppose this disposition, they make use af another called the pincers, resembling the letter V, composed of a body of men in close order. It receives the wedge, inclosing it on both sides, and thereby prevents it from penetrating the line.\nThe saw is another disposition formed of resolute soldiers drawn up in a straight line advanced into the front against the enemy, to repair any disorder. The platoon is a body of men separated from the line, to hover on every side and attack the enemy wherever they find opportunity. And against this is to be detached a stronger and more numerous platoon.\nAbove all, a general must never attempt to alter his dispositions or break his order of battle during the time of action, for such an alteration would immediately Occasion disorder and confusion which the enemy would not fail to improve to their advantage.\nAn army may be drawn up for a general engagement in seven different formations. The first formation is an oblong square of a large front, of common use both in ancient and modern times, although not thought the best by various judges of the service, because an even and level plain of an extent sufficient to contain its front cannot always be found, and if there should be any irregularity or hollow in the line, it is often pierced in that part. Besides, an enemy superior in number may surround either your right or left wing, the consequence of which will be dangerous, unless you have a reserve ready to advance and sustain his attack. A general should make use of this disposition only when his forces are better and more numerous than the enemy's, it being thereby in his power to attack both the flanks and surround them on every side.\nThe second and best disposition is the oblique. For although your army consists of few troops, yet good and advantageously posted, it will greatly contribute to your obtaining the victory, notwithstanding the numbers and bravery of the enemy. It is as follows: as the armies are marching up to the attack, your left wing must be kept back at such a distance from the enemy's right as to be out of reach of their darts and arrows. Your right wing must advance obliquely upon the enemy's left, and begin the engagement. And you must endeavor with your best cavalry and infantry to surround the wing with which you are engaged, make it give way and fall upon the enemy in the rear. If they once give ground and the attack is properly seconded, you will undoubtedly gain the victory, while your left wing, which continued at a distance, will remain untouched. An army drawn up in this manner bears some resemblance to the letter A or a mason's level. If the enemy should be beforehand with you in this evolution, recourse must be had to the supernumerary horse and foot posted as a reserve in the rear, as I mentioned before. They must be ordered to support your left wing. This will enable you to make a vigorous resistance against the artifice of the enemy.\nThe third formation is like the second, but not so good, as it obliges you to begin the attack with your left wing on the enemy's right. The efforts of soldiers on the left are weak and imperfect from their exposed and defective situation in the line. I will explain this formation more clearly. Although your left wing should be much better than your right, yet it must be reinforced with some of the best horse and foot and ordered to commence the acnon with the enemy's right in order to disorder and surround it as expeditiously as possible. And the other part of your army, composed of the worst troops, should remain at such a distance from the enemy's left as not to be annoyed by their darts or in danger of being attacked sword in hand. In this oblique formation care must be taken to prevent the line being penetrated by the wedges of the enemy, and it is to be employed only when the enemy's right wing is weak and your greatest strength is on your left.\nThe fourth formation is this: as your army is marching to the attack in order of battle and you come within four or five hundred paces of the enemy, both your wings must be ordered unexpectedly to quicken their pace and advance with celerity upon them. When they find themselves attacked on both wings at the same time, the sudden surprise may so disconcert them as to give you an easy victory. But although this method, if your troops are very resolute and expert, may ruin the enemy at once, yet it is hazardous. The general who attempts it is obliged to abandon and expose his center and to divide his army into three parts. If the enemy are not routed at the first charge, they have a fair opportunity of attacking the wings which are separated from each other and the center which is destitute of assistance.\nThe fifth formation resembles the fourth but with this addition: the light infantry and the archers are formed before the center to cover it from the attempts of the enemy. With this precaution the general may safely follow the above mentioned method and attack the enemy's left wing with his right, and their right with his left. If he puts them to flight, he gains an immediate victory, and if he fails of success his center is in no danger, being protected by the light infantry and archers.\nThe sixth formation is very good and almost like the second. It is used when the general cannot depend either on the number or courage of his troops. If made with judgment, notwithstanding his inferiority, he has often a good chance for victory. As your line approaches the enemy, advance your right wing against their left and begin the attack with your best cavalry and infantry. At the same time keep the rest of the army at a great distance from the enemy's right, extended in a direct line like a javelin. Thus if you can surround their left and attack it in flank and rear, you must inevitably defeat them. It is impossible for the enemy to draw off reinforcements from their right or from their center to sustain their left in this emergency, since the remaining part of your army is extended and at a great distance from them in the form of the letter L. It is a formation often used in an action on a march.\nThe seventh formation owes its advantages to the nature of the ground and will enable you to oppose an enemy with an army inferior both in numbers and goodness, provided one of your flanks can be covered either with an eminence, the sea, a river, a lake, a city, a morass or broken ground inaccessible to the enemy. The rest of the army must be formed, as usual, in a straight line and the unsecured flank must be protected by your light troops and all your cavalry. Sufficiently defended on one side by the nature of the ground and on the other by a double support of cavalry, you may then safely venture on action.\nOne excellent and general rule must be observed. If you intend to engage with your right wing only, it must be composed of your best troops. And the same method must be taken with respect to the left. Or if you intend to penetrate the enemy's line, the wedges which you form for that purpose before your center, must consist of the best disciplined soldiers. Victory in general is gained by a small number of men. Therefore the wisdom of a general appears in nothing more than in such choice of disposition of his men as is most consonant with reason and service.\nGenerals unskilled in war think a victory incomplete unless the enemy are so straightened in their ground or so entirely surrounded by numbers as to have no possibility of escape. But in such situation, where no hopes remain, fear itself will arm an enemy and despair inspires courage. When men find they must inevitably perish, they willingly resolve to die with their comrades and with their arms in their hands. The maxim of Scipio, that a golden bridge should be made for a flying enemy, has much been commended. For when they have free room to escape they think of nothing but how to save themselves by flight, and the confusion becoming general, great numbers are cut to pieces. The pursuers can be in no danger when the vanquished have thrown away their arms for greater haste. In this case the greater the number of the flying army, the greater the slaughter. Numbers are of no signification where troops once thrown into consternation are equally terrified at the sight of the enemy as at their weapons. But on the contrary, men when shut up, although weak and few in number, become a match for the enemy from this very reflection, that they have no resource but in despair.\n\"The conquer'd's safety is, to hope for none.\"\nHaving gone through the various particulars relative to general actions, it remains at present to explain the manner of retreating in presence of the enemy. This is an operation, which, in the judgment of men of greatest skill and experience, is attended with the utmost hazard. A general certainly discourages his own troops and animates his enemies by retiring out of the field without fighting. Yet as this must sometimes necessarily happen, it will be proper to consider how to perform it with safety.\nIn the first place your men must not imagine that you retire to decline an action, but believe your retreat an artifice to draw the enemy into an ambuscade or more advantageous position where you may easier defeat them in case they follow you. For troops who perceive their general despairs of success are prone to flight. You must be cautious lest the enemy should discover your retreat and immediately fall upon you. To avoid this danger the cavalry are generally posted in the front of the infantry to conceal their motions and retreat from the enemy. The first divisions are drawn off first, the others following in their turns. The last maintain their ground till the rest have marched off, and then file off themselves and join them in a leisurely and regular succession. Some generals have judged it best to make their retreat in the night after reconnoitering their routes, and thus gain so much ground that the enemy, not discovering their departure till daybreak, were not able to come up with them. The light infantry was also sent forward to possess the eminences under which the army might instantly retire with safety; and the enemy, in case they pursued, be exposed to the light infantry, masters of the heights, seconded by the cavalry.\nA rash and inconsiderate pursuit exposes an army to the greatest danger possible, that of falling into ambuscades and the hands of troops ready for their reception. For as the temerity of an army is increased and their caution lessened by the pursuit of a flying enemy, this is the most favorable opportunity for such snares. The greater the security, the greater the danger. Troops, when unprepared, at their meals, fatigued after a march, when their horses are feeding, and in short, when they believe themselves most secure, are generally most liable to a surprise. All risks of this sort are to be carefully avoided and all opportunities taken of distressing the enemy by such methods. Neither numbers nor courage avail in misfortunes of this nature.\nA general who has been defeated in a pitched battle, although skill and conduct have the greatest share in the decision, may in his defense throw the blame on fortune. But if he has suffered himself to be surprised or drawn into the snares of his enemy, he has no excuse for his fault, because he might have avoided such a misfortune by taking proper precautions and employing spies on whose intelligence he could depend.\nWhen the enemy pursue a retreating foe, the following snare is usually laid. A small body of cavalry is ordered to pursue them on the direct road. At the same time a strong detachment is secretly sent another way to conceal itself on their route. When the cavalry have overtaken the enemy, they make some feint attacks and retire. The enemy, imagining the danger past, and that they have escaped the snare, neglect their order and march without regularity. Then the detachment sent to intercept them, seizing the opportunity, falls upon them unexpectedly and destroys them with ease.\nMany generals when obliged to retreat through woods send forward parties to seize the defiles and difficult passes, to avoid ambuscades and block the roads with barricades of felled trees to secure themselves from being pursued and attacked in the rear. In short both sides have equal opportunities of surprising or laying ambuscades on th1e march. The army which retreats leaves troops behind for that purpose posted in convenient valleys or mountains covered with woods, and if the enemy falls into the snare, it returns immediately to their assistance. The army that pursues detaches different parties of light troops to march ahead through by-roads and intercepts the enemy, who are thus surrounded and attacked at once in front and rear. The flying army may return and fall on the enemy while asleep in the night. And the pursuing army may, even though the distance is great, surprise the adversary by forced marches. The former endeavor may be at the crossing of a river in order to destroy such part of the enemy's army as has already crossed. The pursuers hasten their march to fall upon those bodies of the enemy that have not yet crossed.\nThe armed chariots used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a machine composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.\nElephants by their vast size, horrible noise and the novelty of their form are at first very terrible both to men and horses. Pyrrhus first used them against the Romans in Lucania. And afterwards Hannibal brought them into the field in Africa. Antiochus in the east and Jugurtha in Numidia had great numbers. Many expedients have been used against them. In Lucania a centurion cut off the trunk of one with his sword. Two soldiers armed from head to foot in a chariot drawn by two horses, also covered with armor, attacked these beasts with lances of great length. They were secured by their armor from the archers on the elephants and avoided the fury of the animals by the swiftness of their horses. F oot soldiers completely armored, with the addition of long iron spikes fixed on their arms, shoulders and helmets, to prevent the elephant from seizing them with his trunk, were also employed against them.\nBut among the ancients, the velites usually engaged them. They were young soldiers, lightly armed, active and very expert in throwing their missile weapons on horseback. These troops kept hovering round the elephants continually and killed them with large lances and javelins. Afterwards, the soldiers, as their apprehensions decreased, attacked them in a body and, throwing their javelins together, destroyed them by the multitude of wounds. Slingers with round stones from the fustibalus and sling killed both the men who guided the elephants and the soldiers who fought in the towers on their backs. This was found by experience to be the best and safest expedient. At other times on the approach of these beasts, the soldiers opened their ranks and let them pass through. When they got into the midst of the troops, who surrounded them on all sides, they were captured with their guards unhurt.\nLarge balistae, drawn on carriages by two horses or mules, should be placed in the rear of the line, so that when the elephants come within reach they may be transfixed with the darts. The balistae should be larger and the heads of the darts stronger and broader than usual, so that the darts may be thrown farther, with greater force and the wounds be proportioned to the bodies of the beasts. It was proper to describe these several methods and contrivances employed against elephants, so that it may be known on occasion in what manner to oppose those prodigious animals.\nIf while one part of your army is victorious the other should be defeated, you are by no means to despair, since even in this extremity the constancy and resolution of a general may recover a complete victory. There are innumerable instances where the party that gave least way to despair was esteemed the conqueror. For where losses and advantages seem nearly equal, he is reputed to have the superiority who bears up against his misfortunes with greatest resolution. He is therefore to be first, if possible, to seize the spoils of the slain and to make rejoicings for the victory. Such marks of confidence dispirit the enemy and redouble your own courage.\nYet notwithstanding an entire defeat, all possible remedies must be attempted, since many generals have been fortunate enough to repair such a loss. A prudent officer will never risk a general action without taking such precautions as will secure him from any considerable loss in case of a defeat, for the uncertainty of war and the nature of things may render such a misfortune unavoidable. The neighborhood of a mountain, a fortified post in the rear or a resolute stand made by a good body of troops to cover the retreat, may be the means of saving the army.\nAn army after a defeat has sometimes rallied, returned on the enemy, dispersed him by pursuing in order and destroyed him without difficulty. Nor can men be in a more dangerous situation than, when in the midst of joy after victory, their exultation is suddenly converted into terror. Whatever be the event, the remains of the army must be immediately assembled, reanimated by suitable exhortations and furnished with fresh supplies of arms. New levies should immediately be made and new reinforcements provided. And it is of much the greatest consequence that proper opportunities should be taken to surprise the victorious enemies, to draw them into snares and ambuscades and by this means to recover the drooping spirits of your men. Nor will it be difficult to meet with such opportunities, as the nature of the human mind is apt to be too much elated and to act with too little caution in prosperity. If anyone should imagine no resource is left after the loss of a battle, let him reflect on what has happened in similar cases and he will find that they who were victorious in the end were often unsuccessful in the beginning.\nIt is the nature of war that what is beneficial to you is detrimental to the enemy and what is of service to him always hurts you. It is therefore a maxim never to do, or to omit doing, anything as a consequence of his actions, but to consult invariably your own interest only. And you depart from this interest whenever you imitate such measures as he pursues for his benefit. For the same reason it would be wrong for him to follow such steps as you take for your advantage.\nThe more your troops have been accustomed to camp duties on frontier stations and the more carefully they have been disciplined, the less danger they will be exposed to in the field.\nMen must be sufficiently tried before they are led against the enemy.\nIt is much better to overcome the enemy by famine, surprise or terror than by general actions, for in the latter instance fortune has often a greater share than valor. Those designs are best which the enemy are entirely ignorant of till the moment of execution. Opportunity in war is often more to be depended on than courage.\nTo debauch the enemy's soldiers and encourage them when sincere in surrendering themselves, is of especial service, for an adversary is more hurt by desertion than by slaughter.\nIt is better to have several bodies of reserves than to extend your front too much.\nA general is not easily overcome who can form a true judgment of his own and the enemy's forces.\nValor is superior to numbers.\nThe nature of the ground is often of nmore consequence than courage.\nFew men are born brave; many become so through care and force of discipline.\nAn army is strengthened by labor and enervated by idleness.\nTroops are not to be led to battle unless confident of success.\nNovelty and surprise throw an enemy into consternation; but common incidents have no effect.\nHe who rashly pursues a flying enemy with troops in disorder, seems inclined to resign that victory which he had before obtained.\nAn army unsupplied with grain and other necessary provisions will be vanquished without striking a blow.\nA general whose troops are superior both in number and bravery should engage in the oblong square, which is the first formation.\nHe who judges himself inferior should advance his right wing obliquely against the enemy's left. This is the second formation.\nIf your left wing is strongest, you must attack the enemy's right according to the third formation.\nThe general who can depend on the discipline of his men should begin the engagement by attacking both the enemy's wings at once, the fourth formation.\nHe whose light infantry is good should cover his center by forming them in its front and charge both the enemy's wings at once. This is the fifth formation.\nHe who cannot depend either on the number or courage of his troops, if obliged to engage, should begin the action with his right and endeavor to break the enemy's left, the rest of his army remaining formed in a line perpendicular to the front and extended to the rear like a javelin. This is the sixth formation.\nIf your forces are few and weak in comparison to the enemy, you must make use of the seventh formation and cover one of your flanks either with an eminence, a city, the sea, a river or some protection of that kind.\nA general who trusts to his cavalry should choose the proper ground for them and employ them principally in the action.\nHe who depends on his infantry should choose a situation most proper for them and make most use of their service.\nWhen an enemy's spy lurks in the camp, order all your soldiers in the day time to their tents, and he will instantly be apprehended.\nOn finding the enemy has notice of your designs, you must immediately alter your plan of operations.\nConsult with many on proper measures to be taken, but communicate the plans you intend to put in execution to few, and those only of the most assured fidelity; or rather trust no one but yourself.\nPunishment, and fear thereof, are necessary to keep soldiers in order in quarters; but in the field they are more influenced by hope and rewards.\nGood officers never engage in general actions unless induced by opportunity or obliged by necessity.\nTo distress the enemy more by famine than the sword is a mark of consummate skill.\nMany instructions might be given with regard to the cavalry. But as this branch of the service has been brought to perfection since the ancient writers and considerable improvements have been made in their drills and maneuvers, their arms, and the quality and management of their horses, nothing can be collected from their works. Our present mode of discipline is sufficient.\nDispositions for action must be carefully concealed from the enemy, lest they should counteract them and defeat your plans by proper expedients.\nThis abridgment of the most eminent military writers, invincible Emperor, contains the maxims and instructions they have left us, approved by different ages and confirmed by repeated experience. The Persians admire your skill in archery; the Huns and Alans endeavor in vain to imitate your dexterity in horsemanship; the Saracens and Indians cannot equal your activity in the hunt; and even the masters at arms pique themselves on only part of that knowledge and expertness of which you give so many instances in their own profession. How glorious it is therefore for Your Majesty with all these qualifications to unite the science of war and the art of conquest, and to convince the world that by Your conduct and courage You are equally capable of performing the duties of the soldier and the general!\n* An instrument with four points so designed that when any three of them are on the ground the fourth projects upward. These are extensively used today for antitank barriers." ]

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[ "What Students Say About Instructor Feedback was a 2013 study that examined student perceptions of instructor feedback using the Turnitin.com platform. Students wanted timely feedback, but rarely received it: 28 percent of respondents reported that their instructors took 13+ days to provide feedback on their papers. Students preferred feedback about grammar, mechanics, composition, and structure. Students found feedback on thesis development valuable. Despite high rates of electronic submission, students did not report receiving electronic feedback at nearly the same rate.\nFrom The Margins analyzed nearly 30 million marks left on student papers submitted to the Turnitin.com’s service between January 2010 and May 2012. QuickMark comments are a preloaded set of 76 comments covering 4 categories that instructors can drag- and-drop onto students’ papers within the Turnitin online grading platform.\nThis study looked specifically at frequencies and trends teachers employed when providing margin comments. The top 15 are listed below.\nThis 2014 follow-up study discovered that students found face-to-face feedback “very” or “extremely effective.” 77 percent of students viewed face-to-face comments as “very” or “extremely effective,” but only 30 percent received face-to-face “very” or “extremely often.”\nStudents perceived general comments on their writing to be “very” or “extremely effective.” However, a smaller percentage of educators felt the same. Even though 68 percent of students reported receiving general comments “very” or “extremely often,” and 67 percent of students said this feedback type was “very” or “extremely effective,” only one-third of educators viewed general comments as “very” or “extremely effective.”\nStudents preferred “suggestions for improvement” over “praise or discouragement.” The greatest percentage of students found suggestions for improvement “very” or “extremely effective,” while the fewest percentage of students said the same for “praise or discouragement.”\nStudents and educators differed on what constituted effective feedback. The gap between educators and students was greater than 15 percent on the majority of areas examined. The biggest difference between educator and student responses occurred with “general, overall comments about the paper” and “specific notes written in the margins.”\nComments recorded by voice or audio may be a time-saving substitute for face-to-face feedback. Only five percent of student respondents reported receiving voice or video comments at the same frequency as that reported by students who report receiving face-to-face feedback “very” or “extremely often” (30 percent). As a way to negotiate time pressures and still be able to provide more personalized feedback, educators might consider leveraging the use of recorded voice or audio comments to provide feedback on student work. Many grading platforms and learning management systems (LMS) offer this feature as part of their services.\nThis study identified a clear relationship between exposure to feedback and perceived effectiveness of feedback. Thus, it is imperative to provide students with different types of feedback, and evaluate what is helpful for them. Obviously, the more feedback students get, the more valuable it becomes. Teachers should discuss the types of feedback they typically provide to their classes. Then ask students to share what types of feedback they have found most helpful.\nThe definition of “effective feedback” is going to be modified within your course. Poll your class to find out what types of feedback students think would improve their writing." ]

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[ "Depression is increasingly recognized as a problem rooted in chronic inflammation. While other factors may also be involved, inflammation can have a profound impact on your mental health.\nThe study of these connections is known as psychoneuroimmunology, i.e., the impact of inflammation on behavior. As noted in one 2012 study in the journal Neuropsychopharmacology:1\n“Elevated biomarkers of inflammation, including inflammatory cytokines and acute-phase proteins, have been found in depressed patients, and administration of inflammatory stimuli has been associated with the development of depressive symptoms.\nData also have demonstrated that inflammatory cytokines can interact with multiple pathways known to be involved in the development of depression, including monoamine metabolism, neuroendocrine function, synaptic plasticity, and neurocircuits relevant to mood regulation …\nPsychosocial stress, diet, obesity, a leaky gut and an imbalance between regulatory and pro-inflammatory T cells also contribute to inflammation and may serve as a focus for preventative strategies relevant to both the development of depression and its recurrence.”\nInflammation and Depression\nIn this model, depression is the result of your body’s attempts to protect itself from an inflammatory response, and involves hormones and neurotransmitters. Depressive symptoms most strongly associated with chronic inflammation include flat mood, slowed thinking, avoidance, alterations in perception and metabolic changes.2\nFor example, in melancholic depression, bipolar disorder and postpartum depression, white blood cells called monocytes express pro-inflammatory genes that provoke secretion of cytokines.5 At the same time, cortisol sensitivity goes down, and cortisol is a stress hormone that buffers against inflammation.\nTogether, these inflammatory agents transfer information to your nervous system, typically by stimulating your vagus nerve, which connects your gut and brain.6\nDuring inflammatory states, brain cells called microglia are activated. When this happens, an enzyme called indoleamine 2 3-dioxygenase (IDO) directs tryptophan away from the production of serotonin and melatonin, instructing it instead to produce an NMDA (an amino acid derivative) agonist called quinolinic acid, which can trigger anxiety and agitation.7\nErrant Immune System May Alter Your Mood\nRecent research again highlights the inflammatory underpinnings of depression. As reported by BBC:8\n“The focus is on an errant immune system causing inflammation in the body and altering mood … [Professor Ed Bullmore, Ph.D., head of psychiatry at the University of Cambridge and an employee of GlaxoSmithKline] said: ‘Depression and inflammation often go hand in hand …\n[I]f you have flu, the immune system reacts to that, you become inflamed and very often people find that their mood changes too. Their [behavior] changes, they may become less sociable, more sleepy [and] more withdrawn.\nThey may begin to have some of the negative ways of thinking that are characteristic of depression and all of that follows an infection’ …\nInflammation is part of the immune system’s response to danger … If it is too high, it causes damage. And for some reason, about one-third of depressed patients have consistently high levels of inflammation.”\nWhen patients diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis were treated with anti-inflammatory drugs targeting specific parts of the immune system, they also reported an improvement in mood. This was what raised the curiosity of professor Iain McInnes, a consultant rheumatologist. He told the BBC:\n“When we give these therapies we see a fairly rapid increase in a sense of well-being, mood state improving quite remarkably often disproportionately given the amount of inflammation we can see in their joints and their skin.”\nAnti-Inflammatories Boost Mood\nAfter taking an anti-inflammatory drug, there were significant changes in their brains’ neuro-chemical circuitry. Importantly, pathways known to be involved in alleviating depression were favorably altered.\nInterestingly, work by Carmine Pariante, a professor of biological psychiatry, shows that people who have overactive immune systems are less likely to respond to anti-depressants.\nHe also found that emotional trauma may alter your immune system and “prime” it in such a way that it predisposes you to depression. BBC quotes Pariante, saying:\n“We think the immune system is the key mechanism by which early life events produce this long-term effect.\nWe have some data showing adult individuals who have a history of early life trauma, even if they have never been depressed, have an activated immune system so they are in a state of risk.”\nArthritis Drug Being Tested on Depressed Patients\nThe arthritis drug sirukumab is currently being tested on depressed patients. GlaxoSmithKline and others are also working on developing anti-inflammatory drugs targeting depression.\nThe problem with this approach is that you’d simply be switching from one form of drug to another, and virtually all drugs have side effects. Sometimes terminal, as the 60,000 who died from the anti-inflammatory Vioxx.\nFortunately, you don’t need drugs to combat inflammation. One of the most effective ways to quell inflammation is to eat a ketogenic diet, high in healthy fats and low in net carbs (total carbs minus fiber).\nIn fact, one of the most remarkable effects of nutritional ketosis is that your C-reactive protein (CRP) level (an inflammatory marker) virtually disappears. It can really drive your inflammation levels about as low as they can go.\nSnacking on Nuts Decreases Inflammation\n“Past research has linked eating nuts to lower rates of heart disease and diabetes, but the exact reason was unknown, senior study author Dr. Ying Bao, an assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School in Boston, told Reuters Health. ‘We hypothesized that nuts may exert these health benefits by reducing inflammation,’ Bao said …”\nBy looking at data from two long-term studies — the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS) — in which participants documented what they ate and provided blood samples that were analyzed for inflammatory biomarkers, the researchers found that people who ate nuts at least five times a week had 20 percent lower CRP levels and 16 percent lower IL-6 than those who rarely or never ate nuts.\nThis remained true even when other anti-inflammatory dietary and lifestyle strategies such as exercise, body weight and smoking were taken into account. I use macadamia nuts and pecans nearly every day as part of my diet plan, about 2 ounces of each, as they really help safely keep my calorie level high.\nOther Health Benefits Linked to Regular Nut Consumption\nOther research has linked regular nut consumption to:\n- Weight loss13\n- Lower systolic blood pressure\n- Fewer risk factors for metabolic syndrome14 and a lower risk for diabetes\n- Improved cardiovascular health\n- Reduced mortality risk and increased longevity. In one study, people who ate a small handful (1 ounce or 28 grams) of nuts seven times per week or more were 20 percent less likely to die for any reason, compared to those who avoided nuts. Eating nuts at least 5 times per week was associated with a 29 percent drop in mortality risk from heart disease and an 11 percent drop in mortality risk from cancer specifically15,16,17,18\nAnti-inflammatory ingredients in nuts include fiber, magnesium, antioxidants, the amino acid L-arginine and unsaturated fatty acids such as α-linolenic acid. Organic, raw and unpeeled nuts are best, as processing can destroy many nutrients, and most of the antioxidants are actually in the skin. When roasted and/or peeled, those valuable antioxidants are lost.\nTop Picks: Macadamias and Pecans\nMost nuts’ nutritional makeup closely resembles what I consider to be an ideal ratio of the basic building blocks, with fat making up the greatest amount of your daily calories, followed by a moderate amount of high-quality protein and a low amount of non-vegetable carbs (see my Food Pyramid for Optimal Health). That said, some nuts have more ideal ratios than others.\nMy favorite nuts, macadamia and pecans, provide the highest amount of healthy fat while being on the lower end in terms of carbs and protein. Raw macadamia nuts also contain high amounts of vitamin B1, magnesium and manganese. Moreover, about 60 percent of the fatty acid in macadamia is the monounsaturated fat oleic acid. This is about the level found in olives, which are well known for their health benefits. This little tidbit is a fact few people make note of when discussing the benefits of macadamias.\nPecans also boast more than 19 different vitamins and minerals that studies suggest can help you lower LDL cholesterol and promote healthy arteries, and are in the top 15 foods known for their antioxidant activity, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).\nOne of those antioxidants is vitamin E, which may convey neurological protection and keeps blood lipids from oxidizing in your body. Beta-carotenes, lutein and zeaxanthin in pecans also help rid your body of harmful free radicals, protecting it from inflammation. One ounce of macadamia nuts has only 4 grams of carbs, but over half of those are non-digestible fiber so it provides an ultra-low 2 grams of sugar per ounce of nuts.\nThe Importance of Animal-Based Omega-3 DHA\nAnimal-based omega-319 is a potent, all-natural anti-inflammatory. While many nuts contain plant-based omega-3 (with the exception of pecans, which are very low in omega-3 and omega-6), your body cannot efficiently convert the alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) found in plants to the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) found in marine animals such as fatty fish and krill. DHA is particularly important for brain health, as more than 90 percent of the omega-3 fat found in your brain tissue is DHA.20\nFurthermore, the marine-based DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are actually structural elements needed by every cell in your body; part of their biological effects include anti-inflammatory activity and communication within the cell and between cells. With this in mind, it’s important to avoid making the mistake of thinking you can get all the omega-3 you need from plant sources.\nYou simply cannot afford to get this wrong, especially if you’re struggling with depression or other inflammation-based conditions. To learn more about the differences between plant- and animal-based omega-3 fats, please see my previous article, “How Good Fats Prevent Heart Disease.” Good sources of animal-based DHA and EPA include fatty, cold-water fish like wild Alaskan salmon, sardines, herring, fish roe and krill oil.\nVitamin D — Another Important Anti-Inflammatory\nVitamin D, which is best obtained from regular, sensible sun exposure, also inhibits inflammation. It produces over 200 anti-microbial peptides and up-regulates a large number of genes, including one that boosts your ability to fight infections and chronic inflammation. In one placebo-controlled study, high-dose vitamin D supplementation boosted anti-inflammatory molecules, showing promise as an anti-inflammatory “medicine” for people with heart failure.21\nDaily supplementation with 50 micrograms (mcg) — equivalent to 2,000 International Units (IUs) — of vitamin D for nine months increased blood concentrations of anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 (IL-10) by 43 percent, while simultaneously preventing an increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha in patients diagnosed with congestive heart failure (CHF).\nVitamin D deficiency has also been linked to depression specifically. In one previous study, seniors with the lowest levels of vitamin D were found to be 11 times more prone to be depressed than those who had normal levels.\nIn addition to its anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, vitamin D receptors appear in a wide variety of brain tissue, and researchers believe optimal vitamin D levels may enhance important chemicals in your brain and protect brain cells by increasing the effectiveness of glial cells that help nurse damaged neurons back to health.\nTo learn more about how to optimize your vitamin D level through sensible sun exposure, please see my interview with Dr. Michael F. Holick, who is a well-recognized expert on vitamin D. A vitamin D3 supplement can also be used, but you’ll need to monitor your levels regularly. To reap maximum benefit, you need a vitamin D level of at least 40 to 60 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml).\nOptimal Sun Exposure\nPlease remember that there are inherent dangers in using vitamin D3 as an oral supplement. It is a hormone, not a vitamin, and has profoundly important physiologic actions. Ultimately, we were designed to get nearly all of our vitamin D from appropriate solar exposure and, as such, vitamin D is a marker for UV light exposure, which also has a wide ranging host of metabolic benefits.\nIf you give your body a false signal with oral vitamin D, there is potential that you will disrupt some important physiological cycles. I personally have not swallowed vitamin D in seven years, but moved to Florida to get high-quality sun exposure.\nAlso, UVB is not the only wavelength in sunlight. You really need all the frequencies to effectively treat depression. For example, daily exposure to sunlight outdoors without glasses or contacts (ideally grounded to the earth) for several minutes within an hour of sunrise is a powerful stimulus to normalize your circadian rhythm. Avoiding all blue light from artificial sources is another factor. When these are done you typically sleep better, which is a profoundly important factor for depression.\nRegain Your Mental Health by Quelling Inflammation\nIf you suffer from depression, it may be well worth your effort to take steps to reduce the level of inflammation in your body. No drugs are necessary for this. In fact, your best strategy is to address your diet, and make sure to get enough animal-based omega-3 and vitamin D.\nRaw organic nuts are a great source of healthy fats, but I wouldn’t recommend hitching your hopes on nuts alone. You also need to ditch the processed foods (which are chockfull of inflammatory ingredients) and switch to real foods, as that’s where you’ll find important antioxidants and nutrients that help combat inflammation. I would strongly encourage you to consider a ketogenic diet — the anti-inflammatory capacity of which is truly profound.\nAlso be sure to address your gut health, as impaired gut flora is also frequently involved in depression. One of the easiest ways to help reseed your gut with beneficial bacteria is to eat traditionally fermented and cultured foods such as kefir, natto, kimchi and fermented vegetables, most of which are also easy and inexpensive to make from scratch at home.\nDisclaimer: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of WakingTimes or its staff." ]

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[ "This archived Web page remains online for reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. This page will not be altered or updated. Web pages that are archived on the Internet are not subject to the Government of Canada Web Standards. As per the Communications Policy of the Government of Canada, you can request alternate formats of this page on the Contact Us page.\nWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King is perhaps best known to the public for his dabbling in spiritualism, a popular activity at the time. He spent much time with his intimate friends engaging in such activities as table rapping and seances with the aid of mediums. He was particularly eager to communicate with his mother who died in 1917.\nWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King’s guest books contain the signatures of notable figures such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, Charles DeGaulle as well as celebrities including Shirley Temple, the Dionne Quintuplets and Charles Lindbergh.\nThe focal point of the library was an oil portrait of William Lyon Mackenzie King’s mother, Isabel Grace King, by the portrait artist J.W.L. Forster. In front of her portrait, King kept a vase of fresh flowers, a lamp which was always lit and a silver box containing a lock of her hair and her wedding band." ]

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[ "The Baloch owns a huge and rich land on the joint of Central Asia, South Asia and Middle East. It is sandwiched between the Shiite Muslim state of Iran and the Sunni Muslim state of Pakistan.\nThe people of Balochistan have been, since centuries, competing with ideological states with their own social values as the only tool of resistance. The Islamist ideology, which has transformed individuals into moving bombs in the region, has failed to mould the fundamentally secular fabric of Baloch society.\nHow come the Baloch, one of the least educated and least developed people in the world, with a very small population, has so far successfully retained their values? Or, why, with all their survivalist potency, they have failed to organize themselves into a victorious nation against its rivals. Naseer Dashti’s latest book, The Baloch Conflict with Iran and Pakistan, strives to handle these questions.\nDashti takes you thousands of years back to an early point when the Baloch were not even referred to as Baloch, and then brings you back to contemporary Balochistan, a land divided into multiple pieces, taking into account the whole journey, bit by bit.\nThe Baloch Conflict with Iran and Pakistan is a narrative of a nation. It is the story of a nation’s quest for nationhood. The book contains detailed accounts of almost every individual organization that has played any role for or against this quest. At the same time, it describes the collective character of the Baloch people.\nIt covers a period of over 5000 years to examine this journey, with all its bits and pieces. The book starts with the development of Baloch identity. Then it comes to the abode of the nation, called Balochistan, marking its natural and cultural borders and separating it from its neighbors. It scans the regional and international politics in the region; puts the time marker on the divided Balochistan and brings forth the details of the vast geography of Balochistan.\nIt discusses the rise and falls of every episode of the Baloch national movement, which started before thousands of years and continues till today. It starts with ‘Baloch and Balochistan in context’ and ends with ‘The Baloch national question is waiting for a just resolution’.\nAmidst these chapters, the book chronicles stories of the Baloch heroes, who are dubbed as traitors by Iran and Pakistan, and the collaborators of Iran and Pakistan whom the Baloch see as traitors.\nThe book reads like a novel. My plan was to read it in leisure, maybe one chapter a day. But when I started the book, I was stuck with its story. I kept reading or thinking about it all the time – in my language classes, at the university, during my human rights activities and political discussions.\nAt the end of every chapter, I wanted to read the next one out of the curiosity of knowing what happens next. It seems to have a plot. Its protagonist is named Baloch. As you keep reading, you get acquainted with his emotions, weaknesses, deprivations, desires, failures and aspirations.\nI wondered how the politics of Germany, France, Britain, Soviet Union and America has affected the Baloch. How international politics has changed the life of a nation, who have been totally cut off from the world.\nYou might find a lot of things to disagree with in the book. I did too. But no one has told this story of a forgotten people ever before.\nTaj Baloch is a poet and linguist. He published the first anthology of his poetry in 2016 in both Roman and Arabic scripts. Baloch is the Coordinator of Human Rights Council of Balochistan.\nHe can be reached at @TajBloch" ]

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[ "About The Charts and Nutrition Facts\n- For accuracy, the calorie chart and fat chart are based on the biggest serving size available.\n- These nutrition facts came directly from the USDA or manufacturer/restaurant.\n- If you're using a calorie counter, remember that Fat, Carbs, and Protein calories are just close estimations based on the Atwater factors:\nFat: 9 cal/g Carb: 4 cal/g Protein: 4 cal/g\n- Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Please remember this when using this information to make healthy food choices for your diet.\nCalories - Total Calorie count at this serving size: 85 Calories. The calorie chart below shows the breakdown for Fat, Carbs, and Protein. In this case, Calories from Fat = 18, Calories from Protein = 8, and Calories from Carbohydrate = 66.\n*Fat/Carb/Pro calories based on the Atwater (9/4/4) calculations.\nFat - One serving of this size contains 1.95 grams of total Fat. There can be several types of Fat in each food. In this case 0.37 grams are from Saturated Fat, Trans Fat is unknown, and there are 1.58 grams left over.\nCholesterol - This is one of the healthy foods if you're watching your Cholesterol intake. There are 0 mg of Cholesterol.\nCarbohydrates - Total Carb count for one serving: 16.59 grams. Sugar: 7.81 grams, Fiber: 0.49 grams, and Net Carbs: 16.1 grams (helpful to know if you're counting carbs).\nProtein - For Protein, one serving of this food has a total of 1.95 grams.\nMinerals - In one serving there are 12.2 mg of Calcium and 1.76 mg of Iron. In addition, there are 48.8 mg of Sodium and 263.52 mg of Potassium in this food.\nVitamins - You'll benefit from both Vitamins C and A with this food. There are 66.37 mg of Vitamin C and 641.72 International Units of Vitamin A in each serving." ]

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[ "Cloud and Townsend, in their book Boundaries, reminded me one of the unexpected side effects of setting boundaries. In the process of setting boundaries, I identify my needs. I remember the first time my counselor asked me what I wanted. I looked at him blankly. I had no idea. As I selected my rights and what I wanted to protect with boundaries I started identifying what I need. I need to eat regularly. I need enough sleep. I had many needs that I neglected for years. I was taught to ignore my needs. My needs had no value compared to family or parents. I was in the habit of neglecting myself. Sad thing was that the more I neglected myself the less I was able to do.\n“….the ability to take ownership of, or responsibility for, our own needs.”\nI didn’t know how to meet my own needs because I didn’t recognize what they were. Many sessions were spent in identifying and learning how to take care of my needs which in consequence usually meant strengthening my boundaries. Boundaries helped me to recognize my needs. My counselor also taught me that I am the one responsible for meeting my needs. I can ask for help but the responsibility lies with me. This required a major shift in my thinking. Boundaries played a vital role in creating that shift." ]

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[ "Earth is a hostile place -- and that's even before one starts attending school. Even when life first sparked into being, it had to evolve defenses to deal with a number of toxins, such as damaging ultraviolet light, then there were toxic elements ranging from iron to oxygen to overcome, later, there was DDT and other toxic chemicals and of course, there are all those dreaded cancers.\nIn Evolution In A Toxic World: How Life Responds To Chemical Threats [Island Press; 2012: Guardian Bookshop; Amazon UK; Amazon US], environmental toxicologist Emily Monosson outlines three billion years of evolution designed to withstand the hardships of living on this deadly planet, giving rise to processes ranging from excretion, transformation or stowing harmful substances. The subtitle erroneously suggests these toxins are only chemical in nature, but the author actually discusses more than this one subclass of toxins.\nThe method that arose to deal with these toxins is a plethora of specialised, targeted proteins -- enzymes that capture toxins and repair their damages. By following the origin and progression of these shared enzymes that evolved to deal with specific toxins, the author traces their history from the first bacteria-like organisms to modern humans. Comparing the new field evolutionary toxicology to biomedical research, Dr Monosson notes: \"In light of evolution, biomedical researchers are now asking questions that might seem antithetical to medicine\". Continuing this analogy, she frames her argument thus:\n\"Simply put,\" write Randolph Nesse and co-authors in the journal Science, \"... training in evolutionary thinking can help both biomedical researchers and clinicians ask useful questions that they might not otherwise pose.\" The same could be said for researchers and practitioners of toxicology. [p. 3]\nEach chapter begins with a cartoon that has three text panels (how things were, evolution and how things are now) that serves as a blueprint for the contents of that chapter. Although there are no other pictures or diagrammes, this outline a wonderful strategy to summarise each chapter since the topics are complex and therefore, challenging to explain adequately.\nThe author presents scientific findings from microbes and animals, but another interesting feature of this book is that plants are not neglected. Here's one especially enticing passage discussing plant chemicals that are rewarding rather than harmful:\nPerhaps it is no wonder that neuroactive plant chemicals abound, from the alkaloids like caffeine and tetrahydro-beta-carbolines in chocolate, to those that are potentially rewarding and therefore more highly addictive, like cocaine and nicotine. That a consumer might be rewarded by a chemical that may have evolved to deter is an interesting paradox -- unless the consumer also provides benefits to the producer of that chemical, like ensuring the survival and reproduction of a host species. While this is certainly true for some human-plant relations, many of these chemicals are far older than mammals and are certainly older than humans. This suggests either that relationships based on neuroactive rewards are relatively modern phenomenon, or that we have much to learn about the brains of our tetrapod ancestors [p. 89]\nThe book itself is generally well-researched and satisfying. But unfortunately, the author sometimes relies on jargon that is poorly defined and at times, inaccessible to all but the specialist (and those with google access). Further, although the author's ideas are interesting, I didn't like chapter eight (\"Coordinated Defense\") at all. I think this particular chapter is poorly presented and is based primarily on a lot of hand-waving. Worse, the author doesn't alert her reader that she is over-reaching in this chapter and doesn't provide a clear, scientifically sound, explanation for speculating along these lines whilst ignoring other similarly thought-provoking hypotheses.\nDespite my criticisms, this book serves a valuable purpose: focusing our attention on evolutionary responses to environmental toxins -- an important topic that is badly neglected. It uses are some good strategies to present its argument and themes, but the writing is uneven. However, I think toxicologists and chemists will enjoy -- and learn from -- this book.\n.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..\nEmily Monosson earned her Ph.D. from Cornell University. She is an independent environmental toxicologist and a visiting lecturer at Mount Holyoke College. She is the author of Evolution in a Toxic World: How Life Responds to Chemical Threats (Island Press, 2012) and editor of Motherhood, the Elephant in the Laboratory: Women Scientists Speak Out [Cornell University Press, 2008: Amazon UK/kindle UK; Amazon US/kindle US]. Dr Monosson lives in Maryland with her husband and two children.\n.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .." ]

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[ "Like so many others communal organizations, JScreen – a health initiative that aims to prevent the transmission of genetic diseases – was born in response to a heartbreaking tragedy.\nAtlanta residents Randy and Caroline Gold had undergone standard genetic testing before they married, but when their second daughter was born and failed to meet age-appropriate milestones, they found out that the panel they had undergone was fairly limited and included only eight diseases.\nThe Golds’ daughter, Eden, was diagnosed with Mucolipidosis Type IV (ML4), a rare degenerative neurological disease that would ultimately leave her blind, unable to walk or talk, and with diminished mental capacity and a shortened life expectancy. Further compounding the Golds’ sorrow was knowledge that a genetic test for ML4 had been developed in 2001, seven years before Eden’s birth.\nDetermined to spare other parents the difficulties they had faced, the Golds got to work, teaming up with Emory University and the Marcus Foundation to create JScreen in 2013. The organization uses a simple swab test to identify potential risk factors through saliva analysis. Over time, JScreen has expanded its testing panel and now can detect 226 diseases that are prevalent in the Jewish community, said Hillary Kener, director of national outreach and marketing for JScreen.\nThe JScreen team worked hard to overcome four main obstacles that prevented people from getting tested. The first was just making people aware of the problem.\n“Most people think that they don’t need to be screened because there is no family history of genetic disease,” said Kener, “but these are recessive genes and in 80 percent of the cases reported there is no family history because both parents have to be carriers.”\nOther issues included cost, convenience and, especially for men, fear of having blood drawn.\n“Genetic testing is expensive but we have been able to take advantage of philanthropy to keep the price at $149, with financial assistance available when needed,” said Kener.\n“Most young people don’t even have a doctor, so we made it easy by mailing out our kits and we do follow-up counseling by phone and secure video-conferencing. Finally, by using saliva instead of blood, it really is nothing with nothing, just sending everything back in a pre-paid box. We can actually prevent devastating diseases through a 10-minute test.”\nApproximately 70 percent of the Jewish population are carriers for some type of genetic disease, according to Kener, but far from telling two people who are both carriers not to marry, JScreen steers couples to halchically-appropriate options that will enable them to go on with the wedding and still have healthy families.\n“Most choose pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, also known as PDG, coupled with in vitro fertilization,” said Kener. “It is incredible technology that people are using that produces children that are free of disease and are biologically yours.”\nThat was the route chosen by the Golds when they decided to have a third child, using PGD to create embryos outside the womb where they were tested to ensure that they were free of the gene that causes ML4. The Golds’ second daughter is now a healthy five-year-old.\nJScreen provides couples with the full results of their testing panel for future reference and is continuing to spread its message as far possible.\n“We are national and we can mail a spit kit to anyone’s house in the country,” said Kener. “Whether you live in Manhattan or Nebraska, we can do this.”\nJScreen has tested Jewish people in all 50 states and a three-day screening at Yeshiva University two years ago drew 1,200 students. JScreen’s target audience is obviously young adults, but it has found addressing parents and grandparents to be helpful as well.\n“We want bubbys and zaidys to get involved,” said Kener. “They can sponsor their grandkids’ testing, and Hadassah groups, whose members have kids are of marriageable age, have been among our best audiences. We also go to happy hours and to college campuses and are working nationally with Hillel groups. We want this to become a community initiative and when people plan a wedding, this should become part of the process.”\nWith the majority of the population carrying genes for at least one genetic disease, there should be no stigma attached to receiving a positive result, remarked Kener. “It is very common to be a carrier,” said Kener. “There is no shame there.”\nIn addition to having its moment in the spotlight in the fifth episode of the YouTube comedy series “Soon By You,” which profiles the life of Modern Orthodox Jewish singles in New York City, and having been covered by various Jewish media outlets, JScreen was also featured in Parents magazine which has a circulation of more than 12 million. Still, Kener wants to see JScreen going even farther.\n“We have already screened 10,000 people which is a lot, but it isn’t enough,” he said. “There are so many Jews we haven’t reached yet. If there is one Jew somewhere out in a remote corner of North Dakota, we want to reach them. That is our goal.”\nFor more information on JScreen, visit www.jscreen.org." ]

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[ "TUCSON, Arizona, October 2, 2008 (ENS) - New research indicates that the most pervasive global strain of HIV began spreading among humans as early as 1884, suggesting that growing urbanization in colonial Africa through the early 1900s set the stage for the current HIV/AIDS pandemic. More than 25 million people have died of AIDS since 1981, and at least 30 million people are living with the disease today.\nThe estimated period of origin, much earlier than the previous estimate of 1930, coincides with the establishment and rise of urban centers in west-central Africa where the pandemic HIV strain, HIV-1 group M, emerged.\nThe growth of cities and associated high-risk behaviors may have been the key change that allowed the virus to flourish, scientists believe.\nThe research, led by Michael Worobey, an assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Arizona in Tucson, was co-sponsored by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, part of the National Institutes of Health, and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. The findings are published in the current issue of the journal \"Nature.\"\nResearch shows that the HIV virus spread from chimps to humans in southeastern Cameroon. Worobey said the resulting HIV epidemic among humans correlates to the growth of urban centers near this area, principally the present-day city of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which began as a colonial center for Belgium.\nWorobey and his team screened a number of tissue samples and uncovered the world's second-oldest genetic sequence of HIV-1 group M, which dates from 1960.\nThey then used it, along with dozens of other previously known HIV-1 genetic sequences, to construct a range of plausible family trees for this viral strain.\nThe lengths of the tree branches represent the periods of time when the virus genetically diverged from its ancestors.\nThe timing and number of these genetic mutations enabled the scientists to calibrate the probable rates of evolution of HIV-1 group M.\nBased on this range of rates, the scientists projected back in time to the period when the viral family trees most likely took root around the turn of the 20th century.\nThis marks the probable time of origin of HIV-1 group M, according to Worobey and the other scientists.\nUsing newly developed techniques, the scientists recovered the 48-year-old HIV gene fragments from a wax-embedded lymph-node tissue biopsy from a woman in Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\nThe oldest known HIV-1 group M genetic sequence comes from a 1959 blood sample from a man, also from Kinshasa.\nA comparison of the same genetic region in the 1959 virus and the 1960 virus provided additional evidence that the common ancestor of both viruses existed around 1900.\nThe comparison revealed that the amount of genetic divergence between these two HIV sequences took more than 40 years to evolve.\nWorobey, who teaches the evolution of infectious diseases and molecular phylogenetics at the University of Arizona, has spent several years studying how to recover the fragmented pieces of viral DNA and RNA from archival specimens, to track when the virus first jumped from chimpanzees to humans.\n\"Previous work on HIV sequencing had been done on frozen samples and there are only so many of those samples available,\" Worobey said. The 1959 and 1960 samples are presently the oldest links to the HIV epidemic.\n\"From that point on, the next oldest sequences that anyone has recovered are from the late 1970s and 1980s, the era when we knew about AIDS,\" he said.\n\"Now for the first time we have been able to compare two relatively ancient HIV strains. That helped us to calibrate how quickly the virus evolved and make some really robust inferences about when it crossed into humans, how quickly the epidemic grew from that time and what factors allowed the virus to enter and become a successful human pathogen,\" Worobey explained.\nBy 1960 a large number of people in this region were infected with HIV, which shows as genetic diversity of the virus. From there, events seeded the epidemic in different parts of the world. By 1981, people started realizing that something was happening and the rest is history.\nWorobey said laying the technical groundwork for analyzing samples of HIV's ancient history was extraordinarily painstaking.\n\"The DNA and RNA in these samples is in a really sorry state. It's highly fragmented, so instead of a nice, pearl-strand of DNA or RNA, you have a jumbled mass that's all jammed together,\" he said. \"It's been gratifying, but a ridiculous amount of work.\"\nWorobey said his future research will focus on recovering more samples and assembling the fragmented DNA and RNA sequences to form a clearer picture of HIV's history.\nHe said the \"Nature\" paper \"does a lot to snap everything into sharp focus and allows us to understand the timing of these events and the growth of the epidemic.\"\n\"There's still a lot of interesting work we can do with these techniques. We have lots more samples to analyze and hopefully recover nucleic acids from and it's pretty exciting to be in that position,\" Worobey said.\n\"I think the picture that has emerged here, where changes the human population experienced may have opened the door to the spread of HIV, is a good reminder that we can make changes now that could help reverse the epidemic,\" he said.\n\"If HIV has one weak spot, it is that it is a relatively poorly transmitted virus. From better testing and prevention, to wider use of antiretroviral drug therapy, there are a number of ways to reduce transmission and force this virus back into extinction,\" Worobey said. \"Our results suggest that there are reasons for such optimism.\"\nCopyright Environment News Service (ENS) 2008. All rights reserved." ]

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[ "Catalysts for the disposal of toxic combustion products (СО, NOx, CnHm) of natural gas\nCatalysts are designed for purification of gas-air mixtures, which are used to heat greenhouses and fertilize indoor plants with carbon dioxide, formed during the combustion of natural gas in flares of gas burners, gas boilers, picket furnaces and more.\nThe catalytic filter unit performs high-efficiency purification of hot air from toxic components (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons), i.e. CO2 and H2O can be sent to greenhouses for plant nutrition.\nCatalysts of three-component purification of exhaust gases of internal combustion engines of cars (catalytic converters)\nPatent of Ukraine № 79027, № 102710\nThe developed technology of catalysts allows to reduce the content of platinum metals in 2-3 times in comparison with analogues without decreasing of purification efficiency and service life of neutralizers. Catalysts are characterized by low temperatures to achieve high degrees of purification from toxic components (170-300 °C) and resistance to sulphur compounds..\nSoot filters with a catalytic covering for clearing of emissions of diesel engines from solid microparticles\nThe filters ensure the combustion of soot microparticles in a continuous mode at operating temperatures of gas emissions..\nTests on motor installations («Malyshev Factory» (Kharkiv), High Pressure Combustion Laboratory of the Pennsylvania State University (USA), «Melitopol Motor Plant» (Melitopol)) showed that the efficiency of the developed systems of catalytic neutralization of exhaust gases is not inferior to foreign analogues.\nCatalyst for the selective reduction of nitrogen oxides in oxygen-containing exhaust gases\nPatent of Ukraine № 85669\nIt is designed to neutralize nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2) in the exhaust gases of automobile engines operating in the mode of “depleted” fuel mixture, diesel-electric units, etc.\nIn comparison with analogues, the block catalyst is characterized by greater availability of active components, higher productivity, lower gas-dynamic resistance and reduced content of precious metals.\nCatalysts for the selective reduction of nitrogen oxides with ammonia\nPatent of Ukraine № 19317, № 32552\nCatalysts are designed for purification of exhaust gases of industrial heating units (CHP, TPS), gas turbines and other units from nitrogen oxides in the presence of oxygen.\nTogether with “Catalyst” (Kamianske) granular and block catalysts for the selective reduction of nitrogen oxides with ammonia in the exhaust gases of nitric acid production developed:\nSTRUCTURED CATHALISTS FOR COMBINED REFORMING OF C1-C4-ALKANES WITH THE PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN AND SYNTHESIS GAS\nPatent of Ukraine № 108461\nThey are designed for the processes of steam, carbon dioxide conversion of methane to produce hydrogen and synthesis gas (СО+Н2) for the subsequent synthesis of ammonia, methanol, diethyl ethers, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.\nIn comparison with analogues, the catalyst is cheaper to operate, has a lower content of active ingredients, it is characterized by high productivity, resistance to carbon and sulphur-containing compounds, low gas-dynamic resistance, a wide range of operating temperatures (500-1000 °C), and has no precious metals. In the process of steam conversion of methane the catalyst predominate foreign analogues (DIAP-16, Haldor Topsoe R-67-7H).\nCATALYSTS OF FLAMELESS COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS AND GAS CONDENSATE IN HEAT GENERATORS\nPatent of Ukraine № 77552, № 103813\nThey are designed for combustion of gaseous hydrocarbon fuels (С1-С4 alkanes) in portable and industrial catalytic heat generators, as well as for use in the systems of catalytic purification of exhaust gases from hydrocarbon impurities (in chemical, petrochemical and metallurgical industries).\nCATALYSTS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE PURIFICATION OF AIR AND GAS EMISSIONS FROM OZONE\nDuring the gas passing through the catalyst bed there is a stable decomposition of ozone to oxygen at room temperature.\nThe catalyst provides purification from ozone of:\nIndustrial use (Dnipro water supply station of Kyiv; “Ukrplastyk”, etc.) has shown that the developed catalysts provide stable ozone treatment.\nCRUST-TYPE STRUCTURED CATALYSTS FOR PURIFICATION OF GAS EMISSIONS FROM CARBON MONOXIDE AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES\nPatent of Ukraine № 56859\nCatalysts are designed to purify gaseous emissions from highly toxic organic compounds of various classes, primarily aromatics (benzene and its homologues), including polycyclic hydrocarbons (naphthalene, anthracene, benzopyrene), carbon monoxide and other toxic compounds.\nCatalysts have passed industrial tests and are used at the Kyiv plant of medicines (purification from a mix of organic solvents), “Poltava diamond plant” (purification from phenol, formaldehyde, acetone, carbon monoxide) and other enterprises.\nIn terms of their performance characteristics, the developed catalysts surpass those known in the CIS countries.\nCRUST-TYPE STRUCTURED CATALYSTS FOR SELECTIVE REDUCTION OF NITROGEN OXIDES BY AMMONIA\nPatent of Ukraine № 145558\nThe ACZ-CT catalyst is designed for purification of exhaust gases in productions, the technology of which is accompanied by emissions of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.\nThe technological process of manufacturing of the developed ACZ-CT catalyst in the conditions of “Catalyst” (Kamianske) has been worked out. Tests on a pilot plant on the current unit of production of non-concentrated nitric acid of the holding “Ostchem” showed that the developed catalyst provides a reduction of residual nitrogen oxides in the purified gas to the 0.001-0.002%vol. and almost complete absence of ammonia.\nThe ratio of NH3/NO = 1,2 is optimal to ensure the proper level of purification from nitrogen oxides, which is lower compared to the known industrial catalyst, which reduces the amount of ammonia for purification of exhaust gases in the nitric acid industry." ]

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[ "In December of 1923, two unlikely travelers arrived in Darjeeling, India intent on finding what could not possibly exist: Shambhala, a kingdom located inside a hollow earth. Along them trailed Soviet spies, Western occultists and Mongolian rebels, all serving their own agendas. Even with so many eyes on them, their expedition still managed to disappear from the face of the earth for months; when they finally emerged, they had a fascinating story to tell and even more secrets to hide.\nThe travelers were Nicholas and Helena Roerich, two Russian expatriates traveling under a U.S, flag, which they had hoisted upon a Mongolian spear. As they informed the local authorities in Darjeeling, they were leading a scientific-archaeological expedition aimed at cataloguing the art and culture of Central Asia for the first time. Their eccentric behavior quickly raised some eyebrows: Nicholas Roerich, a famed painter and archaeologist, walked around Darjeeling in the robes of a Dalai Lama, held conspiratorial meetings with Tibetan lamas and introduced himself as an American, even though his accent betrayed his Russian heritage.\nStill, the couple’s reputation as paragons of the Western art world as well as their American sponsors persuaded the authorities to let them pass through the city, and into the forbidden Tibetan plateau. However, nobody was aware of the couple’s true destination: the city of Shambhala, a place not to be found in any map.\nShambhala is a fabled city-kingdom of the Himalayas, believed by Buddhists, Hindus and local shamans to exist simultaneously on the physical and the spiritual plane. For millennia, the legend of the underground kingdom played an important role in every Tibetan tradition and eventually, rumors of its existence reached the West.\nIt so happened that Helena Roerich, a writer and philosopher, had translated in Russian The Secret Doctrine, Madame Blavatsky’s influential esoteric work which first presented Shambhala as a shortcut to enlightenment. The Roerichs came to believe deeply in the Shambhala myth and at some point, while living in New York, Helena received telepathic instructions from “Master Morya”, an otherworldly entity, encouraging the couple to leave the U.S. and seek the city for themselves.\nUnfortunately for the Roerichs, the area they aimed to investigate was all but inaccessible in the early 20th century. Tibet was closed to foreigners; moreover, the Soviets, the French, the English, the Chinese, the Japanese, the Mongolians and the Germans vied for control of the place. Spies, rebels and rogue warlords clashed daily in the mountain passes making the expedition extremely hazardous. The rivalry between the USSR and the British Empire in particular, was so intense it was nicknamed “the Great Game”.\nHowever, it seems that upon arriving in Darjeeling the Roerichs had already managed to turn the hardships of the Great Game into an advantage—by offering themselves as pawns.\nAfter receiving permission from the Indian authorities, the Roerichs set out from Darjeeling towards the colorful monasteries of Sikkim, and then proceeded into the mainland. The couple’s eldest son, George, a noted Tibetologist, polyglot and student of military tactics was in charge of the group’s safety—not a small task, since the expedition was meant to last for years and cross 25,000 kilometers of previously uncharted roads. The Roerichs knew they would encounter scurvy, extreme weather, bandit groups and blocked mountain passages ahead.\nGiven the enormity of the task, the fact that they chose to make an unexpected detour through Moscow in 1926, was bound to raise questions. Why would the Roerichs cross into Russia, adding hardship to an already impossible trail? The most likely answer is that they were fulfilling a deal with their true sponsors in the quest for Shambhala—namely, the Soviet secret police.\nWhat sounds like the plot of a particularly imaginative novel, has been extensively supported by scholars of modern Russia and early 20th century history. According to independent research by Richard Spence, Markus Osterrieder and Andrei Znamenski, several other world governments—China, Mongolia, Japan, Great Britain—took an interest in the hidden city, too. One of the reasons was an ancient Mongolian-Tibetan prophecy which, in the explosive political climate of the early 20th century, sounded convincing enough to turn some heads.\nThe prophecy declared that as materialism spread, humanity would eventually deteriorate. The people of the earth would be united under an evil king, who would soon attack Shambhala with fearful weapons. In time, the 32nd ruler of Shambhala would triumph over the bad king, and usher in a new era of peace and harmony. What today might sound like a standard doomsday prophecy could have had great implications back then, when borders constantly shifted and even great powers needed the support of local warlords.\nThe Chinese and Russian governments in particular knew that among the peoples of central Asia, belief in the Kingdom of Shambhala was strong. Whoever managed to identify themselves with the forces of good, would gain the support of the surrounding peoples and thus gain control of the area. Once this was understood, several states became very interested in unearthing the underground kingdom.\nMost of the officials intended to use Shambhala’s discovery for propaganda purposes, but some genuinely believed that they could also gain access to the hidden kingdom’s mystical weapons. One powerful man who truly believed in the prophecy was Gleb Bokii, a leader of the Cheka, the USSR’s Secret Police.\nBokii genuinely thought that the hidden city would offer him access to advanced weapons and mind controlling techniques, and managed to convince his superiors that the quest was worth looking into. The newly established USSR was receptive to the idea: even if there was no mystic armory to be found, if they managed to identify themselves with the hidden kingdom, they could enlist the help of Buddhists and nationalists in Mongolia and Tibet, thus strengthening their position in Central Asia.\nAt the very least an expedition to search for Shambhala could spy on British activity in the area. However, Bokii was unable to secure funds for the mission due to internal rivalries at the Cheka, scholars Andrei Znamenski and Ernst von Waldenfels assert, and so he sought a roundabout solution: allying with Nicholas and Helena Roerich, celebrated scholars and Russian expatriates, who were famously planning their own expedition to the area, under a U.S. banner.\nThe Roerichs were not really political—they had conveniently left their native Russia just before the communist revolution and viewed “the Reds” with great distrust. However, when searching for a hidden underground kingdom one needs all the help they can get. Thankfully, Helena Roerich’s otherworldly pen pal “Master Morya” informed her that business needed to be done with the Bolsheviks in the interest of the world’s spiritual advancement; after receiving this mystical message, Helena wrote in her diary “Lenin is with us.”\nIt is very likely that Nicholas Roerich met with Chicherin, Soviet Secretary for foreign affairs, and Meer Trilisser, head of espionage, in Paris. There, the Soviets agreed to provide the couple with considerable financial and logistical help, in exchange for information on the movements of the French and British spies in the area. Gleb Bokii’s team, of course, had much higher expectations than espionage: they expected to get the ancient wisdom of the city itself.\nSince the Roerichs were not trained spies, something of their true purpose leaked out while they waited in Darjeeling. Nicholas openly spoke of establishing in central Asia the Sacred Union of the East, a “spiritual commonwealth” uniting traditions of the area into a single state under the Bolsheviks’ protection. Several lamas found his cause worthwhile and flocked to him, which alerted other power groups in the area. It has even been suggested by historian Richard Spence, that in Darjeeling, the British contacted the Roerichs and made them a counter-offer—or simply threatened their lives should they continue.\nIn any case, the Roerich expedition began its trek closely monitored by the British, the USSR and the Americans, as well as the Japanese, the Mongolians and the Chinese. In search of Shambhala, they would go through 35 mountain passes, cross the Gobi desert, and chart tens of alpine peaks for the first time. But from the beginning, they were beset with extreme weather, local rebel groups, armed bandits, poison grass which took their horses down, and caravan looters they could not avoid.\nThe couple’s travel diaries, along with Nicholas’ extraordinary paintings, provide a picture of the wonder and fear the travelers must have felt when crossing the terra incognita of the Himalayas. “Is the heart of Asia beating? Or has it suffocated by the sand?” Nicholas wondered as the expedition crossed Taklamakan desert.\nAs they moved on though, towards what they believed to be the hidden city, the trek became harder. The road was littered with animal skeletons—donkeys, mules and yaks. The expedition suffered from mountain-blindness, food was sparse and the U.S. flag was not enough to discourage attacks. The Roerichs remained optimistic: Nicholas was capable of finding beauty even in the blinding snowstorms which almost cost them their lives in the Karakorum mountain passages.\nSo how close did the Roerichs and Bekii get to their true purpose?\nIt is said that the closer one approaches to the hidden, hollow-earth city, the more vague their writings become, because Shambhala cannot be described in mere words. In his esoteric book Shambhala the Resplendent, which he was writing along with his more scientific and much drier travel diary, Nicholas began charting another, parallel journey written in stories and riddles. As the expedition went deeper, he increasingly recorded strange manifestations, fires, lights and visions over their camp —though those were mostly left out of his scientifically-minded travel diary.\nHis paintings also became more esoteric, increasingly depicting the messianic King of Shambhala. It is very likely that communication with the Soviets broke down at this point, after the country refused to provide more help to the Roerichs after the couple’s first visit to Moscow in 1926. After the Soviets withdrew their support, the strangest part of the entire journey came to pass: in the summer of 1927, the expedition, still watched over by most major powers of the era, managed to disappear from the eyes of the world for an entire year.\nCommunication was lost, and the Roerichs were considered dead. Our only source for this invisible year is Nicholas’ travel diary —which contradicts his Shambhala the Resplendent narration—and speaks of violent conflict with the Tibetan armed forces. The only thing that is certain is that the last five months of their disappearance were spent in the Tibetan government’s detainment camp, where, due to the harsh conditions, five members of the expedition died.\nAfter that, the Roerichs and their son trekked back to India. The closest they had gotten to Shambhala, according to Nicholas’ travel diaries, was in the Altai mountains, in the valley of Uimon, when an “Old Believer” proudly showed them the entrance to the subterranean kingdom, now barred with stones. The true denizens of Shambhala would return, he assured the Roerichs, in the glorious time of human purification. Till then, the rest of humanity would only hear the echoes of their chanting.\nIf the Roerichs were spying for the British or the Soviets, the U.S. did not hold it against them. They remained close to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a correspondent of Helena, whose administration sponsored the couple’s next Asian expedition in Manchuria in 1933. Roerich used the opportunity to keep searching for Shambhala, this time touting American leaders as the messianic figures soon to lead the war against evil, which was now represented by the Bolsheviks.\nThe second time around though, those who thought Nicholas Roerich to be a Soviet spy and a weird mystic were much more vocal. Eventually, their concerns forced the government to recall the couple early, despite the scientific success of the expedition. At the time, being suspected of collaboration with the Soviets could prove fatal so the Roerichs left the U.S. and settled in India.\nHowever, the scientific worth of their expedition cannot be underestimated: no matter their motives, they had trekked miles of unchartered lands, unearthed lost artifacts and catalogued flora and fauna previously unknown to the West. Despite the controversy surrounding his name, Nicholas would garner three Nobel Peace Prize nominations, and also establish the Roerich pact, an inter-American treaty protecting cultural artifacts in times of conflict; the Roerichs even had a planet named after them in 1969.\nAs for Shambhala, it still awaits the next explorer, hidden inside a hollow earth." ]

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[ "Map skills third and fourth grade students will use the map and legend to answer questions presented on this worksheet. Geography binder cover.\nUsing A Map Scale Jpg 953 1 195 Pixels Map Skills Worksheets Social Studies Worksheets Geography Worksheets\nYou ll find a variety of fun third grade worksheets to print and use at home or in the classroom.\n3rd grade geography worksheets pdf. 10 filtered results. Teaching buddy loves math. Country research project fact sheet.\nGrade 4 5 and 6 by sofia 79318. From physical geography to human geography our fun geography worksheets cover it all. Grade 3 geography worksheet.\nFeaturing are printable tests in economics geography civics and history. Restaurant passport project. Unit length 2 weeks purpose.\nTask cards for second and third grade review in social studies. 48 contiguous states worksheet this worksheet requires prior knowledge or the use of reference materials to answer the questions posed. Geography worksheets will give kids the opportunity to learn more about all the different aspects that the subject covers.\nFun free and printable. My state venn diagram worksheet. Halloween math worksheets 3rd grade common core.\nPrintable worksheets learning games educational videos filters 10 results filters. Try out two free sample pages from my geography map skills unit lapbook with informational text test more. Third grade geography worksheets.\nThis unit introduces students to basic map skills world geography and early exploration of the north american continent. This free pdf worksheet will let your. Free worksheets for grade 3.\nGeography worksheets for kids. Geography can be a complex subject to learn but it can still be fun. 3rd grade social studies worksheets pdf.\nBlank outline north america map worksheet. Earth science and topography game cards. With third grade geography worksheets and printables your young learner will explore states countries historical landmarks the seven wonders and more.\nThere s so much that kids need to learn about the big wide world they live in. Name of 5 oceans grade level. Map skills worksheet 2 using a map and a legend for grades 3 5.\nThird grade geography worksheets teach students how to read a map understand latitude and longitude and even consider foods consumed around the world. Geography map skills and european explorers grade 3 2nd nine weeks. Choose your grade 3 topic to help the third grade student with basic skill that they need in grade 3.\n3rd grade social studies worksheets pdf 3rd grade social studies topics third grade social studies units this page is a collection of free printable pdf downloadable worksheets which teachers can use as a test sheet for students. Addition subtraction multiplication and english. Content to be covered includes geography terms such as latitude longitude and cardinal directions.\nThis freebie has one page of informational text about the parts of a map. Maps and globes grade level.\nGeography Know The States Worksheet Education Com Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies Geography Worksheets\nChina Map Worksheet Free To Print Pdf File Social Studies Worksheets Social Studies Maps Geography Worksheets\nSocial Studies Skills 3rd Grade Social Studies Third Grade Social Studies 6th Grade Social Studies\nSocial Studies Skills Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies 6th Grade Social Studies\nLandmarks Free Printable Social Studies Worksheet For Kids 3rd Grade Social Studies 6th Grade Social Studies 4th Grade Social Studies\nLocate And Color Printable Geography Worksheet For Kids Geography Worksheets Geography For Kids Worksheets For Kids\nNotes Click The Link Below To Download The Chapter Notes In Pdf Format Geography Not Social Studies Worksheets Map Skills Worksheets 3rd Grade Social Studies\nGeography Ocean Worksheets Click Here Continents And Oceans Pdf To Download The D Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies Continents And Oceans\nGeography Worksheets Middle School Pdf Fun Geography Worksheets Us Grade 7 1 For Year In 2020 Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies Geography Worksheets\nReading A Map Cardinal Directions Social Studies Worksheets 3rd Grade Social Studies Third Grade Social Studies\nFree Printables For Kids Geography Worksheets Continents And Oceans Social Studies Worksheets\nFree Us Map Elementary Worksheet Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies 3rd Grade Social Studies\nWhat Is A Compass Rose Worksheet Education Com Social Studies Worksheets 6th Grade Social Studies Social Studies Maps\n3rd Grade Geography Worksheets Printable Geography Worksheets Continents And Oceans Social Studies Worksheets\nNovember Fun Fill Learning Resources Social Studies Worksheets Third Grade Social Studies 3rd Grade Social Studies\n3rd Grade Social Studies Worksheets Free Printables Education Com 3rd Grade Social Studies Social Studies Worksheets Preschool Social Studies\nFree Elementary Worksheets On Reading Maps Printableshelter Social Studies Worksheets 3rd Grade Social Studies Social Studies Maps\nScale Drawings Free Pdf Worksheets Printables Map Skills Worksheets Social Studies Worksheets Geography Worksheets\nWorksheet Map Skills Worksheets 3rd Grade Free Map Skills Worksheets Imperialdesignstudio Social Studies Worksheets 2nd Grade Worksheets Map Skills Worksheets" ]

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[ "See also: metric-system\n- The system of measurements developed in France in the 1790s and now used worldwide.\n- The modern version of that system, Systeme Internationale d'Unites (International System of Units), or SI system of measurements that is based on the base units of the meter/metre, the kilogram, the second, the ampere, the kelvin, the mole, and the candela.\n- Any variant of that system, that was not codified as SI, such as cgs.\nsystem of measurements developed in France\nInternational System of Units — see International System of Units" ]

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[ "Constitutions of Melfi\nPromulgated by the Holy Roman Emperor\nfor the Kingdom of Sicily\nat Melfi in 1231\nof fundamental laws in Latin, originally known as the leges or constitutiones augustalis, is\narguably the first written constitution of government in the Western\ntradition that survives, other than some of the provisions of the\nHebrew Halakhah that concern governance. For others, such as the\nconstitutions of ancient Athens and Sparta, all we have is commentary.\nIn 1231 the Holy\nEmpire comprised most of what we today call Germany,\nSwitzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, Czech Republic, and\nabout the northern half of the Italian peninsula, down to and including\nRome. The Vatican was a nation that controlled a few states in the\nmiddle of Italy called the Papal States. The Kingdom of Sicily was not\njust the island, but also the southern third of the Italian peninsula,\nwhich had been fought over for generations by Norman Christians,\nByzantines, and Saracens, and the Holy Roman Empire had only recently\ngained nominal control, but of a territory comprised of numerous small\nfeudatory fiefs that ruled their own territories like small countries.\nThe purpose of the constitutiones\nwas to reign in these regimes and\nunite them under a single rule of law that defined the rights, powers,\nand duties of each of the components. The Holy Roman Emperor was not an\nabsolute monarch, but depended on the consent of lesser nobles. The constitutiones, with some\nextensions called novels, and a growing body of commentaries, continued\nto rule the region until the conquest by Napoleon in 1797. The words constitutiones and novels were taken from the words\nused in the ancient Roman civil law, the Corpus Juris\nCivilis, codified under the authority of Justinian from 529 to 565.\nThese constitutiones were not\nconfined to defining the structures, procedures, rights, powers, and\nduties of government as later constitutions would be, especially as the\nmodel was stabilized in the American states. However, its influence on\nthose later models is apparent. It begins with an introduction, the Prooemium, that sets forth the\npurposes of the collection, much like the Preamble of the U.S.\nConstitution would later do. The remainder is divided into three books,\nroughly consisting, in order, of rules for legislative, executive, and\njudicial functions, a structure that was preserved in the American\nconstitutions. Of course, this was not a constitution for a republic,\nbut a collection of royal edicts, with no provisions for ratification\nor representation by legislators as would appear in the Provisions of\nOxford and Westminster under the leadership of Simon de Montfort in\n1258 and 1259.\nWe don't yet have copies we can put online of an English translation,\nthe best of which is copyrighted by James M. Powell in 1971, to which\nwe provide a purchase link. In the meantime Google has the Latin\nversion of an edition of it, which includes the imperfectly OCR'd text,\nwhich can be viewed in a rough translation using the Google translator\ntool installed as a browser plug-in. With more funding we hope to\neventually offer a clean online Latin text and a new translation that\ndoes not require copyright permission.\n- A diplomatic history of Frederick the\nSecond ..., Volume 4, Issue 1, by Friedrich\n(Römisch-Deutsche Reich, Kaiser, 2.), Alphonse-Huillard\nBréholles, Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph d'Albert de\nLuynes. This volume contains the Liber.\n- A Liber Augustalis, or, Constitutions of\nMelfi, Translated with an Introduction and Notes by James M." ]

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[ "May 27, 2010 By Russell Nichols\nIf Los Angeles County officials want to get a jump on suppressing wildfires, they might want to consider ground-based cameras, infrared sensors and surveillance satellites designed to detect missile launches.\nThese options were among the recommendations made by the county's Quality and Productivity Commission in a report that examines early detection and rapid, all weather 24-hour response systems to suppress forest and brush fires.\nIn the past several years, wildfires have scorched hundreds of thousands of acres in the region, destroying homes, taking lives and affecting the economy as well as the air quality. The damage doesn't end there. The report attributes the mudslides and flooding caused by the El Niño rainstorms in 2010 to the damage left behind by the Station Fire in 2009. According to the report, total suppression costs of significant county fires between 2007 and 2009 were nearly $145 million.\nDirected by the County of Los Angeles Board of Supervisors, the commission conducted research, interviews, presentations and analysis of information for 120 days.\n\"The recent massive and destructive Station Fire cost local taxpayers $89 million to fight and millions more in infrastructure recovery costs,\" said Supervisor Michael D. Antonovich in his motion to conduct the study. \"The Station Fire graphically spotlights the need to study and identify solutions for establishing an automated early detection system and rapid, all weather, 24-hour response system to suppress forest and brush fires at the source.\"\nThis month, the commission released its report, which contains four recommendations on ways to improve the detection and suppression of wildfires:\nThe commission consulted experts to identify not only the advantages, but also the limitations of some of the options. For example, ground-based systems, the report notes, can use visual surveillance cameras with smoke or flame pattern recognition software, or infrared sensors to detect and locate wildfires. But the number of equipment placements \"could be extensive in L.A. County because of the area size and the rugged terrain.\" Therefore, the commission recommends testing the various surveillance and infrared technologies under field conditions to determine the best sensor placements.\nAnother surveillance option would use data from satellites designed to support national defense and detect missile launches around the world. Civilian use of the system to detect wildfires was successfully tested in the county in the early 1990s, but funding constraints suspended the test, according to the report.\n\"The infrared sensors on the satellites constantly look for the telltale signature of a flame from a missile launch with automatic analysis of the data,\" the report said. \"Since a missile flame has characteristics similar to a wildland fire, the system can readily detect fires.\"\nThis Digital Communities white paper highlights discussions with IT officials in four counties that have adopted shared services models. Our aim was to learn about the obstacles these governments have faced when it comes to shared services and what it takes to overcome those roadblocks. We also spoke with several members of the IT industry who have thought long and hard about these issues. The paper offers some best practices for shared government-to-government services, but also points out challenges that government and industry still must overcome before this model gains widespread adoption." ]

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[ "Aims: The country hedge is a decorative hedge that fits perfectly into the landscape, looking as if it had always been there. Where possible it uses species that are already found in the landscape and which establish themselves easily. The country hedge will supply food to the wild animals and birds and contribute to the conservation of the biodiversity. The country hedge also acts like a windbreak and provides protection from the cold in winter.\nAdult height: Between 3m and 5m.\nPeriod of interest: All year.\nPlanting distances: Every metre.\nMulch: To avoid weeding, think to install Weed Control Fabric before planting.\nPruning: The species used can be rejuvenated by coppicing or harsh pruning." ]

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[ "By Teachers, For Teachers\nAn old adage that circulates around teaching departments tells us, “Don’t smile until Christmas.” This implies teachers should begin their year as strict, uninviting individuals who maintain tight control over their students by restricting their personal, relational interactions. No smiling means all business and no teacher jokes; and all business means obedient students who are too scared of you to step out of line.\nThe logic of it makes sense to a certain degree: Once the students are fully conformed to the expectations of the classroom, you can act like a human being and start sharing teacher jokes. Being too human too early will certainly lead to a break down in discipline.\nThis advice is not wholly unfounded. After all, Machiavelli – that infamous political imp – cautioned new leaders that, “It is far easier to begin strict and become kind than it is to begin kind and become strict,” also adding that “It is better to be feared than loved.” Though his advice is controversial, it works -- for some politicians at least.\nBut is our classroom a kingdom, and we the judges and jailors? How can we best demonstrate the standards and expectations of our class? Is smiling – or making any sort of kind, genuine relational gesture, even telling teacher jokes – going to hinder our educational process?\nThough it is our responsibility as teachers to maintain control and set expectations for our students’ academic and social behaviors, our classrooms are certainly not mere political states that we “rule.” As teachers, we are guides, not dictators; navigators, not drivers. And the best way to set a standard and engage students in the learning process is to develop a relationship, not avoid one.\nWhen I begin the school year, I smile a lot. In fact, a smile can tell students a great deal more than I can verbalize. A smile says that I welcome them. I respect them. I like being here. I am passionate about what we’re doing. I want this place to be a positive environment. I am a happy person. I’m an approachable person. And above all, a smile can tell students that I want them to succeed because they love to learn, not because some cruel authoritarian figure is making them do it.\nIt’s also true that smiling helps to set an example for students. If I approach them harshly, then it sets the tone that they can treat one another harshly. It is much easier to teach students about respect, kindness, and collaboration when I am modeling it myself. And instead of trying to tell students “Don’t act that way,” my example helps illustrate to students the converse, the “But do act this way” kind of behaviors that make students academically and socially successful.\nIt can be easy, even tempting, to revert to a colder version of ourselves out of fear of mismanaging a classroom. But we cannot forget that happiness, kindness, respect, and other positive characteristics are contagious. As teachers, we have the power and position to set the tone in our classrooms. As for me, I prefer to make the tone as positive as possible, giving my students a firm foundation of confidence in themselves and their relationship with me so that we can move forward to produce some fantastic learning experiences.\nSo the next time you hear someone advise not to smile until Christmas, remember that it is far, far better to smile right at the beginning of the year all the way through to Christmas, and then long afterwards as well." ]

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[ "Two emissaries of the British government, Colonel C. Stoddart and Captain A.\nThe two emissaries engaged in political intrigue in England and on the Continent.\nIn the very hour of success, however, Conrad was struck down by the emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain (the chief of the Assassins).\nOnce established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom.\nThis rapid absorption of the khanates brought Russia into close proximity to Afghanistan, and the reception of Kaufmann's emissaries by the Amir was a main cause of the British war with Afghanistan in 1878.\nThe Panislamic propaganda was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire - of ten an obstacle to government - were curtailed; the new railway to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy.\nThe Sicilians, unlike the Neapolitans, were thoroughly alienated from the Bourbons, whom they detested, and after the Garibaldi andfhe peace of Villafranca (July 18J9) Mazzini's emissaries, Thousand.\nThe Dutch barrier was broken down by the arrival of Dampier and other \" interlopers \" from the east, and of emissaries from the (English) East India Company in search of spice-bearing lands.\nIn 1186 the emissaries of the archbishop of Bremen began to preach Christianity among the Ehsts and Letts, and in 1201 the bishop of Livonia established his residence at Riga.\nWorn out by internal strife fostered by Haakon's emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the Norwegian king as overlord in 1262.\nThe emissaries of Razin, armed with inflammatory proclamations, had stirred up the inhabitants of the modern governments of Nizhniy-Novgorod, Tambov and Penza, and penetrated even so far as Moscow and Great Novgorod.\nThe question has been hotly debated whether, in addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering in some degree to the tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its emissaries in various lay positions.\nsouth of Toledo; but both militias disbanded when Richard Rush, of Philadelphia, and Benjamin C. Howard, of Baltimore, appeared at Toledo as peace emissaries, appointed by President Jackson.\nEven after the removal of the edicts the old prejudices remained, and the missionaries were regarded as political emissaries, the forerunners of military aggression.\nMr James, the head of the mission, volunteered no satisfactory explanation, whereupon the king broke into uncontrollable rage, calling the emissaries cheats and liars.\nOthers maintain that he was thrown down a steep place by some emissaries either of the physicians or of the apothecaries, both of whom he had during his life most grievously harassed.\nThe only mistake that seems possible is that he may have conferred a later title upon the emissaries of the Church of Ephesus.\nwas assassinated by emissaries of al-Bardisi, and Mehemet Au, with his Albanians, gained possession of Giza, which was, as usual, given over to the troops to pillage.\nOn the 27th of July Dundee was shot, and on the 21st of October Nottingham wrote that his emissaries \" had done very good service to the King \" (State Papers, \" Domestic,\" July 17th, 18th, 19th, October 21st, 1689).\nThe news flew over Germany and beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries.\nHe sent an embassy to China; and an English version of the travels to India of one of his emissaries, Abd ur-Razzak, is to be found in R.\nA pen-drawing representing a ringleader of the Pazzi conspiracy, Bernardo Baroncelli, hung out of a window of the Bargello after his surrender by the sultan at Constantinople to the emissaries of Florence, can be dated from its subject as done in December 1 479.\nHe is said to have derived his name from the fact that when the Bacchiadae, warned that he would prove their ruin, sent emissaries to kill him in his cradle, his mother saved him by concealing him in a chest (Gr.\nThe emissaries from Flanders got many promises of assistance~ and a formidable rising might have taken place had not Henry VII.\nthe Maronites, the Ansarieh, the Metawali and the \"Isma`ilites,\" also profess creeds which, like the Druse system, differ from Sunni Islam in the important feature of admitting incarnations of the Deity, it is impossible not to suspect that Hamza's emissaries only gave definition and form to beliefs long established in this part of the world.\nNot the equal of Caesar or Augustus in genius or in the lastingness of his work, he yet recalls them in his capitularies, his periodic courts, his official hierarchy, his royal emissaries, his ministers, his sole right of coinage, his great public works, his campaigns against barbarism and heathenry, his zeal for learning and literature, and his divinity as emperor.\nAn active propaganda was carried on in Turkish Armenia by emissaries, who tried to introduce arms and explosives, and represented the ordinary incidents of Turkish misrule to Europe as serious atrocities.\nExasperated at their failure, the emissaries organized attacks on individuals, wrote threatening letters, and at last posted revolutionary placards, 5th of January 1893, at Yuzgat, and on the walls of the American College at Marsivan.\nIn 1246 a formidable conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons against the emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty.\nAccording to Felix, Life of St Guthlac, he visited the saint at Crowland, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries before his accession, and was cheered by predictions of his future greatness.\nemissaryid she was ashamed that Britain was sending emissaries around the world to further such plans.\nemissary the Government is on the watch to prevent emissaries of the Insurgent Societies from conveying rifles and ammunition into Macedonia.\nemissary sent the dessert out as a take-out for the benefit of foreign emissaries who had entertaining to do.\nemissaryked past gardens and the huts belonging to the other Emissaries.\nAt the new years reception of deputies King Humbert aroused enthusiasm by a significant remark that Italy intended to remain mistress in her own house; while Mancirfi addressed to Count de Launay, Italian ambassador in Berlin, a haughty despatch, repudiating the supposition that the pope might (as Bismarckian emissaries had suggested to the Vatican) obtain abroad greater spiritual liberty than in Rome, or that closer relations between Italy and Germany, such as were required by the interests and aspirations of the two countries, could be made in any way contingent upon a modification of Italian freedom of action in regard to home affairs.\nThe Assyrian inscription (the so-called \" Black Obelisk \" now in the British Museum), which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an interesting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with their long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see Costume, fig.\nHis emissaries roused the Free Staters west of Bloemfontein, and disaffection broke out in.\nLebanon, chiefly by the immigration of various more or less heretical elements, Kurd, Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, the latter largely after the break-up of the kingdom of Hira; and early in the i ith century these coalesced into a nationality (see Druses) under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist creed brought from Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries of the caliph Hakim and his vizier Hamza.\nFrederick, accused of heresy, blasphemy and other crimes, called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope, who on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where his emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching rebellion.\nSo he commissioned seven emissaries to go out to seven certain oracles around the world and on a predetermined day, let's say July 12, at a predetermined time, say 3:00 p.m.\nThe emissaries, who themselves did not know the correct answer, were to bring the replies of the oracles back to the king.\nHe wore on his breast a badge with his title of \"Pere,\" was spoken of by his preachers as \"the living law,\" declared, and probably believed, himself to be the chosen of God, and sent out emissaries in a quest of a woman predestined to be the \"female Messiah,\" and the mother of a new Saviour.\nEmissaries of the society now appeared in Crete, large consignments of arms were landed, and at the beginning of 1897 the island was practically in a state of insurrection.\nFrom the dying animal sprang the life of the earth, although Ahriman sent his emissaries to prevent it.\nHe was assisted by a council of Persians, to which also provincials were admitted; and was controlled by a royal secretary and by emissaries of the king (esp. the \" eye of the king \").\nAfter the fall of Palermo, Crispi was appointed minister of the interior and of finance in the Sicilian provisional government, but was shortly afterwards obliged to resign on account of the struggle between Garibaldi and the emissaries of Cavour with regard to the question of immediate annexation.\nRichard also threw himself into the disputes respecting the crown of Jerusalem, and supported Guy of Lusignan against Conrad of Montferrat with so much heat that he incurred grave, though unfounded, suspicions of complicity when Conrad was assassinated by emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain.\nAthens had even sent emissaries to the Persian court to give warning of the proposed national crusade.\nIt was a rash step. The emissaries of the Inquisition were on his track; he was thrown into prison, and in 1593 was brought to Rome.\nThe Jesuits had to find their all such external peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles way of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in the most various places and circumstances.\nThese emissaries, Messrs Mason and InciZt.\nThe word usage examples above have been gathered from various sources to reflect current and historial usage. They do not represent the opinions of YourDictionary.com." ]

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[ "We have recently reported how CO2 levels have started to rise again, due to the impact of drivers switching t to larger SUV’s. With the onset of Coronavirus, recent satellite images are showing that the levels of air pollutants and warming gases over some cities and regions are showing significant drops due to reduced travel.\nResearchers in New York have shown that that Carbon monoxide (mainly from cars) has been reduced by nearly 50% compared with last year. Emissions of the planet-heating gas CO2 have also fallen sharply.\nBut there are warnings levels could rise rapidly after the pandemic. With global economic activity reducing as a result of the coronavirus pandemic, it is hardly surprising that emissions of a variety of gases related to energy and transport would be reduced. Scientists say that by May, when CO2 emissions are at their peak thanks to the decomposition of leaves, the levels recorded might be the lowest since the financial crisis over a decade ago.\nWhile it is early days, data collected in New York this week suggests that instructions to curb unnecessary travel are having a significant impact.\nTraffic levels in the city were estimated to be down 35% compared with a year ago. Emissions of carbon monoxide, mainly due to cars, have fallen by around 50% for a couple of days this week according to researchers at Columbia University.\nThey have also found that there was a 5-10% drop in CO2 over New York and a solid drop in methane as well.\nAlthough there are a number of caveats to these findings, they echo the environmental impacts connected to the virus outbreaks in China and in Italy.\nAnalysis suggests there has been a 25% drop in energy use and emissions in China over a two week period. This is likely to lead to an overall fall of about 1% in China’s carbon emissions this year, experts believe.\nTypical nitrogen dioxide levels across Europe are also likely to see falls, which is related to reduced car journeys and industrial activity. The gas is both a serious air pollutant and a powerful warming chemical. An remember, this is just in a matter of weeks.\nWith Italy being on lock down for more time that other EU cities, the video below shows the dramatic effect of reducing travel. The animation shows the fluctuation of nitrogen dioxide emissions across Europe from 1 January 2020 until 11 March 2020, using a 10-day moving average.\nWith aviation grinding to a halt and millions of people working from home, a range of emissions across many countries are likely following the same downward path. While people working from home will likely increase the use of home heating and electricity, the curbing of commuting and the general slowdown in economies will likely have an impact on overall emissions.\nWhat’s likely to make a major difference to the scale of carbon emissions and air pollution is how governments decide to re-stimulate their economies once the pandemic eases. Back in the 2008-09, after the global financial crash, carbon emissions shot up by 5% as a result of stimulus spending that boosted fossil fuel use.\nThese are indeed challenging times at the moment. There is an opportunity to press the reset button and plan ahead. There is a clear picture that how we move has to be addressed going forward and how the impact of powertrain choice impacts global pollutant levels." ]

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[ "(August 7, 2018)—Social identity has emerged as a field of concerted archaeological inquiry in the Southwest and beyond. At Archaeology Southwest, we’ve been thinking a lot about how people create and express social identities at multiple scales, and how we can see those choices within the material record we find so fascinating. Our Fluid Identities research program is looking at the Big Picture of social identity within an appropriately large frame—the Gila River watershed, which stretches from the highlands in southwest New Mexico across southern Arizona before spilling into the Colorado River at Yuma and very near its delta at the Gulf of California.\nThe Gila was integral to three ceramic-period archaeological traditions we refer to as Mogllon (including Mimbres), Hohokam, and Patayan. Interestingly, these traditions were tethered to different zones of elevation: Mogollon and Mimbres in the upper Gila, Hohokam in the middle, and Patayan at the lower end. This regional division just so happens to correspond with staff research interests and expertise. Karen Schollmeyer works in the upper Gila, with active research programs including the Preservation Archaeology Field School. For her dissertation, Leslie Aragon is looking at the intersection of social identity and the Hohokam ballcourt network along the middle course of the Gila. I’m picking up the tail end with my various research projects at Painted Rocks, the Maricopa Mountains, and Bouse, as well as through the collaborative Lower Gila Ethnographic and Archaeological Project. In the late 1200s, the Salado phenomenon broke through the elevational divide, as it spread among communities in the upper and middle zones of the Gila. This is the purview of Jeff Clark, who is increasingly seeing this as a religious moment and movement in which people of different social backgrounds and identities suddenly bought into a new, socially inclusive ideology.\nOur collective research is important because we’re not simply interested in bounding social identities in time and space, as was popular (and arguably necessary) during archaeology’s early preoccupation with defining culture areas. Instead, we’re looking at this anthropologically, and quite like the way people talk about identity politics today—identity as a social strategy rather than a rigid category. How did people in the past express, alter, and manipulate their identities in relation to others or new circumstances, and why did they choose to do so? Our Fluid Identities program is exploring how these issues played out along the Gila River 1,000 years ago, just as they do today.\nInteresting parallels may be drawn between the social tensions that arose when Ancestral Pueblo immigrants moved into Hohokam territory of the lower San Pedro River valley in the late 1200s, and the crossing of the U.S./Mexico border by immigrants and asylees from Latin American countries in the 21st century. At the heart of both migrations was and is the need to escape deteriorating conditions in one’s home country in order to ensure a future for themselves and their families. In the archaeological case, suspicion and unrest gave way to cooperation and development of an ideology of inclusion accompanied by a remarkable aesthetic, and possibly a new or revitalized religion (i.e., Salado). Might the contemporary case play out in a comparable way?\nThe welcome lesson from the past is that sometimes these identity politics were far from antagonistic. The lower Gila, for instance, saw the cooperative coexistence of people of different backgrounds, traditions, languages, and religions for nearly a millennium. Between AD 1000 and 1400, the material culture of this region shows a mosaic and blending of Hohokam and Patayan traditions. It seems that at first, family units expressing a Patayan cultural identity—presumably migrants from the west—took up residence near established Hohokam villages. At the site of Las Colinas in Phoenix, researchers 30 years ago reported on what they interpreted as a Patayan enclave within a Hohokam village around AD 1050.\nLas Colinas was not an anomaly. From more recent work in the vicinity of Gillespie Dam along the lower Gila, we believe that by the 1000s, some villages were multicultural or multiethnic, with people living in the same community yet maintaining distinct cultural traditions reflecting what we see as Patayan or Hohokam identities. This pattern of multicultural co-residence along the lower Gila persisted into the historic period, as the journals of Spanish and Mexican explorers chronicle accounts of passing through villages comprised of O’odham and Yuman speakers. And it continues today, with the Akimel O’Odham and Piipaash (Yuman speakers) residing together within the Salt River Pima-Maricopa and Gila River Indian Communities, all the while maintaining unique social identities and distinct traditions.\nThe archaeology of identity politics is not merely a topic of antiquity, as it very much factors into the contemporary political and social landscape as well. Sadly, archaeology and contemporary identity politics have a troubling past. Recent history is replete with scenarios of fascist regimes relying on biased or bogus archaeological interpretations to elevate senses of nationalism, often at the expense, detriment, or exploitation of “others.” Impacts ranged from the harmful exclusion from power to outright genocide. The United States was hardly immune to this. The early days of American archaeology witnessed educated and powerful white men claiming the numerous earthworks in eastern North America to be the works of the lost tribes of Israel or Asiatic migrants. It was untenable to think they had been made by the American Indians living there at contact. For these early scholars—themselves descendants of European immigrants—Western mythology was more attuned to their notions of social evolution than the simplicity of Occam’s razor. Such ignorance, often willful, served to disenfranchise descendant American Indian communities, many of whom were rounded up and expelled from their traditional lands.\nThat may seem like a distant and alien past, but the influence of archaeology in contemporary identity politics persists. Indeed, the courts regularly entertain archaeological interpretation when they hear cases involving American Indian claims to or pleas for the preservation of ancestral lands, water sources, sacred places, or traditional plant and animal resources. Scholarly papers and professional opinions are often introduced as evidence in such proceedings. For example, ethnographies and archaeological reports, penned by white scholars of course, were the principal evidentiary items in the Indian Claims Commission (ICC) hearings. Those midcentury proceedings, ostensibly intended to make amends for displacing millions of American Indians, resulted in the “quieting” of otherwise murky federal government title to aboriginal lands through pennies-on-the-dollar payments to tribes for the true value of their homelands. The commission simply could not take American Indians at their word, and as a result many regard the commission’s findings as a sham.\nThis insistence on a perceived archaeological objectivity persists. In cases regarding the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), for instance, the courts weigh professional archaeological interpretation alongside other lines of evidence, such as linguistics, genetics, and oral histories, when evaluating tribal claims to items of cultural patrimony. At times, professional archaeological interpretation contradicts with these other lines of evidence, and may actually be at odds with tribal interests and claims. While ICC and NAGPRA represent good-faith efforts to rectify historic injustices against indigenous people, they also represent a system that, in some instances, still privileges archaeological interpretation of American Indians over American Indian voices and interests. The recent stand-off at Standing Rock echoes this imbalance.\nAlthough archaeologists study the past, what they choose to study, how they interpret the data, and the manners in which they present their findings can have profound impacts on peoples’ lives today. Writing papers about others’ ancestors is not simply an academic practice. To borrow a phrase from the Miranda warning, what we say and write may be used against others in a court of law. If we respect the people we study who can no longer speak for themselves, and if we respect their descendants, then it behooves us to acknowledge the power of this discipline, forecast the potential impacts our interpretations may have on living people, and act and write accordingly. This is an ethical imperative and a moral obligation that comes with the territory and privilege of being a scholar of the past. Archaeology and the interests of descendant communities are only incompatible if we make them so." ]

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[ "Do you want to learn how much is 95.97 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 95.97 kg to lbs? Here you go. You will find in this article everything you need to make kilogram to pound conversion - theoretical and also practical. It is also needed/We also want to emphasize that whole this article is dedicated to one amount of kilograms - exactly one kilogram. So if you want to know more about 95.97 kg to pound conversion - keep reading.\nBefore we go to the practice - this is 95.97 kg how much lbs conversion - we will tell you few theoretical information about these two units - kilograms and pounds. So let’s move on.\nWe will start with the kilogram. The kilogram is a unit of mass. It is a basic unit in a metric system, that is International System of Units (in abbreviated form SI).\nFrom time to time the kilogram can be written as kilogramme. The symbol of this unit is kg.\nThe kilogram was defined first time in 1795. The kilogram was described as the mass of one liter of water. This definition was simply but impractical to use.\nLater, in 1889 the kilogram was described by the International Prototype of the Kilogram (in short form IPK). The IPK was made of 90% platinum and 10 % iridium. The International Prototype of the Kilogram was in use until 2019, when it was substituted by another definition.\nNowadays the definition of the kilogram is based on physical constants, especially Planck constant. The official definition is: “The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the unit J⋅s, which is equal to kg⋅m2⋅s−1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ΔνCs.”\nOne kilogram is equal 0.001 tonne. It is also divided to 100 decagrams and 1000 grams.\nYou know a little bit about kilogram, so now let's go to the pound. The pound is also a unit of mass. We want to emphasize that there are more than one kind of pound. What are we talking about? For instance, there are also pound-force. In this article we are going to to concentrate only on pound-mass.\nThe pound is used in the British and United States customary systems of measurements. Naturally, this unit is used also in other systems. The symbol of the pound is lb or “.\nThe international avoirdupois pound has no descriptive definition. It is just equal 0.45359237 kilograms. One avoirdupois pound can be divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces or 7000 grains.\nThe avoirdupois pound was implemented in the Weights and Measures Act 1963. The definition of the pound was placed in first section of this act: “The yard or the metre shall be the unit of measurement of length and the pound or the kilogram shall be the unit of measurement of mass by reference to which any measurement involving a measurement of length or mass shall be made in the United Kingdom; and- (a) the yard shall be 0.9144 metre exactly; (b) the pound shall be 0.45359237 kilogram exactly.”\nTheoretical section is already behind us. In next section we are going to tell you how much is 95.97 kg to lbs. Now you learned that 95.97 kg = x lbs. So it is high time to know the answer. Just see:\n95.97 kilogram = 211.5776328414 pounds.\nIt is a correct outcome of how much 95.97 kg to pound. It is possible to also round off this result. After it your outcome will be as following: 95.97 kg = 211.134 lbs.\nYou learned 95.97 kg is how many lbs, so have a look how many kg 95.97 lbs: 95.97 pound = 0.45359237 kilograms.\nObviously, this time it is possible to also round off the result. After it your result is as following: 95.97 lb = 0.45 kgs.\nWe also want to show you 95.97 kg to how many pounds and 95.97 pound how many kg results in tables. Have a look:\nWe will start with a table for how much is 95.97 kg equal to pound.\n|Kilograms (kg)||Pounds (lb)||Pounds (lbs) (rounded off to two decimal places)|\n|Pounds||Kilograms||Kilograms (rounded off to two decimal places|\nNow you learned how many 95.97 kg to lbs and how many kilograms 95.97 pound, so it is time to move on to the 95.97 kg to lbs formula.\nTo convert 95.97 kg to us lbs you need a formula. We will show you two versions of a formula. Let’s begin with the first one:\nNumber of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the 211.5776328414 outcome in pounds\nThe first formula give you the most accurate result. In some situations even the smallest difference can be considerable. So if you need a correct outcome - this formula will be the best for you/option to know how many pounds are equivalent to 95.97 kilogram.\nSo let’s go to the second version of a formula, which also enables calculations to know how much 95.97 kilogram in pounds.\nThe shorter formula is as following, look:\nNumber of kilograms * 2.2 = the outcome in pounds\nAs you see, the second formula is simpler. It could be better solution if you want to make a conversion of 95.97 kilogram to pounds in easy way, for instance, during shopping. You only need to remember that final outcome will be not so exact.\nNow we are going to learn you how to use these two versions of a formula in practice. But before we will make a conversion of 95.97 kg to lbs we are going to show you another way to know 95.97 kg to how many lbs totally effortless.\nAn easier way to learn what is 95.97 kilogram equal to in pounds is to use 95.97 kg lbs calculator. What is a kg to lb converter?\nConverter is an application. It is based on first formula which we showed you in the previous part of this article. Due to 95.97 kg pound calculator you can effortless convert 95.97 kg to lbs. You only need to enter amount of kilograms which you want to convert and click ‘convert’ button. You will get the result in a second.\nSo try to convert 95.97 kg into lbs with use of 95.97 kg vs pound converter. We entered 95.97 as a number of kilograms. It is the result: 95.97 kilogram = 211.5776328414 pounds.\nAs you can see, our 95.97 kg vs lbs converter is user friendly.\nNow let’s move on to our primary topic - how to convert 95.97 kilograms to pounds on your own.\nWe are going to start 95.97 kilogram equals to how many pounds conversion with the first version of a formula to get the most exact outcome. A quick reminder of a formula:\nNumber of kilograms * 2.20462262 = 211.5776328414 the result in pounds\nSo what need you do to check how many pounds equal to 95.97 kilogram? Just multiply number of kilograms, in this case 95.97, by 2.20462262. It is 211.5776328414. So 95.97 kilogram is equal 211.5776328414.\nIt is also possible to round off this result, for example, to two decimal places. It is equal 2.20. So 95.97 kilogram = 211.1340 pounds.\nIt is high time for an example from everyday life. Let’s convert 95.97 kg gold in pounds. So 95.97 kg equal to how many lbs? As in the previous example - multiply 95.97 by 2.20462262. It is 211.5776328414. So equivalent of 95.97 kilograms to pounds, if it comes to gold, is equal 211.5776328414.\nIn this case it is also possible to round off the result. It is the outcome after rounding off, this time to one decimal place - 95.97 kilogram 211.134 pounds.\nNow we can move on to examples converted with a short version of a formula.\nBefore we show you an example - a quick reminder of shorter formula:\nNumber of kilograms * 2.2 = 211.134 the outcome in pounds\nSo 95.97 kg equal to how much lbs? And again, you have to multiply number of kilogram, in this case 95.97, by 2.2. Look: 95.97 * 2.2 = 211.134. So 95.97 kilogram is exactly 2.2 pounds.\nMake another conversion with use of shorer version of a formula. Now calculate something from everyday life, for example, 95.97 kg to lbs weight of strawberries.\nSo calculate - 95.97 kilogram of strawberries * 2.2 = 211.134 pounds of strawberries. So 95.97 kg to pound mass is 211.134.\nIf you learned how much is 95.97 kilogram weight in pounds and are able to convert it with use of two different versions of a formula, let’s move on. Now we want to show you these outcomes in tables.\nWe realize that outcomes shown in tables are so much clearer for most of you. We understand it, so we gathered all these outcomes in charts for your convenience. Due to this you can easily make a comparison 95.97 kg equivalent to lbs results.\nLet’s start with a 95.97 kg equals lbs chart for the first version of a formula:\n|Kilograms||Pounds||Pounds (after rounding off to two decimal places)|\nAnd now have a look at 95.97 kg equal pound table for the second formula:\nAs you can see, after rounding off, if it comes to how much 95.97 kilogram equals pounds, the outcomes are the same. The bigger amount the more significant difference. Remember it when you want to make bigger amount than 95.97 kilograms pounds conversion.\nNow you learned how to convert 95.97 kilograms how much pounds but we will show you something more. Do you want to know what it is? What do you say about 95.97 kilogram to pounds and ounces calculation?\nWe want to show you how you can convert it little by little. Let’s start. How much is 95.97 kg in lbs and oz?\nFirst thing you need to do is multiply amount of kilograms, this time 95.97, by 2.20462262. So 95.97 * 2.20462262 = 211.5776328414. One kilogram is exactly 2.20462262 pounds.\nThe integer part is number of pounds. So in this case there are 2 pounds.\nTo check how much 95.97 kilogram is equal to pounds and ounces you have to multiply fraction part by 16. So multiply 20462262 by 16. It is 327396192 ounces.\nSo your result is equal 2 pounds and 327396192 ounces. It is also possible to round off ounces, for instance, to two places. Then final outcome will be equal 2 pounds and 33 ounces.\nAs you can see, conversion 95.97 kilogram in pounds and ounces easy.\nThe last calculation which we are going to show you is calculation of 95.97 foot pounds to kilograms meters. Both foot pounds and kilograms meters are units of work.\nTo convert it it is needed another formula. Before we show you it, have a look:\nNow see a formula:\nAmount.RandomElement()) of foot pounds * 0.13825495 = the outcome in kilograms meters\nSo to calculate 95.97 foot pounds to kilograms meters you have to multiply 95.97 by 0.13825495. It gives 0.13825495. So 95.97 foot pounds is equal 0.13825495 kilogram meters.\nIt is also possible to round off this result, for instance, to two decimal places. Then 95.97 foot pounds is equal 0.14 kilogram meters.\nWe hope that this conversion was as easy as 95.97 kilogram into pounds conversions.\nThis article was a big compendium about kilogram, pound and 95.97 kg to lbs in calculation. Due to this conversion you know 95.97 kilogram is equivalent to how many pounds.\nWe showed you not only how to do a conversion 95.97 kilogram to metric pounds but also two other conversions - to check how many 95.97 kg in pounds and ounces and how many 95.97 foot pounds to kilograms meters.\nWe showed you also other solution to do 95.97 kilogram how many pounds conversions, it is with use of 95.97 kg en pound converter. This will be the best choice for those of you who do not like calculating on your own at all or need to make @baseAmountStr kg how lbs calculations in quicker way.\nWe hope that now all of you are able to make 95.97 kilogram equal to how many pounds conversion - on your own or with use of our 95.97 kgs to pounds calculator.\nSo what are you waiting for? Convert 95.97 kilogram mass to pounds in the way you like.\nDo you need to make other than 95.97 kilogram as pounds calculation? For instance, for 15 kilograms? Check our other articles! We guarantee that conversions for other numbers of kilograms are so simply as for 95.97 kilogram equal many pounds.\nAt the end, we are going to summarize the topic of this article, that is how much is 95.97 kg in pounds , we prepared one more section. Here you can see the most important information about how much is 95.97 kg equal to lbs and how to convert 95.97 kg to lbs . Have a look.\nHow does the kilogram to pound conversion look? The conversion kg to lb is just multiplying 2 numbers. How does 95.97 kg to pound conversion formula look? . See it down below:\nThe number of kilograms * 2.20462262 = the result in pounds\nHow does the result of the conversion of 95.97 kilogram to pounds? The accurate answer is 211.5776328414 lbs.\nYou can also calculate how much 95.97 kilogram is equal to pounds with another, easier type of the formula. Check it down below.\nThe number of kilograms * 2.2 = the result in pounds\nSo now, 95.97 kg equal to how much lbs ? The answer is 211.5776328414 lbs.\nHow to convert 95.97 kg to lbs in a few seconds? It is possible to use the 95.97 kg to lbs converter , which will do all calculations for you and give you a correct answer .\n|95.01 kg to lbs||=||209.46120|\n|95.02 kg to lbs||=||209.48324|\n|95.03 kg to lbs||=||209.50529|\n|95.04 kg to lbs||=||209.52733|\n|95.05 kg to lbs||=||209.54938|\n|95.06 kg to lbs||=||209.57143|\n|95.07 kg to lbs||=||209.59347|\n|95.08 kg to lbs||=||209.61552|\n|95.09 kg to lbs||=||209.63756|\n|95.1 kg to lbs||=||209.65961|\n|95.11 kg to lbs||=||209.68166|\n|95.12 kg to lbs||=||209.70370|\n|95.13 kg to lbs||=||209.72575|\n|95.14 kg to lbs||=||209.74780|\n|95.15 kg to lbs||=||209.76984|\n|95.16 kg to lbs||=||209.79189|\n|95.17 kg to lbs||=||209.81393|\n|95.18 kg to lbs||=||209.83598|\n|95.19 kg to lbs||=||209.85803|\n|95.2 kg to lbs||=||209.88007|\n|95.21 kg to lbs||=||209.90212|\n|95.22 kg to lbs||=||209.92417|\n|95.23 kg to lbs||=||209.94621|\n|95.24 kg to lbs||=||209.96826|\n|95.25 kg to lbs||=||209.99030|\n|95.26 kg to lbs||=||210.01235|\n|95.27 kg to lbs||=||210.03440|\n|95.28 kg to lbs||=||210.05644|\n|95.29 kg to lbs||=||210.07849|\n|95.3 kg to lbs||=||210.10054|\n|95.31 kg to lbs||=||210.12258|\n|95.32 kg to lbs||=||210.14463|\n|95.33 kg to lbs||=||210.16667|\n|95.34 kg to lbs||=||210.18872|\n|95.35 kg to lbs||=||210.21077|\n|95.36 kg to lbs||=||210.23281|\n|95.37 kg to lbs||=||210.25486|\n|95.38 kg to lbs||=||210.27691|\n|95.39 kg to lbs||=||210.29895|\n|95.4 kg to lbs||=||210.32100|\n|95.41 kg to lbs||=||210.34304|\n|95.42 kg to lbs||=||210.36509|\n|95.43 kg to lbs||=||210.38714|\n|95.44 kg to lbs||=||210.40918|\n|95.45 kg to lbs||=||210.43123|\n|95.46 kg to lbs||=||210.45328|\n|95.47 kg to lbs||=||210.47532|\n|95.48 kg to lbs||=||210.49737|\n|95.49 kg to lbs||=||210.51941|\n|95.5 kg to lbs||=||210.54146|\n|95.51 kg to lbs||=||210.56351|\n|95.52 kg to lbs||=||210.58555|\n|95.53 kg to lbs||=||210.60760|\n|95.54 kg to lbs||=||210.62965|\n|95.55 kg to lbs||=||210.65169|\n|95.56 kg to lbs||=||210.67374|\n|95.57 kg to lbs||=||210.69578|\n|95.58 kg to lbs||=||210.71783|\n|95.59 kg to lbs||=||210.73988|\n|95.6 kg to lbs||=||210.76192|\n|95.61 kg to lbs||=||210.78397|\n|95.62 kg to lbs||=||210.80601|\n|95.63 kg to lbs||=||210.82806|\n|95.64 kg to lbs||=||210.85011|\n|95.65 kg to lbs||=||210.87215|\n|95.66 kg to lbs||=||210.89420|\n|95.67 kg to lbs||=||210.91625|\n|95.68 kg to lbs||=||210.93829|\n|95.69 kg to lbs||=||210.96034|\n|95.7 kg to lbs||=||210.98238|\n|95.71 kg to lbs||=||211.00443|\n|95.72 kg to lbs||=||211.02648|\n|95.73 kg to lbs||=||211.04852|\n|95.74 kg to lbs||=||211.07057|\n|95.75 kg to lbs||=||211.09262|\n|95.76 kg to lbs||=||211.11466|\n|95.77 kg to lbs||=||211.13671|\n|95.78 kg to lbs||=||211.15875|\n|95.79 kg to lbs||=||211.18080|\n|95.8 kg to lbs||=||211.20285|\n|95.81 kg to lbs||=||211.22489|\n|95.82 kg to lbs||=||211.24694|\n|95.83 kg to lbs||=||211.26899|\n|95.84 kg to lbs||=||211.29103|\n|95.85 kg to lbs||=||211.31308|\n|95.86 kg to lbs||=||211.33512|\n|95.87 kg to lbs||=||211.35717|\n|95.88 kg to lbs||=||211.37922|\n|95.89 kg to lbs||=||211.40126|\n|95.9 kg to lbs||=||211.42331|\n|95.91 kg to lbs||=||211.44536|\n|95.92 kg to lbs||=||211.46740|\n|95.93 kg to lbs||=||211.48945|\n|95.94 kg to lbs||=||211.51149|\n|95.95 kg to lbs||=||211.53354|\n|95.96 kg to lbs||=||211.55559|\n|95.97 kg to lbs||=||211.57763|\n|95.98 kg to lbs||=||211.59968|\n|95.99 kg to lbs||=||211.62173|\n|96 kg to lbs||=||211.64377|" ]

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[ "The James Webb Space Telescope wasn’t the only big space news in 2022\nDART crashing into an asteroid, Artemis going to the moon and other events made space a busy place\nWhile the stunning images from the James Webb Space Telescope captured space fans’ attention this year, other telescopes and spacecraft were busy on Earth and around the solar system (SN Online: 12/7/22). Here are some of the coolest space highlights that had nothing to do with JWST.\nBack to the moon\nAfter several aborted attempts, NASA launched the Artemis I mission on November 16. That was a big step toward the goal of landing people on the moon as early as 2025 (SN: 12/3/22, p. 14). No human has set foot there since 1972. Artemis I included a new rocket, the Space Launch System, which had previously suffered a series of hydrogen fuel leaks, and the new Orion spacecraft. No astronauts were aboard the test flight, but Orion carried a manikin in the commander’s seat and two manikin torsos to test radiation protection and life-support systems, plus a cargo hold full of small satellites that went off on their own missions. On December 11, the Orion capsule successfully returned to Earth, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean near Mexico (SN Online: 12/12/22).\nScience News headlines, in your inboxHeadlines and summaries of the latest Science News articles, delivered to your email inbox every Thursday.\nDART shoves an asteroid\nNASA’s DART spacecraft successfully nudged an asteroid into a new orbit this year. On September 26, the Double Asteroid Redirection Test slammed into asteroid Dimorphos, about 11 million kilometers from Earth at the time of impact. In October, NASA announced that the impact shortened Dimorphos’ roughly 12-hour orbit around its sibling asteroid, Didymos, by 32 minutes (SN: 11/5/22, p. 14). Dimorphos posed no threat to Earth, but the test will help inform future missions to divert any asteroids on a potentially dangerous collision course with our home planet, researchers say.\nThe InSight Mars lander is going out on a high note. After scientists reported in May that InSight had recorded the largest known Marsquake, roughly a magnitude 5, news came in October that the lander’s seismometer had also detected the rumblings of the ever observed on Mars. Those impacts created gaping craters and sent .\nThe details of how those waves and others moved through the Red Planet gave researchers new intel on the structure of Mars’ crust, which is hard to study any other way. The data also suggest that some Marsquakes are caused by magma moving beneath the surface (SN: 12/3/22, p. 12). The solar panels that power the lander are now covered in dust after four years on Mars, a death knell for the mission.\nChemistry of life turns up in meteorites\nAll five bases in DNA and RNA have been found in rocks that fell to Earth. Three of the nucleobases, which combine with sugars and phosphates to make up the genetic material of all known life, had previously been found in meteorites. But the last two — cytosine and thymine — were reported from space rocks only this year (SN: 6/4/22, p. 7). The find supports the idea that life’s precursors could have come to Earth from space, researchers say.\nSagittarius A* snapshot\nThe supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way became the second black hole to get its close-up. After releasing a picture of the behemoth at the heart of galaxy M87 in 2019, astronomers used data from the Event Horizon Telescope, a network of radio telescopes around the world, to assemble an image of Sagittarius A* (SN: 6/4/22, p. 6). The image, released in May, shows a faint fuzzy shadow nestled in the glowing ring of the accretion disk. That may not sound impressive on its own, but the result provides new details about the turbulence roiling near our black hole’s edge." ]

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[ "Proper Medication Disposal\nHave you gone through your medicine cabinet lately? It’s a good idea to periodically look at both your prescription and over-the-counter medications and supplements to check for those that are expired. Some medications can become toxic the longer they are past the expiration date listed by the manufacturer. A good reminder for when to go through your medicine cabinet is during Daylight Savings Time, which occurs twice per year in the spring and fall.\nProper medication disposal helps:\nto prevent drug abuse and health risks. Teenagers ages 12-17 are an at-risk group who may try to experiment with what they find in the medicine cabinets of their own homes or those of friends and family members.\nthe environment by keeping it out of lakes, rivers, streams and other natural resources.\nwildlife and scavenging animals to be protected from harm, as proper medication disposal discourages them from “nosing around” in your garbage and ingesting medication.\nIdentify Expired Medications\nOnce you’ve removed the expired medications and supplements from your medicine cabinet, set them aside. Make sure they are placed out of reach of both children and pets.\nFollow Label Directions\nRead the directions on the label or accompanying patient information for any specific directions on how to dispose of that particular medication.\nDo not flush any medication down the toilet and do not pour any medication down a sink or drain.\nLook for Drug Take-Back Programs\nPeriodically, the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) will partner with local communities to allow residents to bring their expired or unused prescription medications to a centralized location for proper disposal. Call your city or county government’s household trash and recycling service to ask if there is a take-back program in your area.\nLocal pharmacies also are a good resource to find out about medication disposal. Many pharmacies sell special envelopes used to mail in your expired or unused medications via the U.S. Postal Service, a good option if there isn’t a take-back program in your area. Certain restrictions on the types of medications accepted may apply.\nFor more information on drug take-back programs, visit SMARXT DISPOSAL.\nDisposing of Medications in Your Trash\nWhen throwing away medication in your trash, follow these guidelines.\nRemove the medication from its original container.\nMix the medication with an undesirable substance like kitty litter or used coffee grounds. It will appear unrecognizable to pets and people who might intentionally go through your trash.\nPlace the medication and undesirable substance in a sealable bag or empty container to prevent it from leaking out of the garbage bag.\nRemove or scratch out any personal information on the empty prescription containers to protect your privacy.\nDo not give medications prescribed to you or your family members to anyone else. They could be harmful to others.\nIf you are still unsure about how to properly dispose of medications and supplements, ask your pharmacist.\nThis information has been approved by Charlie Farris, RPh (March 2013)." ]

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[ "We know Batman has a deep and abiding fear of bats, but what does his phobia really mean, what is going on behind his fear and what can he do about it?\nHuffPostUK hears from clinical psychologist Nick Grey, who explains the basis for such a phobia, and how Batman, and others, may relieve their fears...\nIt appears Batman is not alone in his phobia\nAbout 10% of people will have a specific phobia at some time in their life.\nThere are a number of factors which influence the development of phobias. One is past traumatic experiences such as being bitten by a dog. Another is the fact that there seems to be some element of biological (evolutionary) preparedness to be more prone to develop phobias to some animals and situations than others. For objects or animals that are actually potentially dangerous you can become phobic by observing others around you showing fear related to them.\nFor example you can develop a phobia of dogs if a parent is always showing fear in a dog’s presence, whereas it would be harder to develop a phobia of, say, flowers even if a parent showed fear when flowers are around. You can see how in evolutionary terms this ‘preparedness’ to develop a phobia to certain things may be advantageous.\nPeople can develop phobias to all sorts of animals – dogs, snakes, spiders, cockroaches etc.\nSome people who describe having a phobia of something may in fact have unidentified Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). People with PTSD also very strongly avoid particular situations, objects, people and places – anything that may remind them of their initial traumatic experience. To have PTSD the person must have experienced or witnessed an event that they perceived as life-threatening to themselves or others.\nThe root of Batman's fear lies in his childhood trauma\nI think that Bruce Wayne doesn’t only have a ‘phobia of bats’, but rather he has PTSD. In the film Batman Begins we see him fall down a well as a child. As the bats fly up above him this is clearly a terrifying experience for him. Later he attends the opera with his parents. As he is watching, there are stage performers dressed in black shimmying up and down ropes descending from the ceiling.\nThe vivid memory of being in the well comes into Bruce’s mind and he feels very upset. His father picks up on this and they all leave the theatre. This helps Bruce calm down. Unfortunately in the alleyway the family are then confronted by a man with a gun and in the altercation that follows both his parents are shot and killed. Bruce perceives that he caused the death of his parents by being afraid in the theatre – which was a flashback of his experience of falling into the well. In addition his father’s last words to the young Bruce are “Don’t be afraid”.\nThis is a strong and powerful message to receive, and something he tries to adhere to. Of course, in order to overcome phobias and PTSD it is necessary to recognise that feeling afraid is a normal part of being human, it’s not dangerous, and that we don’t have to avoid or suppress such feelings – something that Bruce continues to do.\nThe worst thing that people can do if they want to overcome their fear is to continue to avoid the things they are afraid of. Some of the key steps in overcoming fear are:\nRecognising what it is you are actually afraid of. What is the very worst thing you think could happen? And what would be the worst thing about that for you personally?\nTry to evaluate how realistic it is that such a thing could happen, and how bad it would be if it really did. Are you over-estimating how likely it would be? Are you basing your judgement on your feelings more than anything else? Are you over=estimating how bad it would be if this did happen? Are you under-estimating your ability to cope?\nWhat first steps could you take to overcome your fear? How could you approach what you are afraid of? Who could help you with this?\nUltimately the only way to overcome your fears is to face them and see that your worst fears are not as bad as you think. While anxiety is horrible, it’s not dangerous.\nFor more information on Nick Grey please visit www.kcl.ac.uk/cadat and www.national.slam.nhs.uk/cadat\nThe Dark Knight Rises is in cinemas now." ]

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[ "In their new book If Your Adolescent Has ADHD: An Essential Resource for Parents, Thomas J. Power and Linda Wasmer Andrews provide a supportive guide for parents raising an adolescent with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). They address ADHD in the context of teen friendships, dating, curfews, sports, and extracurricular activities along with giving practical advice on determining readiness to drive and how to instill good homework and study habits. This book also provides effective treatments, including behavioral and skills training approaches, as well as the best medications to take.\nUsing day-to-day experiences from real parents and leading research, If Your Adolescent Has ADHD gives the most up-to-date scientifically grounded approaches to help each adolescent with ADHD thrive at home, flourish at school, and succeed in the community.\n- Thomas J. Power\n- Linda Wasmer Andrews" ]

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[ "With pulmonary stenosis, the pulmonary valve is unable to open completely, so the blood flowing from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery is constricted. “Stenosis” refers to the narrowing of a passageway. The valve may be only slightly narrowed, needing no treatment, or severely narrowed, needing treatment once the problem is diagnosed.\nThe constriction means that it is difficult for the right ventricle to pump the blood through the narrowing.\nPulmonary stenosis has been found in 8% to 10% of patients with congenital heart disease.\nWhat are the symptoms of pulmonary stenosis?\nIn cases with severe narrowing, children may develop cyanosis and congestive heart failure. Babies who have this defect often show no symptoms, but will have a heart murmur.\nAn electrocardiogram, an echocardiogram, and a chest X-ray may be done to diagnose the condition.\nHow is pulmonary stenosis treated?\nBalloon dilation valvuloplasty may be done to widen the opening. This is a cardiac catheterization procedure that stretches open the valve.\nChildren with more severe symptoms may need to undergo a surgical pulmonary valvotomy. With this procedure, the valve is surgically widened, often with the use of a patch." ]

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[ "Video gamers rejoice, your potential future career as a surgeon just got a little less daunting. Forget a morbidly precocious interest in Gray's Anatomy at some tender age, if you play video games, you're already on a trajectory toward a career involving advanced surgical techniques.\nCanadian research scientists recently found that hand-eye skills developed by gaming--no great surprise here--train the brain for sophisticated visuomotor tasks, tuning skills necessary for complex surgical procedures involving images displayed on a video screen. Skills such as laparoscopic surgery, for instance.\nThe study involved 13 males in their twenties who'd played video games a minimum of four hours a week for the prior three years, compared with 13 males who hadn't. Both groups were asked to complete tricky visuomotor tasks, such as using a joystick to accomplish specific goals, or looking one way while reaching in the opposite direction.\n\"By using high resolution brain imaging, we were able to actually measure which brain areas were activated at a given time during the experiment,\" said Lauren Sergio, associate professor in the Faculty of Health at York University in Ontario.\n\"We tested how the skills learned from video game experience can transfer over to new tasks, rather than just looking at brain activity while the subject plays a video game.\"\nNon-gamers tend to use their parietal cortex, which integrates spatial sensory information, according to the study's results, while the group of gamers (or those with more recent gaming experience, anyway) used their prefrontal cortex instead.\nWhat's the difference? The prefrontal cortex \"receives highly processed information from all major forebrain systems, and neurophysiological studies suggest that it synthesizes this into representations of learned task contingencies, concepts and task rules,\" according to a 2002 scientific paper titled \"The prefrontal cortex: categories, concepts and cognition.\"\n\"In short, the prefrontal cortex seems to underlie our internal representations of the 'rules of the game'. This may provide the necessary foundation for the complex behavior of primates, in whom this structure is most elaborate.\"\nThe other spot of good news: The York researchers believe this could be a major breakthrough for Alzheimer's patients, whose visuomotor skills can become severely impaired as the disease progresses.\nThe study doesn't indicate what type of games lead to prefrontal versus parietal brain area use, but it's something the York research group hopes to determine in the future, as well as whether gender plays a role.\nFollow us on Twitter (@game_on)" ]

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[ "From small to scale: the expansion of pre-primary in Bangladesh\nIn recent years, Bangladesh has made remarkable progress towards providing pre-primary education for all young children. While much more remains to be achieved, the country’s experience so far shows how quickly services for young children can reach scale through well-organised collaboration between the government and civil society partners. These partners include Save the Children, which first started work on early childhood development in Bangladesh in 1983.\nAt that time, government schools’ provision of so-called ‘baby classes’ – one year of preschool before the start of formal schooling at age 6 – was sporadic, temporary and unstructured. Still, there was growing recognition of the importance of early childhood, signalled in 1990 when Bangladesh became one of the first countries to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child and also signed the World Declaration on Education for All. By the early 2000s, however, the government’s UNICEF-supported early childhood programming still reached only a small number of children, and the large majority of early childhood services continued to be provided by a range of civil society actors. Recognising this, in 2002 UNICEF and Save the Children took the initiative to form a national network of organisations working for young children. After gathering data through a nationwide survey to identify relevant organisations, the Bangladesh ECD Network (BEN) was formally launched in 2005. Since then, BEN has been conducting advocacy, sharing information and experiences, supporting cooperation, and building the capacity of stakeholders. The Institute of Educational Development at BRAC University, Dhaka, serves as its Secretariat. BEN currently has 172 members.\nBEN has become a highly effective forum for collaboration between government and non-government organisations (NGOs). After the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education (MoPME) issued an Operational Framework for Universal Pre-Primary Education in 2008, for example, BEN and the government together followed up to develop guidelines on collaboration between government and NGOs for universal pre-primary education (PPE) in Bangladesh. These laid out the respective roles of the government and civil society sectors in scaling-up PPE, recognising respective resources and capabilities. It allowed, for example, case-by-case agreements for civil society actors to operate pre-primary provision in government schools (Institute for Child & Human Development, 2011).\nIn 2010, the government announced a new National Education Policy which for the first time formally recognised pre-primary as the first stage of the education system, with the stated aim to ‘create an enthusiasm for learning’. The policy aimed to include first all 5 year olds in pre-primary provision, and then eventually all 4 year olds (Ministry of Education, 2010). By 2014, the government formally declared the aim of all primary schools of offering parents the option of pre-primary education for their children.\nComprehensive and consistent data collection is lacking to track progress, but the figures that are available suggest that progress in PPE expansion has been rapid and significant. For example, the Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE), an active member of BEN, conducts periodic household surveys in representative districts. As shown in Figure 1, these found that between 2008 and 2013 – the most recent year in which a survey was conducted – net enrolment in pre-primary education jumped from 10.9% to 40.4%, an increase that was found to include children of both genders and urban and rural areas alike (CAMPE, 2013).\nMore recently, a government census of primary schools in 2015 found that over 99% of government primary schools were already offering pre-primary provision, along with almost 95% of ‘newly nationalised’ primary schools (Ministry of Education, 2015). The newly nationalised schools brought under government management in 2014 were formerly managed by communities with some government support. As shown in Table 1, in total 93,247 institutions were offering pre-primary provision, serving a total of over 2.8 million children – roughly equally divided between boys and girls.\nDespite these forward steps, challenges remain. For example, according to the 2013 CAMPE household survey, children from wealthier backgrounds were significantly more likely to be benefiting from pre-primary education, which typically requires some financial outlay from parents. According to a currently unpublished assessment of over 500 pre-primary institutions, carried out in late 2016 by the Directorate of Primary Education, there were wide variations in quality of classroom settings and training of teachers; age-appropriate educational materials were limited; and teaching methods were often overly focused on studying, rather than encouraging a love of learning through play and having fun.\nExperimenting with different models\nAs the Government of Bangladesh aims for universal, quality pre-primary provision, the close relationship with civil society is important as it allows for various models to be experimented with, learned from and fine-tuned, which can then inform government policies. In 2006, for example, Save the Children began to implement a programme called ‘Shishuder Jonno’ (SJ), meaning ‘For the Children’, in both a rural district – Meherpur – and in an urban slum in Dhaka, involving pre-primary as part of a wider model covering children and young people, from birth to age 19.\nAt first, SJ took a family-centric approach, seeking to understand what parents wanted from preschool, and giving sessions on parenting and children’s well- being. This evolved into a community-based model of pre-primary for 5 year olds in Meherpur, with classes located in the community. Local people donated land, assisted in the building of classrooms and volunteered for a school management committee. Teachers were recruited to conduct 2.5-hour classes each day, designing their own curriculum.\nHowever, as BEN worked with the government on scaling up, the SJ model provided useful inputs to advocacy and policy development. It shifted from a two-year model to a one-year model, as it became clear that the government was interested in initially universalising one year of pre-primary provision. The pedagogy and curriculum were formalised, and SJ partnered with the government to provide technical support in areas such as educational materials and building the capacity of teachers and management committees.\nThe question now is what models could reach children who are still without access to pre-primary education, children of working urban parents and in remote rural areas are proving among the hardest to reach effectively. Save the Children is currently advocating for the scaling-up of several initiatives which we have successfully piloted and developed in Bangladesh:\n- Early childhood development (ECD) camps – for underprivileged children who live in remote areas. This involves groups of around eight to ten children coming together for 42-day sessions which give them some exposure to learning habits and activities that could support primary school readiness.\n- Early literacy and maths parenting programme – sessions for parents and children to teach games and activities that parents can play with their children during everyday chores at home to promote early literacy and maths skills.\n- Reading for children – sessions for parents and children to promote engagement with books, even among parents with a low level of literacy. Books are made available for lending and encouraging parents to look at pictures with their children and make up stories.\n- Early years pre-primary – with government policy initially targeting 5 year olds but ultimately aiming to include younger children. This play-based curriculum was developed with the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs and the Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. Based in primary schools, it involves two-hour sessions for 15–20 children aged 3 and 4 years. This model will enable the relative benefits of one versus two years of pre- primary education to be evaluated.\nWe are also working to develop a programme for younger children through the Early Stimulation Programme, working with parents to promote ‘serve and return’ communications, attachment and vocabulary development among children from birth to age 3. Following a successful pilot, we are working with the national healthcare system to roll out a five-minute message on cognitive stimulation that mothers can be given when they bring their babies to health clinics for checks.\nTowards universal access\nTaking a small pilot run by an NGO and bringing it to the kind of scale only governments can coordinate requires long-term partnering. Regular conversations and engagement are needed from local to central level, creating a sense of openness and trust, and a willingness to recognise when something is working and when there is a new approach to retool. Save the Children’s involvement with BEN, and BEN’s engagement with government, have shown that innovation is neither easy nor quick, but it is the only way to generate evidence that shows what the most effective programming approaches are to meet the varied needs of differing community contexts.\nBangladeshi policymakers and development partners alike are increasingly aware of the importance of early childhood investments to meeting the country’s economic and social development objectives. The need now is for empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the different models and approaches in order to develop minimum standards of quality, monitoring systems and capacity building to address identified gaps.\nReferences can be found in the PDF version of the article." ]

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[ "California Heat Wave August 2020\nAn intense, prolonged, and dangerous heat wave set records across California, including 130°F in Death Valley on August 16, potentially the hottest recorded temperature in world history. Many aspects of the heat wave, including the extreme high temperatures, number of consecutive days with temperatures over 100°F, high overnight lows, and high humidity, align with the impacts of climate change. Michael Wehner, a climate scientist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, says “for most of California, climate change has caused rare heat waves to be from 3 to 4 degrees Fahrenheit warmer.”\nThe heat wave is having wide-ranging impacts on human health, wildfires, and electricity demand, including the development of a rare fire tornado and the first rolling blackouts since 2001. UCLA climate scientist Daniel Swain predicts, “This event will probably end up being one of the most significant widespread California extreme heat events in the past decade, if not longer.”\nClimate science at a glance\nThe human influence on heat waves is clear. For most of California, climate change has caused rare heat waves to be from 3 to 4 degrees Fahrenheit warmer.\nDr. Michael Wehner, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\n- Half of all record-breaking heat waves would not have broken records without climate change.\n- Summer heat waves are now five times more likely to occur due to climate change.\n- In most US regions, humid heat extremes doubled in frequency from 1980-1999 to 2000-2019.\n- There has been a dramatic increase in hot nighttime temperatures in the US, reducing the number of critically important relief windows during heat waves.\n- For the period 2004-2018, Indigenous communities had the highest rate of heat-related deaths and Black communities had the second-highest.\n- Global warming contributed to the record for hottest day of the year in at least 82 percent of the records for hottest day over the 1961-2010 period.\n- Heat domes increased in intensity over the entire Northern Hemisphere during the summer months from 1979 to 2010.\n- For more information on how climate change is exacerbating heatwaves, read here.\nExtreme heat compounds risks to vulnerable populations amid the coronavirus pandemic\nThe heat wave arrived just as California became the first state to surpass 600,000 cases, and although the state is seeing encouraging trends, the week prior to the heat wave averaged over 9,000 new cases and 130 new deaths per day.\nExtreme heat and COVID-19 create a vicious cycle. The influx of COVID-19 patients, and the precautions taken to limit the spread of the virus, lower hospitals' ability to handle heat stroke and other heat-exacerbated cases. Many hospitals in California are stretched thin.\nHigh unemployment driven by the pandemic increases economic insecurity, and people unable to afford air conditioning have to choose between staying home where it’s dangerously hot, or going to cooling centers or public spaces where the risk of contracting the virus is higher. For those who can afford air conditioning, social distancing means more people are cooling off at home, which drives up electricity demand and challenges energy infrastructure.\nCalifornia issued first rolling blackouts since 2001 amid record heat\nOn Friday, August 14, extreme heat triggered power outages throughout California as the state's power grid became overwhelmed by energy demands. The \"Stage 3 emergency alert\" declared on Friday evening by the California Independent System Operator was the first statewide emergency of this kind since 2001. A Stage 3 emergency means the state power grid is not meeting demand and rotating power outages may be necessary. More than 300,000 customers in both Northern and Southern California were without power at points Friday evening.\nHistorical context for Death Valley's 130°F temperature record\nA temperature of 130°F (54.4°C) was recorded in Death Valley, California, at 15:41 on Sunday, August 16, breaking the 129.2°F readings at Death Valley in 2013 and in Kuwait in 2016. While the reading needs to be formally verified, it is likely to set a record for the highest temperature ever recorded, with scientists linking the extreme heat to climate change.\nThe hottest temperature on record is sometimes considered to be 134°F (56.7°C), set in July 1913 also in Death Valley, but that reading may be inaccurate. A detailed analysis in 2016 concluded that the reading was “essentially not possible from a meteorological perspective” and likely to be an error. With the 1913 reading discounted, along with another incorrect reading in Libya and other inaccurate readings, this weekend’s temperature may be the highest ever accurately recorded.\nAs the planet continues to warm, it is inevitable that we will continue to see records fall. It now appears that we’ve crossed yet another worrying threshold, setting the apparent hottest temperature ever recorded on this planet since valid records have been kept, a scorching 130°F (54.4°C) in Death Valley CA. Of course, that record too shall fall soon enough if we continue to pollute the atmosphere with carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other human activities.\nMichael Mann, Director of the Earth System Science Center, Pennsylvania State University\nClimate signals breakdown\nClimate signal #1: Extreme heat and heat waves\nThe clearest signal of climate change is the increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme heat events. As greenhouse gas emissions trap additional heat close to the Earth's surface, temperatures that were once rare become commonplace and the likelihood of seeing extreme and record-hot temperatures increases. The continued burning of fossil fuels and increasing greenhouse gas emissions means that heat records don't last long as warming continues. The US has experienced record breaking heat every summer in recent years, and the six hottest years on record globally all occurred during the past six years.\nThe number of local record-breaking average monthly temperature extremes worldwide is now on average five times larger than expected in a climate with no long-term warming. The trend in global warming has contributed to the severity and probability of 82 percent of record-hot days globally.\nObservations consistent with climate signal #1\n- Death Valley, California hit 129.9°F (54.4°C) at 3:41 p.m. PDT Sunday, August 16, 2020, which was rounded to 130°F in the final report from NOAA. The observation may be the hottest reliably recorded temperature in world history, breaking the 129.2°F readings at Death Valley in 2013 and in Kuwait in 2016.\n- A dozen Bay Area cities tied or set new daily heat records as temperatures soared across the Bay Area on August 14.\nClimate signal #2: Humidity and Heat Stress Increase\nExposure to extreme heat is already a significant public health problem and the primary cause of weather-related mortality in the US. As temperatures rise due to global warming, people's exposure to extreme heat conditions increases. The dramatic increase in nighttime temperatures in the US is particularly concerning, because cooler nighttime temperatures provide an important window of relief during heat waves.\nHeat is especially dangerous with high humidity, because it reduces the human body's ability to cool off by sweating. The Heat Index, also known as the \"real feel\" temperature, is a measure of how hot it really feels when relative humidity is factored in with the actual air temperature. As air warms, its capacity to hold water vapor increases, and measurements show that atmospheric humidity is increasing around the globe. In the US, humid heat extremes doubled in frequency from 1980-1999 to 2000-2019 in most regions.\nObservations consistent with climate signal #2\n- The National Weather Service warned: \"There will be very little to no overnight relief with lows in the 70s to 80s. Significant heat impacts are expected for the general public, especially for those sensitive to the heat, including pets and livestock.\"\nClimate signal #3: Atmospheric blocking increase\nThe widespread and intense heat wave is due to a stagnant high pressure weather pattern that has created a vast area of sweltering heat sometimes referred to as a \"heat dome.\" Heat domes often form what are known as blocking patterns in the jet stream, which halt the west-to-east movement of weather, causing weather conditions to persist for long periods. Atmospheric blocking often causes weather extremes in the mid-latitudes, and research indicates that rising temperatures may increase the frequency of atmospheric blocking events. One analysis identifies an increase in the intensity of persistent high pressure areas over the entire Northern Hemisphere during the summer months from 1979 to 2010.\nObservations consistent with climate signal #3\n- According to CBS meteorologist Jeff Berardelli, \"The cause of the current heat wave is a giant ridge of hot air, also known as a heat dome, in the mid- and upper levels of the atmosphere, redirecting the jet stream and cooler air into the eastern half of the nation. Statistically speaking, the core of the heat dome is forecast to intensify to 3 standard deviations above the mean, meaning it is more intense than 99.8% of such events in the history of that area.\"\n- Michael Mann, Director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, sees a strong resemblance between the conditions underlying the extreme heat in California in August 2020 and conditions during extreme summer weather across the Northern Hemisphere in 2018, both linked to jet stream behavior. “I would venture a guess that the same atmospheric phenomena…that was responsible for that setup, and the unusually persistent weather extremes in Europe and elsewhere at that time, are playing a role here too.\" Research indicates that summers like 2018 will be 50 percent more frequent by the end of the century due to climate change." ]

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[ "Learning English: Dynamic Debates\nby Thomas C. Anderson\nLearning English -- Debate Contract\nSee page one of this article\nThis document is given to each group at the beginning of the preparation section. It specifies roles of the members and duties of the leader and assistant leader of the group. In addition to this, it lists steps to be taken in preparing for the debate. It also contains information about the textbook quiz (one before each debate) they will do in addition to it.\n(Pictured: The Kari River in Kanagawa)\nI make it clear from the start (and occasionally remind students) that it is up to the group leader and/or assistant leader to make sure that all members have tasks and are doing them. I make it clear that I am a resource person, not a police officer. During the actual debate I am the timekeeper as well as one of the evaluators.\nI’ve tried various formats but the one I’m currently using is as follows: affirmative team opener (5 min.), negative team opener (5 min.), prep. time for rebuttal (5 minutes), negative team rebuttal (3 minutes), affirmative team rebuttal ( 3 minutes), prep. time for closing arguments (3 minutes), affirmative team closing arguments (3 minutes), negative team closing arguments (3 minutes).\nStudent groups who are not debating serve as judges for the debates. Each group has an evaluation form which has four items: team performance, content, overall grade, and winner/loser of the debate. The debating groups also evaluate themselves. I do an evaluation myself and average all evaluations.\nFrom Learning English to page three of this article.\nTo How to teach English in Japan (home)" ]

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[ "Fiber to the Building (FTTB) is a type of fiber optic cable infrastructure that provides high-speed Internet and data services to customers. It uses fiber optic cables to connect a service provider’s network to a customer’s physical building. This type of fiber optic cable connection is much faster than other forms of Internet and data service, such as DSL and cable.\nThe FTTB infrastructure consists of a central office, which is the provider’s network, and a customer’s building. The central office is where the service provider’s network is located, and this is where the fiber optic cables are connected. The customer’s building is where the fiber optic cables are connected to the customer’s device. The customer’s device could be a laptop, desktop computer, or other devices.\nThe FTTB infrastructure works by sending light signals through fiber optic cables. These light signals are converted into data which can be used by the customer’s device to access the Internet and other services. The FTTB infrastructure is capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 10 Gbps (Gigabits per second). This is much faster than DSL and cable, which can only transmit data at speeds up to 1 Gbps.\nThe FTTB infrastructure is becoming more popular as companies, organizations, and individuals are looking for faster and more reliable Internet and data service. FTTB is also becoming more cost-effective as the cost of fiber optic cables is falling. It is important to note that FTTB requires special hardware and software in order to function properly. Additionally, the installation of FTTB requires expertise and experience in order to be done correctly." ]

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[ "You can prevent injuries from happening to your child while at the playground.\nHealth Canada estimates more than 28, 000 Canadian children each year are treated at hospitals for playground related injuries.\nHeading outdoors to play? Remember these important tips:\n- Apply sunscreen and insect repellent to your children before they leave the house.\n- Remove any loose clothing, such as drawstrings, scarves, and bike helmets.\n- Remind children how to play safe.\nDon’t be surprised. SUPERVISE!\nActive supervision helps reduce childhood injuries while at the playground.\n- Adults and parents should ensure children are using age appropriate equipment.\n- Teach basic rules of play, e.g. taking turns, staying away from moving swings and bottom of slides.\n- Stay within reach of the child/children by watching them, waiting close to them to catch any potential falls and warning them of any moving objects they may not see in time.\nBackyard play equipment safety tips:\n- Equipment is secured to the ground.\n- The play structure is stable. It doesn’t wobble when being used and all bolts are tight and in place.\n- Children know to keep out of the way of moving swings and bottom of slides.\n- Children know how to take turns when playing on slides and swings.\n- There is no broken glass, metal, missing pieces, or rope tied to any of the equipment.\nWhat could you find at your local playground?\nWhat could you expect young children to do when they get to the playground? A lot of running, jumping and climbing, but not all playground equipment was made equal. Not all of these types of equipment are suitable for children of all ages.\nPre-school Age Children (1.5 - 4 yrs)\nI might not be able to reach some of the play equipment. If I can’t, it is not safe for me to use. Please don’t lift me on to this equipment to let me play. I don’t understand how dangerous it is and I might fall off. My feet might not reach ground the while on a teeter totter, ropes or a swing so I shouldn’t use these things. If a play structure is over 5 feet high that is too high for me to play on because it increases my risk for injury too much!\nI might think I would like to go on a merry-go-round with the older kids, but I don’t have very strong arms and I might fall off when it’s going very fast. I could break a bone or hurt my head. It would be much safer for me to play in the sandbox or have you push me a little in a bucket swing.\nWhen I get to go to the playground, I get very excited and like to run around. I might forget that the kids on swings can’t stop in time if I go running by. I think I can make it, but I can’t understand how fast it’s going and how long it will take me to get by. You need to follow me and warn me about moving objects like swings. Also, I shouldn’t stand at the bottom of slides to wait for my friends, they might run into me and I could get hurt.\nIt’s fun to run across the play structures and swing off of ropes and poles, but I am still too little to make my arms and legs work together properly to safely play on these kinds of equipment. Wait until I am older to let me try out these types of equipment.\nThere is so much to do and see when I get to the playground that you might have trouble keeping an eye on me, I change my mind quickly and can move fast when you’re not looking. Make sure that you keep your eyes on me at all times and stay within catching distance in case I fall.\nSchool Aged Children (Aged 5-9 years)\n- When I am at the playground, I like to jump, run and climb. I love to take risks and don’t understand what danger is, or how badly I could get hurt by falling off playground equipment. You need to watch me play and remind me to play safely with my friends.\n- There are so many things to do and a lot of kids playing at the playground that I am easily distracted and might forget about the rules of safety we talked about before going to the playground. Please remind my friends and I about how to play safe a few times while we are at the playground.\n- I also like to show off to my friends, because everyone is learning how to do new things while we are at the playground. I might try and jump off swings or high climbing structures. Just remember that I am learning to try new things and getting stronger, but I still need you to watch me play and stay close to me.\n- As a boy, I may seem to be a little rougher with my friends. I might need to be reminded not to push or pull on my friends, especially when on top of play equipment like monkey bars or a climbing structure.\n10 Rules for Safe Play\n- Learning to take turns is important. Wait until the first person has gone down the slide before climbing the ladder to go down. It is also important to take turns then waiting to slide down a fireman’s pole.\n- Clear away from the area around the bottom of the slide quickly after sliding down, in case the next person takes their turn.\n- Always go down the slide feet first.\n- Remember not to stand in front of swing sets.\n- Never push or pull on other children.\n- Merry-go-rounds, teeter-totters and tire swings should be stopped as soon as someone wants off.\n- Never rush someone who is climbing on monkey bars, climbing ropes or ladders.\n- Make sure children are using age appropriate equipment.\n- Teach children not to jump off of swings in motion or from high structures.\n- These rules should apply to both community and backyard playgrounds.\nFalls cause almost 70% of non-fatal playground injuries, including head injuries. More than 40% of children who come to emergency departments with a playground equipment injury require major treatment such as a cast or a stitch.\nClimbers, slides and swings are where playground injuries are most likely to occur. The height of equipment also has an impact on injuries, as equipment higher than 5 or 6 feet greatly increases the chances of injury. Playground equipment should have railings and barriers to help prevent falls. To ensure a child can’t fall or strangle, openings in railings or barriers should be smaller than 3 inches (90 mm) or larger than 9 inches (225cm) in diameter.\nCritical Heights of Tested Materials\n|Protective Surfacing Material *\n|Wood Chips *\n||10 feet (3 metres)\n||6 feet (1.8 metres)\n||5 feet (1.5 metres)\n||5 feet (1.5 metres)\n||4 feet (1.2 metres)\n*A depth of 9 inches (225 millimetres) of the material listed on the left should provide protection for the fall height listed on the right hand column.\n**For example a compressed depth of 9 inches (225mm) of protective surfacing.Taken from page 97 CAN/SA Z614-98\nChildren’s Playspaces and Equipment.\n*The wood chips offer the best protection against injuries in the case of falls. As shown in the chart they offer protection for a fall up to 10 feet. Surfaces such as lawn, concrete and hard packed ground should be avoided.\nHow do I check the surface material?\nCheck the depth by digging your shoe into the surface. There should be at least 6 inches (15 cm) under all equipment and 12 inches (30 cm) under equipment higher than 6 feet. Try to push the surface material to where children will land from swings, slides and ladders.\nHow to stay safe around some common playground equipment:\nSlides are a fun activity to do when at the playground, but they can also be dangerous too! When you get to the playground, make sure metal slides are not hot. They can heat up quickly and burn sensitive skin!\nPlease don’t walk away! Keep within arm’s reach of your child and be ready to catch them as they slide down. You may think your child is ready to go down on their own, but it might be a new and scary experience. For equipment such as slides and swings or any other moving play equipment, there should be at least 18 feet, (5.4 metres) around them to be safe. Between any other stationary equipment, there should be 6 feet (1.8 metres) of space between two pieces of equipment.\nPlay structures such as these may look like a lot of fun, but there are a few things to remember.\n1) What is the weather like? If it’s very hot out or\nif it has been raining, the metal could be hot or slippery.\n2) This equipment is suitable for older school-aged children, who should be supervised no matter what.\n3) There should be deep soft surfaces underneath playground equipment\nin case children fall. For information on surface materials and depths, see chart above.\nGrassy surfaces are not as safe!\nHave a sandbox? Make sure to cover it, so animals do not use it. At playgrounds, check for cigarette butts, broken glass and animal waste in and around playground equipment." ]

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[ "Santo Domingo – A male specimen of a solenodon, an endangered mammalian insectivore native to the island of Hispaniola, which the Dominican Republic shares with Haiti, has been found, the Dominican Environment Ministry said.\nThe solenodon, which was being kept in captivity by a woman in her house in the eastern Dominican province of El Seibo, was turned over to the conservation and science department of the National Zoo, where it is being examined by researchers and experts on the species, the ministry said in a statement.\nThe zoologists and other officials noted that the animal is in very good physical condition, adding that the woman had kept it \"tied up during the day in a banana tree and closed up in a box at night, disrupting the nocturnal feeding habits of this species, which is in danger of extinction,\" the ministry said.\nThe solenodon - Solenodon paradoxus - resembles a large shrew, has a flexible elongated snout and is considered the oldest living insect-eating animal on Hispaniola. They have long, naked, scaly tails, small eyes, and coarse, dark brown to black hair and are noteworthy for being one of the few mammals having venomous saliva.\nAmong the main things affecting the survival of the species are the loss of its habitat due to deforestation and the increase in human activity, such as agriculture, and depredation by animals introduced into the region, including ferrets, cats, rats and dogs, the Environment Ministry said.\nDuring the day, the nocturnal solenodon lives in caves, holes in trees or in tunnels or excavations in the ground dug by the animal itself." ]

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[ "Many of us I’m sure, have played the table football game “Subbuteo” in the past, but do you know where the name for this game came from? Well, the designer of the game, Peter Adolph, was a keen ornithologist and his favourite species of bird had always been the little falcon called a hobby, whose Latin name is falco subbuteo meaning “smaller than a buzzard” – so he chose it as the new name for his invention!!\nThe hobby is a bit smaller than a kestrel and has a slate grey back and wings that are long, narrow and pointed, which is combined with a relatively short tail enabling this elegant little falcon to be incredibly agile in flight. It is most often spotted dashing past at speed looking just like an over-sized swift, but should you be lucky enough to see one gliding more slowly overhead, you will notice that its plumage underneath consists of a striped chest and red under its tail.\nThe first Atlas of Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland (1968 – 1971) put the population at only about 100 breeding pairs, mostly confined to the heaths of southern England. However, this population grew rapidly, so that by the late 90s numbers had risen to around 1360 and has today reached in the region of 2200 breeding pairs. The population has also moved steadily northwards and now the hobby nests in Scotland, which many observers quote as a good example of the evidence of climate change.\nThe hobby is a summer visitor to this country, arriving in May and choosing an old crow’s nest to breed in, especially, it seems, when sited in a scots pine tree. Eggs are usually laid in June, meaning that the chicks hatch in July and fledging takes place in August. This time of year provides the high speed predator with an abundance of its favourite food, Dragonflies, along with plenty of young house martins and swallows which have recently left the nest, and can be easily taken on the wing by a falcon that can accelerate rapidly and has amazing aerial manoeuvrability. Most of the smaller prey items are also eaten while the bird is still flying along, passing the food from the talons to its beak with great dexterity.\nIt is not known exactly where British hobbies spend the winter, as there have never been any ringing recoveries south of Spain – and no hobbies ringed anywhere in Europe have been recovered south of the Sahara. Most ringed hobbies recovered in Europe on migration appear to have been heading in a south-westerly direction, towards West Africa, but the main wintering area for this species is believed to be the Zambezi basin.\nSo, if you are out enjoying a warm summer’s evening and you suddenly hear the shrieking, high pitched alarm calls of martins and swallows – quickly look to the skies as you might just get a glimpse of this exciting little falcon as it dashes overhead." ]

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[ "Langan (Municipal) Park facts for kids\nQuick facts for kidsLangan Park\nLangan Park near the Mobile Museum of Art.\n|Location||Mobile, Alabama, USA|\n|Area||720 acres (291 ha)|\n|Operated by||The City of Mobile|\n|Status||Open all year|\nLangan Park, also known as Municipal Park, is a 720-acre (291 ha) municipal park in the Spring Hill neighborhood of Mobile, Alabama, USA. The park opened in 1957 and was named for Joseph N. Langan, a former Mobile mayor, state senator and city commissioner. It has lakes, natural spaces, tennis courts, children’s playgrounds and picnic areas. It is also the site of the Azalea City Golf Course, the Mobile Botanical Gardens, the Mobile Museum of Art and Playhouse in the Park.\nThe Azalea City Golf Course is an 18-hole public golf course owned and operated by the city. It opened in 1957 and has hosted Professional Golfers Association events. In 1998, all eighteen greens were redesigned and updated to an average of 5,500 sq ft (511 m2) per green and were planted in Champion Bermuda grass. The Mobile Tennis Center is a public tennis facility with 50 tennis courts, all lighted and hard-court, with a professional shop and professional instruction on site.\nThe Mobile Botanical Gardens have a variety of flora spread over 100 acres (40 ha). The gardens contain a rhododendron garden with 1,000 evergreen and native azaleas and the 30-acre (12 ha) Longleaf Pine Habitat. The Mobile Museum of Art has European, non-Western, American and decorative arts collections.\nPlayhouse in the Park began in 1961 and concentrates on training young people in theatre arts. The program includes four large productions a year and consists of a training program for drama, dance, vocal, piano and scenic art classes. It also includes a traveling professional drama troupe and a full-scale puppet theatre.\nThe main lake in the park has become home to several invasive species, including the channeled applesnail and tilapia. Both are known to be very destructive to the native aquatic vegetation. Biologists speculate that the snails were most probably dumped into the lake from home aquaria. In 2009, applesnails were found downstream from the lake in Three Mile Creek, posing an immediate threat to the entire Mobile-Tensaw River Delta.\n|Mary the Jewess|" ]

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[ "What’s the Difference Between “Infer” and “Imply”?\nImply means “to suggest something indirectly or without explicitly saying it,” whereas infer means “to come to a conclusion based on the available information.”\n- He implied that I was not qualified to lead the project.\n- Many experts have inferred the housing market is bound to crash soon.\nIs It “Imply” or “Infer”?\nBased on the data, we can infer that many people struggle to understand the difference between imply and infer. Both of these words are verbs, but they have different meanings, which we’ll elaborate on below.\nWhat Does “Imply” Mean?\nWhen someone implies something, it means they are indirectly stating or suggesting something. Here are a few example sentences:\nAre you implying that I’m a liar?\nCarol implied that Joseph wasn’t ready to proceed to the next step.\nHer smile seemed to imply that she was happy with the agreement.\nIf you’re unsure whether you’re using this word properly, try replacing it with the verb (to) hint to see if the sentence conveys a similar message.\nI implied that I wanted to go home.\nI hinted that I wanted to go home.\nWhat Does “Infer” Mean?\nIf the speaker implies something, then the listener infers—or comes to a conclusion—based on what was said.\nWe can infer from the findings that poverty levels have decreased.\nThe meaning of the poem must be inferred from the context.\nBecause everyone arrived late, the coaches inferred that there was a mistake on the invitations.\nA synonym to infer can be deduce, which means “to arrive at a conclusion with reasoning.” If you’re ever unsure if you’re using infer correctly, try substituting it with deduce to see if the sentence still makes sense.\nI read the statements and inferred that they were telling the truth.\nI read the statements and deduced that they were telling the truth.\nHow To Remember the Difference Between “Imply” and “Infer”\nWhen you’re trying to remember the difference between these two words, just think of imply and infer as two opposite sides of the same coin: If someone implies something, you can infer—or come to a conclusion—based on what was indirectly stated.\nImply and infer are just two of the seemingly endless number of words that people struggle to use correctly. If you want to ensure your writing is free of errors, use LanguageTool as your writing assistant. This spelling and grammar checker supports over 25 languages, and corrects all types of errors, resulting in pristine texts. Try it today." ]

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[ "for scene 13 of the video \" Ice Age Breakout Revolution\" by Rolf Witzsche - Ice Age Ahead not Global\nhere for a larger image\nBigger than Mt. Everest\nIf one extends this comparison, the only thing that comes close to being 100,000 times larger than an apple is Mt. Everest, which doesn't quite measure up, but it is the biggest thing we have on the planet. A typical apple is 10 centimeters wide. A hundred thousand apples add up to a million centimeters, or ten kilometers. That's bigger than Mt. Everest. That's the kind of creative gain that the universe is build on. This 100,000-fold gain should also be the standard for human economics. We are still far from it. But it is achievable. This is what the Ice Age Challenge is built on.\nIndex - Previous\nPublished by Cygni Communications Ltd.\nNorth Vancouver, BC, Canada - (C) in public domain - producer Rolf A. F." ]

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[ "The national anthem of the United States of America, “The Star-Spangled Banner” is a setting of the poem, “Defence of Fort M’Henry” by Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) to the music of “The Anacreontic Song” by the British composer and musicologist John Stafford Smith (1750-1836).\nKey wrote his poem on September 14, 1814 while witnessing the British bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore Harbor during the War of 1812, inspired by the large American flag (“star-spangled banner”) flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory. Smith’s tune, already well-known, became the vehicle for what was soon to be a popular American patriotic song.\n“The Star-Spangled Banner” was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931.\nThis arrangement for brass quintet includes parts in both 8.5×11-inch page format and 6.75×5.5-inch march folio (flip folder) size.\nScore, parts (Bb tpt. 1, Bb tpt. 2, F horn, tbn, tuba) — $9.99" ]

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[ "It may be possible to create rocket fuel that is cleaner and safer than fuels commonly used today—but still just as effective, according to a new study.\nThe new fuels use simple chemical “triggers” to unlock the energy of one of the hottest new materials, a class of porous solids known as metal-organic frameworks, or MOFs, made up of clusters of metal ions and an organic molecule called a linker.\nSatellites and space stations that remain in orbit for a considerable amount of time rely on hypergols, fuels that are so energetic they immediately ignite in the presence of an oxidizer (since there is no oxygen to support combustion beyond the Earth’s atmosphere).\nThe hypergolic fuels currently in use depend on hydrazine, a highly toxic and dangerously unstable chemical compound made up of a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms.\nHydrazine-based fuels are so carcinogenic that people who work with them need to suit up as if preparing for space travel themselves. Despite precautions, the aerospace industry releases around 12,000 tons of hydrazine fuels into the atmosphere every year.\n“This is a new, cleaner approach to making highly combustible fuels, that are not only significantly safer than those currently in use, but they also respond or combust very quickly, which is an essential quality in rocket fuel,” says Tomislav Friščić, a professor in the chemistry department at McGill University and co-senior author of the paper.\n“Although we are still in the early stages of working with these materials in the lab, these results open up the possibility of developing a class of new, clean, and highly tunable hypergolic fuels for the aerospace industry,” says Hatem Titi, a postdoctoral fellow who works in Friščić’s lab and lead author of the paper.\nFriščić is interested in commercializing this technology, and will work with McGill and Acsynam, an existing spin-off company from his laboratory, to make this happen.\nThe paper appears in Science Advances.\nSource: McGill University" ]

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[ "Environmental Ethics 20 (1):81-99 (1998)\n|Abstract||I examine the roles of traditional Native American women with regard to their impact on maintaining appropriate spiritual, cultural, and physical relationships with the natural world and discuss lessons that ecophilosphers might find useful in reexamining their own spiritual, cultural, and physical relationships|\n|Keywords||No keywords specified (fix it)|\n|Through your library||Configure|\nSimilar books and articles\nAnnie L. Booth (1998). Learning From Others: Ecophilosophy and Traditional Native American Women's Lives. Environmental Ethics 20 (1):81-99.\nSuzanne Cynthia McBain, “We're Making a Difference to the Lives of Our Students”Learning Communities in Physical Education.\nAnnie L. Booth & Harvey L. Jacobs (1990). Ties That Bind: Native American Beliefs as a Foundation for Environmental Consciousness. Environmental Ethics 12 (1):27-43.\nRichard Edwards, Gert Biesta & Mary Thorpe (eds.) (2009). Rethinking Contexts for Learning and Teaching. Routledge.\nKenneth Reisman (2007). Is Culture Inherited Through Social Learning? Biological Theory 2 (3):300-306.\nShuguang Zhang (2010). The Renaissance of Traditional Chinese Learning. Frontiers of Philosophy in China 5 (2):237-254.\nDebra A. Tolliver, Issues Facing Native American and Alaska Native Women Living with Domestic Violence.\nAlan Thomas & Harriet Pattison (2013). Informal Home Education: Philosophical Aspirations Put Into Practice. Studies in Philosophy and Education 32 (2):141-154.\nDiana Arghirescu (2012). Zhu Xi's Spirituality: A New Interpretation of the Great Learning. Journal of Chinese Philosophy 39 (2):272-289.\nMarianna Papadopoulou & Roy Birch (2009). 'Being in the World': The Event of Learning. Educational Philosophy and Theory 41 (3):270-286.\nBert van Oers (2008). Learning and Learning Theory From a Cultural-Historical Point of View. In B. van Oers (ed.), The Transformation of Learning: Advances in Cultural-Historical Activity Theory. Cambridge University Press.\nKnud Illeris (ed.) (2009). Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists -- In Their Own Words. Routledge.\nThomas Ziehe (2009). Normal Learning Problems\" in Youth in the Context of Underlying Cultural Convictions. In Knud Illeris (ed.), Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists -- In Their Own Words. Routledge.\nEvelyn Gick & Wolfgang Gick (2001). F.A. Hayek's Theory of Mind and Theory of Cultural Evolution Revisited: Toward and Integrated Perspective. Mind and Society 2 (1):149-162.\nBalaganapathi Devarakonda (2012). Role of Learner in Globalised Education. In Sebastian Velassery (ed.), Globalisation and Cultural Identities: Philosophical Challenges and Opportunities. Overseas Press, New Delhi.\nSorry, there are not enough data points to plot this chart.\nAdded to index2011-01-09\nRecent downloads (6 months)0\nHow can I increase my downloads?" ]

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[ "Chromosome (Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders)\nChromosomes are microscopic units containing organized genetic information, located in the nuclei of diploid and haploid cells (e.g. human somatic and sex cells), and are also present in one-cell non-nucleated organisms (unicellular microorganisms), like bacteria, which do not have an organized nucleus. The sum-total of genetic information contained in different chromosomes of a given individual or species are generically referred to as the genome.\nIn humans, chromosomes are structurally made of roughly equal amounts of proteins and DNA. Each chromosome contains a double-strand DNA molecule, arranged as a double helix, and tightly coiled and neatly packed by a family of proteins called histones. DNA strands are comprised of linked nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a sugar (deoxyribose), a nitrogenous base, plus one to three phosphate groups. Each nucleotide is linked to adjacent nucleotides in the same DNA strand by phosphodiester bonds. Phosphodiester is another sugar, made of sugar-phosphate. Nucleotides of one DNA strand link to their complementary nucleotide on the opposite DNA strand by hydrogen bonds, thus forming a pair of nucleotides, known as a base pair, or nucleotide base. Genes contain up to thousands of sequences of these base pairs. What distinguishes one gene from another is the sequence of nucleotides that code for the synthesis of a specific protein or portion of a...\n(The entire section is 1080 words.)\nWant to Read More?\nSubscribe now to read the rest of this article. Plus get complete access to 30,000+ study guides!\nChromosome (Encyclopedia of Science)\nA chromosome is a structure that occurs within cells and that contains the cell's genetic material. That genetic material, which determines how an organism develops, is a molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). A molecule of DNA is a very long, coiled structure that contains many identifiable subunits known as genes.\nIn prokaryotes, or cells without a nucleus, the chromosome is merely a circle of DNA. In eukaryotes, or cells with a distinct nucleus, chromosomes are much more complex in structure.\nThe terms chromosome and gene were used long before biologists really understood what these structures were. When the Austrian monk and biologist Gregor Mendel (1822884) developed the basic ideas of heredity, he assumed that genetic traits were somehow transmitted from parents to offspring in some kind of tiny \"package.\" That package was later given the name \"gene.\" When the term was first suggested, no one had any idea as to what a gene might look like. The term was used simply to convey the idea that traits are transmitted from one generation to the next in certain discrete units.\n(The entire section is 1115 words.)\nChromosome (World of Forensic Science)\nA chromosome is a threadlike structure found in the nucleus of most cells. It carries genetic material in the form of a linear sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In prokaryotes, or cells without a nucleus, the chromosome represents circular DNA containing the entire genome. In eukaryotes, or cells with a distinct nucleus, chromosomes are much more complex in structure. The function of chromosomes is to package the extremely long DNA sequence. A single chromosome (uncoiled) could be as long as three inches and therefore visible to the naked eye. If DNA were not coiled within chromosomes, the total DNA in a typical eukaryotic cell would extend thousands of times the length of the cell nucleus.\nDNA is the genetic material of all cells and contains information necessary for the synthesis of proteins. DNA is composed of two strands of nucleic acids arranged in a double helix. The nucleic acid strands are composed of a sequence of nucleotides. The nucleotides in DNA have four kinds of nitrogen containing bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Within DNA, each strand of nucleic acid is partnered with the other strand by bonds that form between these nucleotides. Complementary base pairing dictates that adenine pairs only with thymine, and guanine pairs only with cytosine (and vice versa). Thus, by knowing the sequence of bases in one strand of the DNA helix, you can determine the sequence on the other strand. For instance, if the sequence in one strand of DNA were ATTCG, the other strand's sequence would be TAAGC.\nDNA functions in the cell by providing a template by which another nucleic acid, called ribonucleic acid (RNA), is formed. Like DNA, RNA is also composed of nucleotides. Unlike DNA, RNA is single stranded and does not form a helix. In addition, the RNA bases are the same as in DNA, except that uracil replaces thymine. RNA is transcribed from DNA in the nucleus of the cell. Genes are expressed when the chromosome uncoils with the help of enzymes called helicases and specific DNA binding proteins. DNA is transcribed into RNA.\nNewly transcribed RNA is called messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pore and enters into the cytoplasm. There, the mRNA molecule binds to a ribosome (also composed of RNA) and initiates protein synthesis. Each block of three nucleotides, called codons, in the mRNA sequence encodes for a specific amino acid, the building blocks of a protein.\nGenes are part of the DNA sequence called coding DNA. Noncoding DNA represents sequences that do not have genes and only recently have been found to have many new important functions. Out of the 3 billion base pairs that exist in the human DNA, there are only about 40,000 genes. The noncoding sections of DNA within a gene are called introns, while the coding sections of DNA are called exons. After transcription of DNA to RNA, the RNA is processed. Introns from the mRNA are excised out of the newly formed mRNA molecule before it leaves the nucleus.\nThe human genome (which represents the total amount of DNA in a typical human cell) has approximately 3 109 base pairs. If these nucleotide pairs were letters, the genome book would number over a million pages. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total number of 46 chromosomes in a diploid cell, or a cell having all the genetic material. In a haploid cell, there is only half the genetic material. For example, sex cells (the sperm or the egg) are haploid, while many other cells in the body are diploid. One of the chromosomes in the set of 23 is an X or Y (sex chromosomes), while the rest are assigned numbers 1 through 22. In a diploid cell, males have both an X and a Y chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes. During fertilization, the sex cell of the father combines with the sex cell of the mother to form a new cell, the zygote, which eventually develops into an embryo. If the one of the sex cells has the full complement of chromosomes (diploidy), then the zygote would have an extra set of chromosomes. This is called triploidy and represents an anomaly that usually results in a miscarriage. Sex cells are formed in a special kind of cell division called meiosis. During meiosis, two rounds of cell division ensure that the sex cells receive the haploid number of chromosomes.\nChromosomes can be visible using a microscope just prior to cell division, when the DNA within the nucleus uncoils as it replicates. By visualizing a cell during metaphase, a stage of cell division or mitosis, researchers can take pictures of the duplicated chromosome and match the pairs of chromosomes using the characteristic patterns of bands that appear on the chromosomes when they are stained with a dye called giemsa. The resulting arrangement is called a karyotype. The ends of the chromosome are referred to as telomeres, which are required to maintain stability and recently have been associated with aging. An enzyme called telomerase maintains the length of the telomere. Older cells tend to have shorter telomeres. The telomere has a repeated sequence (TTAGGG) and intact telomeres are important for proper DNA replication processes.\nKaryotypes are useful in diagnosing some genetic conditions, because the karyotype can reveal an aberration in chromosome number or large alterations in structure. For example, Down's syndrome is caused\nA chromosome usually appears to be a long, slender rod of DNA. Pairs of chromosomes are called homologues. Each separate chromosome within the duplicate is called a sister chromatid. The sister chromatids are attached to each other by a structure called the centromere. Chromosomes appear to be in the shape of an X after the material is duplicated. The bottom, longer portion of the X is called the long arm of the chromosome (q-arm), and the top, shorter portion is called the short arm of the chromosome (p-arm).\nDNA in chromosomes is associated with proteins and this complex is called chromatin. Euchromatin refers to parts of the chromosome that have coding regions or genes, while heterchromatin refers to regions that are devoid of genes or regions where gene transcription is turned off. DNA binding proteins can attach to specific regions of chromatin. These proteins mediate DNA replication, gene expression, or represent structural proteins important in packaging the chromosomes. Histones are structural proteins of chromatin and are the most abundant protein in the nucleus. In fact, the mass of histones in a chromosome is almost equal to that of DNA. Chromosomes contain five types of these small proteins: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. There are two of each of latter four histones that form a structure called the octomeric histone core. The H1 histone is larger than the other histones, and performs a structural role separate from the octomeric histone core in organizing DNA within the chromosome.\nThe octomeric histone core functions as a spool from which DNA is wound two times. Each histone-DNA spool is called a nucleosome. Nucleosomes occur at intervals of every 200 base pairs of the DNA helix. In photographs taken with the help of powerful microscopes, DNA wrapped around nucleosomes resembles beads (the nucleosome) threaded on a string (the DNA molecule). The DNA that exists between nucleosomes is called linker DNA. Chromosomes can contain some very long stretches of linker DNA. Often, these long linker DNA sequences are the regulatory portions of genes. These regulatory portions switch genes on when certain molecules bind to them.\nNucleosomes are the most fundamental organizing structure in the chromosome. They are packaged into structures that are 30 nanometers in size and called the chromatin fiber (compared to the 2 nm DNA double helix, and 11 nm histone core). The 30 nanometer fibers are sometimes then further folded into a larger chromatin fiber that is approximately 300 nanometers thick and represented on of the arms of the chromsome. The chromatin fibers are formed into loops by another structural protein. Each loop contains 20,0000,000 nucleotide pairs. These loops are then arranged within the chromosomes, held in place by more structural proteins. Metaphase chromosomes are approximately 1400 nm wide.\nChromosomes in eukaryotes perform a useful function during mitosis, the process in which cells replicate their genetic material and then divide into two new cells (also called daughter cells). Because the DNA is packaged within chromosomes, the distribution of the correct amount of genetic material to the daughter cells is maintained during the complex process of cell division.\nBefore a cell divides, the chromosomes are replicated within the nucleus. In a human cell, the nucleus just prior to cell division contains 46 pairs of chromosomes. When the cell divides, the sister chromatids from each duplicated chromosome separate. Each daughter cell ends up with 23 pairs of chromosomes and after DNA replication, the daughter cells have a diploid number of chromosomes.\nIn meiosis, the type of cell division that leads to the production of sex cells, the division process is more complicated. Two rounds of cell division occur in meiosis. Before meiosis, the chromosomes replicate, and the nucleus has 46 pairs of chromosomes. In the first round of meiotic cell division, the homologous chromosomes pairs separate as in mitosis (a stage called meiosis I). In the second round of cell division (meisosis II), the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere, so that each of the four daughter cells receives the haploid number of chromosomes.\nSEE ALSO DNA; DNA databanks; DNA fingerprint; DNA mixtures, forensic interpretation of mass graves; DNA profiling; Evidence; Gene; STR (short tandem repeat) analysis; War forensics.\nChromosome (Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol, and Addictive Behavior)\nChromosomes are structures in the nucleus of the cell that contain the DNA or hereditary material which form genes. Genes are the commonly known units of heredity, and some may contribute to a tendency toward addiction in ways that are not yet understood. Each chromo-some is an elongated structure that is clearly visible during cell division. Humans possess twenty-three pairs including the sex chromosomes. A male has an X and a Y sex chromosome, whereas a female has two X sex chromosomes. One of each pair comes from each parent.\nMICHAEL J. KUHAR" ]

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[ "16th President of the United States (March 4, 1861 to April 15, 1865)\nNicknames: \"Honest Abe\"; \"Illinois Rail-Splitter\"\nVice Presidents: Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson\nBorn: February 12, 1809, in Hardin (now Larue) County, Kentucky\nDied: April 15, 1865, at Petersen's Boarding House in Washington, DC\nFather: Thomas Lincoln\nMother: Nancy Hawks Lincoln\nStepmother: Sarah Bush Johnston\nMarried: Mary Todd (1818-1882), on November 4, 1842\nChildren: Robert Todd Lincoln (1843-1926); Edward Baker Lincoln (1846-1850); William Wallace (1850-1862); Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln (1853-1871)\nReligion: No formal affiliation\nEducation: No formal education\nPolitical Party: Republican\nDuring the Civil War, telegraph wires were strung to follow the action on the battlefield. But there was no telegraph office in the White House, so Lincoln went across the street to the War Department to get the news.\nAbraham Lincoln hated the idea of a civil war, but accepted it as the only means to save the Union.\nLincoln's son, Robert, tried to have his mother committed to an insane asylum and take control of her money. He lost.\nAbraham Lincoln was the first President to be shot while in office.\nWhite House History -- Abraham Lincoln\nReturn to Our Presidents" ]

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[ "08 Feb Road rage, riding and respect\nA traffic incident a few years back brought to light the inherent conflicts between bicyclists riding the roads and drivers. The incident involved a cyclist crossing the bridge through a construction site that had no shoulder or bike lane. The cyclist claimed a driver nearly forced him to go over the bridge railing to avoid serious injury. The driver said he yielded to the cyclist. The confrontation that followed further inflamed the matter but brought much needed awareness about the relationship of bicyclists and drivers under Maine law.\nThough construction makes it all the more challenging to safely navigate traffic, Maine law requires motorists to give way to bicycles, scooters, roller skis and toy vehicles. The law also opens the door to claims of liability and potential litigation from either perspective. Why? The cost of medical bills and rehab costs associated with bodily injuries makes it all the more compelling to find third party coverage if you’re the injured party. Therefore, adherence to this law and the use of common sense makes safety awareness all the more important.\nLet’s look at the law.\nThe following is a summary from the State of Maine web site:\nMaine Bicycle Laws\n- Maine bicycling laws generally give bicyclists the same rights and responsibilities as motor vehicle operators. Bicyclists may use public roads, and they must obey traffic laws such as stopping at red lights and stop signs, yielding to pedestrians at cross walks and yielding to traffic when entering a road from a driveway.\n- Bicyclists must ride with traffic, not against it.\n- Bicycles are expected to ride on the right as far as is “practicable,” but there are a variety of situations in which a rider may legally take a larger share of the travel lane, including: setting up for a left turn, proceeding straight where a right turn is also permitted, passing other vehicles, and to avoid obstacles or other unsafe situations.\n- Bicyclists MAY ride on designated bike paths and in bike lanes, but they are NOT required to do so, even when such paths or lanes parallel a road. Bicycles have a right to be on most roads in Maine, but may be prohibited from riding on divided highways and other roads as per local ordinances. Bicycles are not required to ride in shoulders or bike lanes in Maine.\n- Bicyclists must have and use headlights at night, as well as rear reflectors and foot/ankle/pedal reflectors. They also must have functional brakes on their bikes.\n- Cyclists under 16 must wear bike helmets.\n- The Maine Operating Under the Influence law does not apply to cyclists, but they can be arrested for drinking and/or possession of an alcoholic beverage. They also can be arrested for disorderly conduct.\n- Sidewalk riding is not prohibited by state law, only by local ordinance if it exists.\nMaine Motor Vehicle Laws Related to Biking:\n- Motorists must give at least three feet of clearance when passing bicyclists.\n- Motorists who are passing bicyclists proceeding in the same direction may not make a right turn unless they can do so with reasonable safety.\n- Motorists may cross the center line in a no-passing zone in order to pass a bicyclist if it is safe to do so.\n- Motorists may not unnecessarily sound a horn.\n- Motorists may open car doors only after checking to see that it can be done safely, without interfering with traffic.\nWhether one or thousands of people use the road for cycling, the law and common sense should be used to ensure the safety of all. Share the road whether you’re on your bike or driving a vehicle – it’s the law." ]

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[ "On the 50th anniversary of the publication of \"Silent Spring,\" William Souder offers a compelling portrait of Rachel Carson and the birth of the environmental controversies we know today.\nIn the mid-20th century, the idea called conservation died and rose again in a pessimistic, partisan incarnation known as environmentalism, which hinged on a central idea: mankind must be saved from itself. The writer who precipitated that transformation was Rachel Carson, author of \"Silent Spring,\" a book that indicted the overuse of pesticides in the 1940s and 1950s. William Souder’s On a Farther Shore: The Life and Legacy of Rachel Carson, published on the 50th anniversary of \"Silent Spring,\" is both a biography of the woman behind this seminal work and a history of humanity's relationship with nature in the mid-20th century.\nThat relationship had become tenuous in the years leading up to \"Silent Spring.\" In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, prevailing wisdom held that humanity should conserve nature by creating natural reserves and protecting endangered species. But by the mid-20th century, the game had changed. New discoveries allowed scientists to manipulate nature with disconcerting results. A barrage of nuclear tests in the South Pacific, the American Southwest, and the Soviet Union caused radioactive ash to fall like snow in parts of the United States. Intensive pesticide spraying resulted in food contamination and deaths of workers brought into prolonged contact with pesticides. Souder brings these environmental disasters to light with harrowing details, such as his description of a Japanese fishing ship whose crew developed horrifying symptoms after sailing too close to a hydrogen bomb test." ]

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[ "Although we have a huge amount of data, still we are not able to fully address the needs of underrepresented and underserved populations around the world. An issue that the United Nations have been trying to solve with their recent creation of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals for the overall growth of the climate, people, and the planet. In order to achieve these targets, public institutions and private companies need to get actively involved and collaborate. As access to proper technology, data, and appropriate analysis become critical tasks at this stage, the concept of data philanthropy comes also into action. The next step should be that private companies start collaborating together so that they can donate data and create efficient resources to solve global challenges.\nUnlimited flow of data\nStats reveal that we produce almost 2.5 quintillion data bytes every day and the amount is further increasing exponentially. This huge amount of data can assist in finding appropriate solutions to social issues. Studies reveal that only 0.5% data out of this amount is available for analysis throughout the world. It means we still have many opportunities to fully explore this incredible digital universe in a profitable and impactful manner.\nWhy are we not finding right solutions to rise?\nIt’s a well-known fact that private companies around the world possess the majority of essential data and they utilize it to just drive efficient business decisions. However, the same data can be utilized to serve many other purposes as well.\nLet us take a simple example. In 2013 Orange Telecom launched its Data 4 Development challenge where researchers were supposed to collect anonymized data over mobile networks in Senegal. As a result, they collected details on where people were travelling during variable weather conditions, holidays and work days throughout the year. After this, they analyzed public health datasets and were able to collect information about patterns related to malaria infections with population migrations. With these details, researchers found some insights about when outbreaks can occur in society so that local service providers can take preventive actions on time.\nNow, if we suppose that only 1% of data out of all the privately owned 10 Billion Terabytes was made accessible to researchers, then they would be able to make great changes in the society.\nHow can tech companies help?\nTech companies are capable enough to power up this data philanthropy movement by simply developing new techniques to generate important missing data, donating data or even better, donate the time or the skills to analyze data for social good. For example, stats reveal that almost 350 million people all around the world could be absent from the essential public census data and it directly leads to 25% boost in the global poverty. The best idea to fill this technology gap is to initiate collaborative movement among various international institutions and tech companies so that much better solutions to social issues can be developed.\nData philanthropy gaining momentum\nIf the exponential rate of data production continues to rise, we may not have to wait too much longer before data philanthropy is something that every company will consider as part of their corporate social responsibility (CSR).\nFor example, at John Snow Labs we’ve partnered last year with London’s SHM Foundation to help with Project Khuluma – a mobile phone support group initiative to address the mental health and wellbeing needs of HIV positive adolescents in South Africa.\nTackling mental health is a major global health challenge. Nearly 75% of the 450 million people worldwide with a mental illness live in the developing world, and 85% of these people have no access to treatment. The social and economic costs are enormous.\nOur global data operations experts’ team contributed data products and data science specialists to analyze over 40,000 messages using machine learning and natural language processing.\nThis was all part of a much wider Data Philanthropy Program, which is part of our company’s mission and culture, allowing us to make a positive impact while using our domain expertise for social good.\nMore awareness about data philanthropy is urgently required for humanitarian purposes and our hope is to help as many nonprofits projects, organisations and social issues as possible.\nIn order to collect more details, you can read the brilliant article written by Matt Stempeck on the Harvard Business Review. Here we have mentioned few aspects to initiate this campaign:\n• Go through inventory data, technology and services and identify what is easier or harder to share publically.\n• Make analysis about who can take benefits from this data movement or who will face harm.\n• Start active conversations with organizations such as Data 4 SDGs or U.N. Global Pulse to find possible options to collaborate.\n• Find ways to distribute data and services. It is believed that long-term collaborations can be more fruitful for public organizations.\n• Make efforts to improve privacy by simply anonymizing you Big Data.\n• Follow Open Access Terms for publishing new research results so that researchers can easily get new information.\nIt doesn’t matter whether you are planning to donate technology, tools, analytics skills or big data for the Data Philanthropy movement because all efforts in this direction will provide valuable insights into the future of our culture, environment and planet. We don’t have the scarcity of information or intelligence; all that is required is collaboration to lead some positive changes in society." ]

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[ "New focused text introduces readers to wetland ecosystems and systems approaches to studying wetlands\nWith its comprehensive coverage of wetland science, management, and restoration, Mitsch and Gosselink's Wetlands has been the premier reference on wetlands for more than two decades. Now, the coverage of specific wetland ecosystem types from earlier editions of this acclaimed work has been updated, revised, and supplemented with additional content in order to create this new text focusing exclusively on wetland ecosystems. This book now complements Wetlands, Fourth Edition.\nFollowing an introduction to ecosystems in general and wetland ecosystems in particular, Wetland Ecosystems examines the major types of wetlands found throughout the world: coastal wetlands, freshwater marshes and forested swamps, and peatlands. The final chapter reviews three fundamental systems approaches to studying wetlands: mesocosms, full-scale experimental ecosystems, and mathematical modeling.\nThis new text features:\nNew content introducing general ecosystems, wetland ecosystems, whole ecosystem and mesocosm experiments with wetlands, and systems ecology and modeling\nA detailed description of the ecosystem services provided by wetlands\nA broad international scope, including many examples of wetlands located outside North America\nTwo new coauthors offering new perspectives and additional insights into the latest ecosystem and modeling techniques\nAn abundance ofillustrations helps readers understand how different biological communities and the abiotic environment in wetland ecosystems interact and function. Tables and text boxes provide at-a-glance summaries of key information. Lastly, each chapter concludes with a list of recommended readings.\nThis text has been designed as an introduction for students and professionals in wetland ecology and management, general ecology, environmental science, and natural resource management." ]

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[ "Objectives of Financial Statements\nAccording to the Framework of International Accounting Standard, the objective of financial statements is to provide information about:\n- financial position,\n- financial performance, and\n- changes in financial position of an enterprise.\nThe information contained in financial statements are useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions.\nFinancial statements also show the results of the stewardship of management, or the accountability of management for the resources entrusted to it.\nInformation about financial position of an enterprise as at the end of the financial period is primarily provided in a balance sheet.\nInformation about financial performance of an enterprise during the financial period is primarily provided in an income statement or profit and loss account.\nChanges in financial position\nInformation about the changes in financial position of an enterprise during the financial period is primarily provided in a separate statement.\nNotes and supplementary schedules\nThe financial statements also contain notes and supplementary schedules and other information. For example, they may contain additional information about:\n- the risks and uncertainties affecting the enterprise; and\n- any resources and obligations not recognised in the balance sheet such as mineral resources.\nInformation about geographical and industry segments and the effect on the enterprise of changing prices may also be provided in the form of supplementary information.\n- IASB. International Financial Reporting Standard" ]

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[ "We'll look at 3 calculations here to measure a player's ability to shoot:\nWhen a player is on the court, how many shots does the player attempt compared the rest of the team?\nA percentage of shots taken is measured by taking a players' field goal attempts divided by its percentage of minutes played multiplied by its team's field goal attempts.\n%Shots = Player's FGA / (%Min * TeamFGA)\nFor example, Oregon's Dillon Brooks took 32.6% of his team's shots in 2016-2017 season. This ranked 27th amongst all Division-I players.\nBrooks attempted 422 of his team's 2270 shots and played in 56.9% minutes over the year.\n%Shots = 422 / .569 x 2270 = 32.6\nA percentage of shots a player has taken is a good indication of possessions used.\nThe exact calculation used for teams here is also applied to individuals. As a reminder, effective field goal percentage accounts for the fact that a 3-point field goal is worth more than a two-point field goal.\neFG% = (.5 * 3FGM + FGM) / FGA\nFor example, UCLA's Lonzo Ball's eFG% was 66.8% in the 2016-2017 season. This was 9th in the country.\n80 of Ball's 189 made field goals were from behind 3-point line, and he attempted 343 total shots.\neFG% = (.5 * 80 + 189) / 343 = 0.6676 * 100\nTrue shooting percentage is used to more accurately define a player's ability to shoot. It incorporates field goal percentage, field goal attempts, and free throw attempts.\nIt uses the same multiplier (.475) that is used when calculating efficiency. The multiplier estimates how many free throw attempts equal one possession.\nTS% = Points scored / ( 2* (FGA + 0.475 * FTA) )\nFor example, UNC Wilmington's Devontae Cacok posted a true shooting percentage of 76% in the 2016-2017 season. This is good for 1st in the country.\nCacok scored 431 points, attempted 230 field goals and 107 free throws.\nTS% = 431 / (2 * (230 + 0.475 * 107) ) = 0.76 * 100" ]

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[ "Environmental governance in Mexico opens a new paradigm for ecosystems conservation. Advisory Boards (AB) of Natural Protected Areas (NPA) are instruments of governance, political arenas in which the goal is the democratization of decision-making. The objective of this work is to present the results of a diagnosis made on the use of the AB instrument of the Huatulco National Park. This research was conducted in 2012-2015, through the employment of the action-research principle. The data collection was qualitative: through participant observation in two cases where the instrument was used. Results showed that, when it comes to the relationship between the actors and the use of the Advisory Council, citizen participation emerges and contributes to resolving conflicts, although it also serves as a function that legitimizes top-down decisions from top government officials. Findings allow us to recognize that the AB operates as part of a damage control model where citizen participation is called, rather than a participatory planning tool. ABs should be a tool for the constant exchange of transdisciplinary knowledge and be aware of the viable conservation. This article contributes to demystify the result of the interaction process that is experienced in the ABs." ]

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[ "Patient's Guide to Heart Transplant Surgery\nDoses range from 2.5 mg to 10 mg once a day.\nIn addition to the diuretic functions described above, Zaroxylin also lowers blood pressure directly. The way the drug does this is unknown.\n- Many diuretics can cause a decrease of potassium in your blood. This happens because the diuretics cause the kidneys to filter the potassium out of the blood and into your urine. Having a low potassium level can cause muscle cramping, muscle weakness, and an irregular pulse rate.\n- If the diuretic causes the kidneys to make too much urine, you may become dehydrated, have low blood pressure and dizziness, or have fainting and dry mouth as a result of losing too much fluid.\n- With high doses of a diuretic, you may have ringing in your ears or deafness may even occur.\n> Return to Medications" ]

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[ "This Day in History: USS Maine explodes at Havana\nOn this day in 1898, USS Maine explodes in Havana Harbor. To this day, no one knows exactly why the warship was destroyed. But at the time, Americans were pretty sure that Spain was to blame.\nYou can imagine that didn’t go too well.\nSpain was then in a period of transition. It had long been a powerful influence in the New World, but now it was losing its foothold in the western hemisphere. Its main remaining possessions were Cuba and Puerto Rico. On the other side of the Pacific, it retained islands in and around the Philippines.\nBy the 1890s, even those interests were in trouble. Cubans were fighting for their independence. Puerto Ricans were split between those who wanted autonomy and those who wanted to join the United States. Filipinos, too, were chafing under Spanish rule.\nMeanwhile, American trade interests were being affected, and many Americans sympathized with the plight of Cubans. It hadn’t been *that* long since the American Revolution, and many felt they saw similarities between the two fights for independence. Tensions between Spain and the United States began to increase.\nIt didn’t take much to light a blaze in that tense atmosphere. On February 15, 1898, USS Maine exploded while docked in Havana Harbor. Many Americans immediately suspected Spanish involvement, and a Naval Court of Inquiry seemed to confirm these suspicions when it reported that the Maine was destroyed by a submerged mine.\nPresident William McKinley soon sent a message to Congress. “The present condition of affairs in Cuba,” he wrote, “is a constant menace to our peace . . . .” He asked for authorization to “secure a full and final termination of hostilities between the Government of Spain and the people of Cuba . . . and to use the military and naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these purposes.”\nCongress complied, approving a resolution that recognized Cuban independence and demanded that Spain do the same. It also clarified that the United States had no intention of annexing Cuba. Spain responded by severing diplomatic relations.\nFuture Secretary of State John Hay would describe the war that followed as a “splendid little war.” Americans won an early naval battle at Manila Bay. In July, the Battle of San Juan Hill was fought—with the well-known assistance of Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. Unconditional surrender was soon made in Cuba and Puerto Rico. For its part, Guam had surrendered with little fanfare. On August 12, a ceasefire was signed. Ultimately, Cuban independence would be recognized. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, and the Philippines was sold to the United States for $20 million. In a separate but simultaneous move, the United States annexed Hawaii.\nAnd what of USS Maine? In the years that followed, many would attempt to nail down the real cause of the explosion. There will always be some mystery surrounding the event, but it seems likely that Spain was not responsible after all. Instead, the tragedy may have been caused by an internal coal fire which ignited magazines aboard the ship.\nWhat an odd twist. A war prompted by a misbelief. But it was also a war that established the United States as a Pacific power within a matter of months.\nEnjoyed this post? More U.S. naval history\nstories can be found on my website, HERE.\nBallard C. Campbell, Disasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation’s Most Catastrophic Events (2008)\nConspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia (Peter Knight ed. 2003)\nThe Destruction of USS Maine (Naval History and Heritage Command website)\nThe Spanish-American War, 1898 (Office of the Historian, Department of State website)\nThe World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Library of Congress website)\nWilliam McKinley, Message to Congress Requesting a Declaration of War with Spain (April 11, 1898)" ]

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[ "Properly securing your server can be a confusing and challenging task. There are multiple layers to it, and numerous guides on how to do it right. While it is true that there are many tactics and tools out there, coming up with a plan involves identifying and covering just a few basics.\nWe are going to discuss here what are the fundamentals you need to cover in order to dramatically reduce the risks involved in running a server.\nAt its heart, security is about risk management. When considering risks, you need to consider the Impact of a particular event or threat to your server, and the Likelihood of that threat happening.\nSecurity is about managing the risks to your server. Rather than trying to eliminate them altogether, which is only achievable if you plug out your server, you want to reduce them to acceptable levels. While you are running a server, there is always going to be a level of risk from being online in this digital age. But you can do a lot to reduce your risks so you are secure against more than 95% of the most common attacks.\nConsider a virus attack. If your server is running a service like SAMBA or a web server, and is accessible from the internet, then the Likelihood is high. If you are saving backups of important data, like family photos, there, then the Impact of that virus or ransomware attack is also high.\nIf your server is behind your home router though, port forwarding has not been enabled, and you are just using it as a media server for downloading and playing movies, then the Likelihood and Impact are both lower.\nMost peoples home servers will lie somewhere in the middle when it comes to a variety of risks, and when setting up security measures, like backups or anti-virus, start with your higher risk servers.\nBut the first step is to consider the threats.\nSo what threats are there to your server?\n– Hacker attack\n– Hard disk crash\n– Someone stealing your root password and gaining access\n– A hacker getting onto your server by exploiting vulnerable software\n– What else can you think of…?\nThere are a myriad of steps you can, and should, take to protect your server, but overall, to reduce your security risk to a manageable level, your security plan should boil down to four essential elements:\nChoosing a strong password for you user accounts is one of the most fundamental steps you can take in securing your server. Lists of the most commonly used passwords are widely available on the internet, and many attacks target accounts using simple, weak passwords.\nFirstly, you need to use passphrases rather than passwords. As a rule of thumb, a longer passphrase is a stronger passphrase. Put a series of words together, using special characters like brackets, commas, hyphens, etc, along with numbers. It should be easy to think up a phrase or line from a song or poem using these.\nDon’t limit yourself to 10 or 12 characters, as per common advice. Go long. Go for 30-40 characters, even 50… This makes it much less likely that a hacker or automated script will be able to break into your account.\nA very common attack target is applications with default passwords. The Mirai botnet was able to take control of over 400,000 IoT devices because their default passwords had not been changed. This is low hanging fruit for an attacker.\nIf you install an application, like a torrent client, etc, and it has a password pre-set, change it.\nDisable User Account Logons:\nAlongside strengthening passwords is removing default or common user accounts. Password attacks will only succeed if an attacker is able to attack the user account to begin with. For this reason, SSH access to the root user account should be disabled.\nAlso, on systems like a Raspberry Pi, which comes with a very well known user account, pi, a new user account should be set up with a non-standard name, and sudo privileges given to this account. The default pi user account can then be disabled/deleted altogether.\nReduce Brute Force Attempts:\nWhile trying to guess or brute force a password for an account, attackers will make multiple repeated logon attempts. Installing Fail2Ban will allow you to limit the number of SSH logons from a particular IP address, before that IP address gets blocked for a set time.\nTwo Factor Authentication\nTwo factor authentication (2FA) is being offered on more and more services. You can install this for services such as Webmin, WordPress, and even SSH. This allows you to use a code on your phone as a second password to log on to your account. This reduces the risk of a remote attacker being able to log in as you if they manage to steal your password.\nUbuntu releases a Long Term Support (LTS) version of their server software every 2 years. These versions come with 5 years support and updates. It is important that the version of the server operating system you are using is current and has not gone out of support.\nTo check your server operating system, run cat /etc/os-release\nTo update it, you can download a new version and install it – be sure to backup all data first. You will need to reinstall your applications afterwards.\nYou can also run an in-place server upgrade. I have never tried this, but would advise strongly that you backup all data first again. To do this run:\nRegular patching is critical to maintaining the security of your server. The vast majority of software exploits use old vulnerabilities for which patches have already been released. Regular patching is required to install these patches, or your system runs the risk of being attacked and breached.\nAlong with the server itself, it is important that all applications are also kept up to date. Luckily Ubuntu allows you to do both using the one command.\nTo do this, run the aptitude update and upgrade command below at least weekly. You can also set a cron schedule to run it automatically.\nsudo apt update && sudo apt upgrade -y\nThis will update the software repositories on your server, and then do the actual server and application upgrades. The -y flag will automatically answer Yes to prompts on whether you want to proceed.\nIf you are cautious about updating everything at once, or automatically, Ubuntu allows you to install security updates only as they are released. At a minimum this should be enabled. This can be done via the command line or via the Webmin web interface.\nAnother way to make it easier to stay secure is to reduce the number of applications installed on your server. This is known as reducing your attack surface, as a vulnerability in an application wont affect you if you dont have it installed. So if you don’t need something on the server, you should remove it.\nUnfortunately, from the command line, it isn’t easy to get an easy-to-read list of what packages are installed. The options you have are running:\nsudo dpkg -l | less\nsudo apt list --installed | less\nTake some time to review the lists they produce, and if something looks out of place, or you see something you installed once but don’t use now, remove it. You will need to review the lists carefully to ensure you don’t remove any important system packages. In general, only remove something that you recognise as being something you installed previously.\nLinux is a multi-user environment, meaning that it was originally designed to allow multiple users to log on at any one time. If you have many users set up on your server, the permissions of the files they work on and save will limit what other users can and cannot do with them, i.e. read, write and execute.\nIt is important that you are setting up the specific limitations on what users can and cannot do on your server. Take care of the sudo group, as these users have administrator privileges on the server. To review the members of this group, type:\ncat /etc/group | grep sudo\nOn a linux filesystem (ext4), files are given a set of permissions dictating what users can read them, write to and delete them, and in the case of scripts, execute them. These permissions can be viewed by typing ls -l. It is important that these are set correctly.\nConsider if a hacker or virus got onto your server. File permissions restrict or allow what they would be able to do. It is important to keep this in mind.\nThe most generous or open-ended permissions are 777, i.e. chmod 777, which gives everyone Read, Write and Execute permissions on a file or directory. Use this carefully as it would give an attacker more generous access than you might want to give.\nWhen you install an application, like a web server or a torrent client, it will often set up a new user of its own. This is a good security mechanism. If you had opened your torrent server to the internet, so you could connect to it and download torrents, then attackers might begin probing it for vulnerabilities. If one was found, and they were able to use this to gain access to your server, then they are now on your server as the torrent client user.\nThis is your first opportunity to restrict what they can do, by restricting what the torrent client user, in this example, has access to or can do. This is the reason for using 777 permissions carefully, as outlined above. Doing so allows someone using a torrent client user account to read or modify that file or folder easily.\nWhen setting up a web based application, like WordPress, it is common that these need a backend MySQL database to run. If you have more than one web application running on your server (RSS reader, …) it is important that, along with each application having a unique database for itself, the user accounts for the databases are unique also.\nThe threat is in having an attacker breach the security of your system through a vulnerability in a web application. Most often this will be an SQL injection attack. Using SQL injection, an attacker can read the contents of a database and even change or delete data.\nIf the user account for a database has no privileges on any other databases, then the problem is contained to just the breached database alone.\nFor this reason also, the database root user must never be used for applications to work with databases.\nBackups are an important part of running a server. Having good, and tested, backup policy allows you to quickly recover from events as simple as accidentally deleting a file, to recovering from a fire or ransomware attack.\nA good backup plan involves taking multiple copies of important files, and saving them to alternative locations. This can be online, i.e. a distinct folder on the same server, as well as offline, backups moved to the cloud.\nWhen installing the server initially, you had the option to install it using RAID, i.e. across multiple hard drives. While this does protect your data in the event of a single hard drive failure, this is a redundancy solution and not a backup.\nIf you have a solution which syncs data between your server and the cloud, this should not be considered a backup either. Syncing solutions are usually near to real time, and thus an attack on your data, i.e. ransomware, would also impact your cloud synced data.\nFinally, be sure to test your backups frequently to prove that the backups are working, and not corrupting the data. This also allows you an opportunity to test the restoration process, so it works quickly and easily when needed.\nThese steps above should be considered the fundamentals in terms of how you approach server security. There are other things you should do also, as listed below.\nIf you are interested in further guides to securing and hardening your server, the CIS benchmarks for Ubuntu LTS would be very recommended reading." ]

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[ "Now. Women in the First World War. What did they do? I imagine that the first answer of many people would be that they produced the munitions that the army, over in France, fired at the enemy with the hopes of vanquishing them. I would have said the same if someone had asked me that question a few years ago. This last month however, has really opened my eyes to the various jobs that women did in the war. There were over 100,000 women in the armed forces throughout the war – a number that surprised me. I was taught the ‘traditional’ view of the First World War whilst I was at school. It all happened in France, it was the Tommies vs the Huns, there was a great deal of mud and the womenfolk stayed at home and knitted, or if they were feeling adventurous and wealthy, they might do a spot of nursing. Munitions and nursing – that was about the long and short of it – or so I assumed. However, I have been incredibly lucky, as part of my work placement, to be engaged in the creation of the exhibition Women Work War.\nThe main part of the exhibition focuses on the Barnbow Lasses and the work they did during the war, in Leeds. However, the exhibition also provides information on other things – things that people wanted to know about; childcare provisions for those women who worked, other industries that they took part in and the size of their contribution to the armed forces. It is this last which intrigued me the most. It was not anything that I had ever spent a great deal of time thinking about – but now I had the chance to research it.\nIt was astounding to realise the scope of jobs that women undertook throughout the First World War. Before the war there were 5.9 million women already in work – but much of this was domestic work. For instance, there were 13,000 women working on the railways before the war – but much of their work was indeed in the domestic sphere; they were caterers or laundrywomen. By 1918, there were over 70,000 women working on the railways of England – as engineers, engine cleaners, guards, plate-layers.. Women had taken on almost every job on the railway – save for one. That of engine driver. There was one particular reason for this. The training period for such a job was too long. Doubtless there will have been many a man who thought that a women could not do such a task, but this once, it was primarily practicality and not sexism which closed this one avenue off.\nWhat really sparked my interest off was not the railways; but the WRAF – hence the title of this post. I was vaguely aware of the fact that women had a part in the armed forces during the First World War; but the specifics were muddy. I knew that the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) had existed during the war, and that the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS) was also a contingent that women were welcome to join – but I hadn’t realised that in April of 1918 – the two merged to create the WRAF, or the Women’s Royal Air Force.\nThe idea behind this was originally to train women as mechanics to free up more men to join the armed forces to fight. Instead, there were thousands of volunteers, so even more roles were opened up to women – drivers, pigeon keepers, photographers and welders to name but a few of the 50 roles which were available. Many of these roles were highly skilled and exceedingly important for the running of the RAF.\nThe RAF were first rather dismayed at the idea of the merging of the WAAC and the WRNS – they did not want to lose the specialist workforce they had gained. However; it quickly became clear that this new force would be even more of an asset than they had been in their previous incarnation. The fact that the WRAF made themselves invaluable can be seen again when, as the contingent which had been posted to the Rhine were commanded to move out, the RAF made their displeasure and dismay quite clear. The women had proved themselves to be an integral part of the RAF in so many different roles that to lose them would be unthinkable.\nThe AVM, Sir William Sefton Brancker said, “By the end of the year the WRAF was the best disciplined and best turned-out women’s organization in the country.”\nComing from the Air-Vice Marshal, it’s certainly not praise to be sniffed at!\nI’ve decided, I’m going to hunt out a book or two (if there are any!) about the WRAF. I’ve read several of Patrick Bishop’s books about the RAF; Wings: The RAF at War, 1912-1920, Fighter Boys and Bomber Boys, but as the title of the last two suggest, they are rather male centric! I wonder if my hunt for anything about the women of the RAF will yield much..\nWomen, Work, War is at Armley Mills Industrial Museum until September 2017. Find out more here." ]

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[ "Protein could bring hope to brittle bone disease\nA discovery in mice could help to treat people with a form of brittle bone disease, scientists said.\nIn an American study, mice were bred with osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) and the activity of a protein which shapes and reshapes bones was monitored.\nScientists said intense activity of the protein in the mice was linked to OI.\nThey said the finding could lead to a new target for treatment, but experts warn the study is in mice and might not apply to humans.\nOne in 15,000 people in the UK are estimated to have osteogenesis imperfecta (OI). It is an inherited condition, where abnormalities in the genes controlling collagen affect the bone's strength.\nIn severe cases, people with OI can have between 200 and 300 fractures by the time they reach age 18, the Brittle Bone Society said. Current treatment is lacking.\nScientists at the Baylor College of Medicine, University of Texas, looked at a protein in mice bred with the condition and compared them to \"normal\" mice.\nThey said the activity of transforming growth factor beta (TGF), which co-ordinates the shaping and reshaping of bone, was excessive in mice with OI.\nWhen TGF was blocked with an antibody, the mice's bones withstood \"higher maximum load and ultimate strength\" and showed \"improved whole bone and tissue strength\", suggesting \"resistance to fracture\", the study said.\nResearch was published in the journal Nature Medicine.\nDr Brendan Lee, professor of molecular and human genetics at Baylor College of Medicine, said the study could \"move quite quickly\" into humans, and be at a clinical trial stage later this year, or early next year.\nA pharmaceutical company in the US was looking at the pathway of TGF in other diseases, such as kidney disease, which could accelerate the trials, he said.\nOne mechanism behind the findings could be that the disruption of TGF meant the bone was absorbed in the body more quickly than it was made.\nDr Lee added: \"We now have a deeper understanding for how genetic mutations that affect collagen and collagen processing enzymes cause weak bones.\"\nHe said the treatment appeared \"even more effective\" than other existing approaches.\nProf Nick Bishop, is professor at the University of Sheffield and chairman of the Brittle Bone Society's medical advisory board. He said the study was a \"paradigm shifter\" as it exposed a possible new target for treatment.\nBut Prof Bishop said: \"This is another mouse study with potential to transfer to humans, we hope, but remember mice are not human.\"\nHe added: \"Other treatments that have worked really well in mice with brittle bones, like bone marrow transplantation, haven't worked as well in humans and are not standard practice as of now.\"\nDr Claire Bowring, medical policy manager at the National Osteoporosis Society, said the study was \"basic science\" in mouse models to understand the \"basics of bone biology\".\nShe said: \"It could, in the future, help develop knowledge about bone conditions more fully. As we understand more about bone turnover and communication between bone cells, work could open doors for future research that could affect osteoporosis.\"\nDr Bowring said it could take 10 to 15 years for such mouse studies to reach the stage of clinical trials in people." ]

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[ "Rate of speech for public speaking with Powerpoint presentations depends on and are determined by several factors for effective communicating your speech topics calculated in speaking words per minute, here I group the best ones to help you changing and varying your vocal beat and natural rhythm. Before you jump to the chart, there are things you cannot ignore, let’s say first, all your pace depends on:\nI. The situation:\na. Setting, the mise-en-sc??ne;\nb. Occasion and conditions;\nc. Your speech topics idea;\nd. Length of time allotted;\ne. The audience members’\n? ? ? ? backgrounds and beliefs.\nII. The public speaking audience must understand the oral topics points you are trying to make and communicate. You – the public speaker – want of course:\n? ? ?\na. Less stress and nervousness – either by public speaking training or not;\nb. To produce a well spoken english pronunciation (or other languages of course :-);\nc. The words come properly with a stable vocal delivery.\nd. Your voice varying in intonation and timing pauses (for taking a breath or even\n? ? ? ? receiving applause – at the right moment :-).\nIII. And the personal notes you have written in the margin of your paper or speaking cards about pausing and speeding up or slowing down your tempo influence the speech speed too. I always use these annotations during my speaking activities: slow! faster! breath and make eye contact! wait here a second! Etcetera.\nAnd remember the rate of speech varies greatly, due to all these factors. Some facts to consider:\nBut what is my ideal rate of speech, you wonder.\nThe average person speaks slow if she/he talks 80 up to 100 words per minute, average with about 120 words,\nand fast if she/he talks 140 up to 160 words per minute.\nLook for the best way to find out what speed of speech in general is appropriate at this (again) basic general speaking words per minute chart:\n|80 WPM||100 WPM||120 WPM||140 WPM||160 WPM|\nAnd now go to my rate of speech calculators to make it more precise for yourself as part of your public speaking training efforts. Easy as a piece of cake …\nThese tips are based on years of speechwriting experience and related scientific theories. You better speed up somewhat or slow down a bit your speed of speech in case of these circumstance and purposes:\nA persuasive speech?\nHostile audience? ?†’ Fast uptempo\nFriendly audience? ?†’ Slow to Average\nAn informative purpose?\nTechnical and/or slide show? ?†’ Slow\nLearning environment? ?†’ Slow to Average\nNarratives, repetition, easy descriptions and educational or scientific explanations ?†’ Fast\nOther speech topics?\nGraduation? ?†’ Average to Fast\nAfter dinner setting? ?†’ Average to Fast\nKey note address? ?†’ Slow to Average" ]

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[ "Luke the Evangelist\nLuke the Evangelist is said to be the man who wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Irenaeus, Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome say that he was a friend of Saint Paul and a doctor, and that he accompanied Paul on some of his travels. These people also say that he was of Greek origin, from Antioch in Syria.\nModern-day scholars think that the person that wrote the two books was not the same that accompanied Paul. Paul had a theology that was special, and slightly different from that of other writers of the New Testament. The two books written by Luke never refer to this theology. Also, the name of Paul's companion is never linked to writing the two books. The Acts of the Apostles often tell things about Paul which Paul odes not tell himself in his letters.\nLuke wrote about the Three Wise Men who visited Jesus in the Bible. Luke never said there were 3 wise men, only wise men from the east." ]

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[ "Category: Hot Disk TPS\nKeywords: 3D printing, conducting polymers, defect, Hot Disk, inhomogeneous materials, position sensitive detectors, pyrex, Thermal Conductivity, thermal models, Transient Plane Source, Transient plane source (TPS) method\nAbstract: The Transient Plane Source Method is a helpful tool to test for the thermal conductivity of homogenous materials, however researchers at both the Chalmers University of Technology and Gothenberg University have created a process to test the thermal conductivities of inhomogeneous materials. For this experiment, the Hot Disk TPS 2500 S was used to determine the thermal conductivities of four different sample materials (polymers and Pyrex glass) – each with different sizes and defects. Through the thermal conductivity testing, researchers determined that a change in thermal conductivity values dictates a change in the physical make-up of the sample, meaning as the thermal conductivity trend changes with depth, a defect can be assumed at that depth. A hidden void is generally depicted as a sudden dip in thermal conductivity, followed by an increase. The ability of multiple sensor sizes to detect voids was also tested. This research concluded that as the sensor is positioned at a further distance from the defect, the sensitivity of detection decreases.\nReference: AIP Advances 6, 085217 (2016)" ]

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[ "A FLAWED EFFORT\nThis first Egyptian attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid was likely designed to have very steep\nsides. But a lack of stability probably influenced the architects to aim for a new angle halfway through construction.\nBuilt after he abruptly shifted his court north to Dahshur, this second pyramid by Snefru had\nan unprecedented two burial chambers, each with a separate entrance.\nPerhaps because of the awkward angles in the Bent Pyramid, the pharaoh commissioned a third pyramid\nnearby and sent workers back to Maidum to finish his first pyramid.\nCLASSIC FACT: The cult of Snefru was centered at the Bent Pyramid, even though he\nwas never buried there.\nNEXT: First \"True\" Pyramid >>\n<< Return to Pyramid Index\nBent Pyramid photograph by Stephen St. John. Black-and-white photograph by Marilyn Bridges/Corbis." ]

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